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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/educationinuniteOObutl 



EDUCATION 



IN THE 



UNITED STATES 



A SERIES OF MONOGRAPHS 



EDITED BY 



NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 

President of Columbia University in the City of New York 




NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
1910 



Copyright, 1900, by J. B. Lyon Company. 
Copyright, 1910, by American Book Company. 



©CI.A27I447 






CONTENTS 



PAGE 



INTRODUCTION v 

Nicholas Murray Butler, President of Columbia University in the 
City of New York 

i. EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION . i 

Andrew Sloan Draper, Commissioner of Education for the State of 

New York 

2. KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION . . . . ' . . .33 

Susan E. Blow, Cazenovia, New York 

3. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 77 

William T. Harris, Sometime United States Commissioner of Educa- 
tion 

4. SECONDARY EDUCATION 141 

Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education 

5. THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 207 

Andrew Fleming West, Professor of Latin in Princeton University 

6. THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 249 

Edward Delavan Perry, Jay Professor of the Greek Language and 
Literature in Columbia University 

7. EDUCATION OF WOMEN 319 

M. Carey Thomas, President of Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, 
Pennsylvania 

8. TRAINING OF TEACHERS 359 

B. A. Hinsdale, Sometime Professor of the Science and Art of Teach- 
ing in the University of Michigan 

9. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE . . . 409 

Gilbert B. Morrison, Principal of the William McKinley High 
School, St. Louis, Missouri 

10. PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 465 

James Russell Parsons, Jr., Sometime Director of the College and 
High School Departments, University of the State of New York, 
Albany, New York 

iii 



IV CONTENTS 

PAGE 

ii. SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND ENGINEERING EDUCATION 551 

T. C. Mendenhall, Sometime President of the Technological Institute, 
Worcester, Massachusetts 

12. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 593 

Charles W. Dabney, President of the University of Cincinnati 

13. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 653 

Edmund J. James, President of the University of Illinois 

14. ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION . . . . *» . - 705 

Isaac Edwards Clarke, Washington, B.C. 

15. EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 769 

Edward Ellis Allen, Principal of the Pennsylvania Institution for 
the Instruction of the Blind, Overbrook, Pennsylvania 

16. SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION . .821 

George E. Vincent, Associate Professor of Sociology in the University 
of Chicago ; Principal of Chautauqua 

17. SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS . . . .865 

James McKeen Cattell, Professor of Psychology in Columbia Uni- 
versity 

18. EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO . . . . . . .893 

Booker T. Washington, Principal of the Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, 
Alabama 

19. EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN . . . . . . .937 

William N. Halimann, Head of the Department of History and Phi- 
losophy of Education, Cleveland Normal Training School, Cleveland, 
Ohio 

20. EDUCATION THROUGH THE AGENCY OF THE SEVERAL 

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS 973 

William H. Larrabee, Plainfield, New Jersey 

INDEX 1023 



EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 
INTRODUCTION 

Spontaneity is the keynote of education in the United States. 
Its varied form, its uneven progress, its lack of symmetry, its 
practical effectiveness, are all due to the fact that it has sprung, 
unbidden and unforced, from the needs and aspirations of the 
people. Local preference and individual initiative have been 
ruling forces. What men have wished for that they have done. 
They have not waited for State assistance or for State control. 
As a result, there is, in the European sense, no American system 
of education. There is no national educational administrative 
machinery and no national legislative authority over education 
in the several States. The bureau of education at Washington 
was not established until 1867, and save in one or two minor re- 
spects, its functions are wholly advisory. It is absolutely depend- 
ent upon the good will of the educational officials of the States, 
counties, and municipalities, and upon that of the administrative 
officers of non-tax-supported institutions, for the admirable and 
authoritative statistics which it collects and publishes year by 
year. That these statistics are so complete and so accurate is 
evidence that the moral influence and authority of the bureau of 
education are very great, and that it commands a cooperation as 
cordial as it is universal. 

National government and education — But the national gov- 
ernment has, from the very beginning, made enormous grants of 
land and money in aid of education in the several States. The 
portion of the public domain hitherto set apart by Congress for 
the endowment of public education amounts to 86,138,473 acres, 
of 134,591 English square miles. This is an area larger than that 
of the six New England States, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, 
and Delaware added together. It is a portion of the earth's sur- 
face as great as the kingdom of Prussia, about seven-tenths as 



VI INTRODUCTION 

great as France, and considerably greater than the combined 
areas of Great Britain, including the Channel Islands, and the 
kingdom of Holland. The aggregate value of lands and money 
given for education by the national government, as Commissioner 
Harris shows in detail, 1 is nearly $300,000,000. 

Education a State function — The uniform tendency of recent 
development, as marked by judicial decisions and by legislative 
enactments, is to treat all publicly controlled education as part of a 
slowly forming system which has its basis in the authority of the 
State government, as distinguished from that of the nation on the 
one hand and from that of the locality on the other. This system 
may be highly centralized, as in New York, or the contrary, as in 
Massachusetts,' but the theory underlying it is the same. The 
two fundamental principles which are emerging as the result 
of a century's growth are, first, that education is a matter of State 
concern, and not merely one of local preference; and, second, 
that State inspection and supervision shall be applied so as to 
stimulate and encourage local interest in education and to avoid 
the deadening routine of a mechanical uniformity. The State 
acts to provide adequate opportunity for elementary education 
for all children, and abundant opportunity for secondary and 
higher education. But the State claims no monopoly in educa- 
tion. It protects private initiative, whether stimulated by reli- 
gious zeal, philanthropy, or desire for gain, in doing the same 
thing. It is not customary, in the United States, for State officials 
to inspect or to interfere with the educational work of non-tax- 
supported institutions. When these are chartered bodies, they 
are subject simply to the general provisions of law governing cor- 
porations of their class. When they are not chartered bodies, the 
State treats them as it does any private business undertaking: it 
lets them alone. Standards of efficiency and of professional attain- 
ment are regulated in these institutions by those in neighboring 
public institutions, by local public opinion, and by competition. 
Sometimes these forces operate to raise standards, sometimes to 
lower them. New York has gone farther than any other State 
in attempting to define and to classify all educational institu- 

1 P . 96. 



INTRODUCTION Vll 

tions, private as well as public. Pennsylvania has recently entered 
upon a similar policy; and it is being urged in other States as 
well. The public elementary schools are more or less carefully 
regulated by law, both as to length of school term, as to subjects 
taught, and as to the necessary qualifications of the teachers. 
The public secondary schools, familiarly known as high schools, 
and the State universities are usually without any such regulation. 

Statistics of public education — The term "common schools" 
is often used in the United States of the public elementary schools 
alone; but the more correct use is to include under it all public 
elementary schools, — the first eight years of the course of study, — 
and all public secondary schools, maintaining a four-year course, as 
a rule, in advance of the elementary school. In 1897-98 the total 
estimated population of the United States was 72,737,100. Of 
this number 21,458,294 — a number nearly equal to the popula- 
tion of Austria — were of school age, as it is called; that is, they 
were from 5 to 18 years of age. This is not the age covered by the 
compulsory education laws, but the school age as the term is used 
by the United States census. By school age is meant the period 
during which a pupil may attend a public school and during which 
a share of the public money may be used for his education. It is 
obvious, then, that persons who have satisfactorily completed both 
an elementary and a secondary course of study may still be re- 
turned as of "school age" and as "not attending any school." 
This fact has always to be taken into account in the interpretation 
of American educational statistics. 

In 1897-98 the number of pupils entered upon the registers 
of the common schools — that is, the public elementary and the 
public secondary schools — was 15,038,636, or 20.68 per cent 
of the total population and 70.08 per cent of the persons of " school 
age." The total population of Scotland and Ireland is only about 
half so many as this. For these pupils 409,193 teachers were 
employed, of which number 131,750, or 32.2 per cent, were men. 
The women teachers in the common schools numbered 277,443. 
The teachers, if brought together, would outnumber the popula- 
tion of Munich. The women alone far more than equal the popu- 
lation of Bordeaux. No fewer than 242,390 buildings were in 



Vlll INTRODUCTION 

use for common school purposes. Their aggregate value was 
nearly $500,000,000 ($492,703,781). 

The average length of the annual school session was 143. 1 
days, an increase since 1870 of 11 days. In some States the 
length of the annual school session is very much above this aver- 
age. It rises, for example, to 191 days in Rhode Island, 186 in 
Massachusetts, 185 in New Jersey, 176 in New York, 172 in Cali- 
fornia, 162 in Iowa, and 160 in Michigan and Wisconsin. The 
shortest average annual session is in North Carolina (68.8 days) 
and in Arkansas (69 days). Taking the entire educational re- 
sources of the United States into consideration, each individual 
of the population would receive school instruction for 5 years of 
200 days each. Since 1870 this has increased from 3.36 years, 
and since 1880 from 3.96 years, of 200 days each. 

The average monthly salary of men teachers in the common 
schools was $45.16 in 1897-98; that of the women teachers w r as 
$38.74. In the last forty years the average salary of common 
school teachers has increased 86.3 per cent in cities and 74.9 per 
cent in the rural districts. The total receipts for common school 
purposes in 1897-98 were almost $200,000,000 ($199,317,597), 
of which vast sum 4.6 per cent was income from permanent funds, 
17.9 per cent was raised by State school tax, 67.3 per cent by 
local (county, municipal, or school district) tax, and 10.2 came 
from other sources. The common school expenditure per capita 
of population was $2.67; for each pupil, it averaged $18.86. 
Teachers' salaries absorb 63.8 per cent ($123,809,412) of the 
expenditure for common schools. 

The commissioner of education believes the normal standard 
of enrollment in private educational institutions to be about 15 per 
cent of the total enrollment. At the present time it is only a 
little more than 9 per cent, having been reduced apparently by 
the long period of commercial and financial depression which has 
but lately ended. 

Illiteracy — Illiteracy in the United States can hardly be com- 
pared fairly with that in European countries because of the fact 
that an overwhelming proportion of the illiterates are found 
among the negroes and among the immigrants who continue to 



INTRODUCTION IX 

pour into the country in large numbers. The eleventh census of 
the United States, taken in 1890, showed that the percentage of 
illiterates to the whole population was 13.3, a decrease of 3.7 per 
cent since the census of 1880. But the percentage of illiterates 
among the native white population (being 73.2 per cent of the 
whole) was only 6.2 of those ten years of age or older. Among 
the foreign-born white population (14.6 per cent of the whole) 
the percentage of illiteracy was 13. 1, and among the colored popu- 
lation (12.2 of .the whole) it was 56.8. That is, nearly one half of 
the whole number of illiterates in the United States were colored. 
Only in Florida, Mississippi, West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, 
Georgia, Arkansas, Tennessee, South Carolina, Alabama, Louisi- 
ana, North Carolina, and New Mexico, was the percentage of 
illiteracy among the native white population greater than 10. 
This percentage fell below 2 in New Hampshire (1.5), Massa- 
chusetts (0.8), Connecticut (1), New York (1.8), District of Co- 
lumbia (1.7), Minnesota (1.4), Iowa (1.8), North Dakota (1.8), 
South Dakota, (1.2), Nebraska (1.3), Montana (1.6), Wyoming 
(1.3), Nevada (0.8), Idaho (1.9), Washington (1.3), Oregon 
(1.8), and California (1.7). In Kansas it was exactly 2. 

Education and crime — It is not infrequently charged by those 
who have but a superficial knowledge of the facts, or who are dis- 
posed to weaken the force of the argument for State education, 
that one effect of the system of public education in the United 
States has been to increase the proportion of criminals, particu- 
larly those whose crime is against property. The facts in refuta- 
tion of this charge are so simple and so indisputable that they 
should always be kept in mind. 

In the first place, it must be remembered that communities 
which maintain schools have higher standards as to what is lawful 
than communities which are without the civilization which the 
presence of a school system indicates, and that, therefore, more 
acts are held to be criminal and more crimes are detected and 
punished in a community of the former sort than in one of the 
latter. A greater number of arrests may signify better police 
administration rather than an increase in crime. 

Again, where records have been carefully kept, it appears that 



X INTRODUCTION 

the illiterate portion of the population furnishes from six to eight 
times its proper proportion of criminals. This was established 
for a large area by an extensive investigation carried on by the 
bureau of education in 1870. 

The history of the past fifty years in the State of Massachusetts 
is alone a conclusive answer to the contention that education begets 
crime. In 1850 the jails and prisons of that State held 8761 per- 
sons, while in 1855 the number had increased to three times as 
many (26,651). On the surface, therefore, crime had greatly 
increased. But analysis of the crimes shows that serious offenses 
had fallen off 40 per cent during this period, while the vigilance 
with which minor misdemeanors were followed up had produced 
the great apparent increase in crime. While drunkenness had 
greatly fallen off in proportion to the population, yet commitments 
for drunkenness alone multiplied from 3341 in 1850 to 18,701 in 
1885. The commitments for crimes other than drunkenness were 
1 to every 183 of the population in 1850 and 1 to every 244 of the 
population in 1885. In other words, as has been pointed out, 
persons and property had become safer, while drunkenness had 
become more dangerous — to the drunkard. 

The American people are convinced that their public school 
system has justified the argument of Daniel Webster, made in 
182 1 : " For the purpose of public instruction," he said, "we hold 
every man subject to taxation in proportion to his property, and 
we look not to the question whether he himself have or have not 
children to be benefited by the education for which he pays; we 
regard it as a wise and liberal system of police, by which property, 
and life, and the peace of society are secured. We seek to prevent, 
in some measure, the extension of the penal code by inspiring a 
salutary and conservative principle of virtue and of knowledge in 
an early age. We hope to excite a feeling of respectability and a 
sense of character by enlarging the capacities and increasing the 
sphere of intellectual enjoyment. . . . Knowing that our govern- 
ment rests directly upon the public will, that we may preserve it 
we endeavor to give a safe and proper direction to the public will. 
We do not, indeed, expect all men to be philosophers or statesmen ; 
but we confidently trust . . . that by the diffusion of general 



INTRODUCTION XI 

knowledge, and good and virtuous sentiments, the political fabric 
may be secure as well against open violence and overthrow as 
against the slow but sure undermining of licentiousness." 

Education and industry — Where the public school term in the 
United States is longest, there the average productive capacity of 
the citizen is greatest. This can hardly be a coincidence. When 
the man of science finds such a coincidence as this in his test tube 
or balance, he proclaims it a scientific discovery proved by induct- 
ive evidence. The average school period per inhabitant, taking 
the United States as a whole, was, in 1897, 4.3 years. The average 
school period for Massachusetts is 7 years. The proportion, 
therefore, between the school period in that State and the schocl 
period in the whole United States is as 70 to 43. It is very inter- 
esting to note that the proportion between the productive capacity 
of each individual in Massachusetts and that of each individual 
in the whole United States is as 66 to 37. Education, 70 to 43; 
productivity, 66 to 37. On the basis of 306 working days in 
Massachusetts, and on the basis of a population something over 
2,000,000, this means that every citizen of Massachusetts — man, 
woman, infant in arms — is to be credited with a productive capac- 
ity every year of $88.75 more than the average for the United 
States as a whole. Or to put it in- the most striking fashion, it 
means that the excess of productive capacity for the State of Massa- 
chusetts in one year is $200,000,000, or about 20 times the cost of 
maintaining the public schools. If the State of North Carolina, 
for example, could bring it about through education that every in- 
dividual's productive capacity was increased 10 cents a day — that 
is, just one-third the Massachusetts excess — for 306 working 
days, estimating the population roughly at 1,750,000, the State 
would be better off in the next calendar year to the amount of 
$54,000,000. If the increase could equal the Massachusetts ex- 
cess of 29 cents, North Carolina would be better off to the extent 
of $160,000,000. North Carolina now spends less than $1,000,000 
a year for public education. 

Public secondary education — The number of public secondary 
schools, high schools, in the United States in 1897-98 was 5315, 
employing 17,941 teachers and enrolling 449,600 pupils. Nearly 



Xll INTRODUCTION 

3000 of these schools (2832) were in the North Central States. The 
rapid increase of these schools, the flexibility of their programme 
of studies, and the growing value of the training which they offer 
are among the most significant educational facts of the last two 
decades. The present rate of increase of secondary school pupils 
is nearly five times as great as the rate of increase of the population. 
It is noteworthy, too, that nearly 50 per cent (49.44) of the whole 
number of secondary school pupils are studying Latin. The rate 
of increase in the number of the pupils who study Latin is fully 
twice as great as the rate of increase in the number of secondary 
school students. 

Between 1890 and 1896, while the number of students in private 
secondary schools increased 12 per cent, the number of students 
in public secondary schools increased 87 per cent. Further, since 
1893-94 the number of pupils in private secondary schools has 
steadily declined. 

Local influence of the college — The number of colleges in the 
United States — 472, excluding those for women only — is very 
large. Many of these institutions, small and weak, ill-equipped 
and ill-endowed, are frequently criticised severely for endeavoring 
to continue the struggle for existence. This criticism is, in part, 
justifiable ; but it ought not to be forgotten that almost every col- 
lege exerts a helpful influence upon the life of its locality. The 
fact is frequently overlooked that all American colleges depend for 
their students in large measure upon their own neighborhood. 
Few draw from the nation at large, and these few draw only a 
small proportion of their students from beyond the confines of their 
own State or the limits of their own section of the country. For 
example, of the 28,000 (27,956) students attending colleges in the 
North Atlantic division, 26,393, or 94-4 1 P er cent, are residents 
of the States included in that division. Of the 8529 students in 
colleges of Massachusetts, 55.62 per cent are residents of that 
State, and 83.37 P er cent, are residents of the North Atlantic 
division, of which Massachusetts is a part. In Oregon the per- 
centages rise to 96.09 and 99.87, respectively. 

American universities - - The development of universities in 
the United States has taken place during the present generation. 



INTRODUCTION Xlll 

The name "university" is, in America, no proper index to the 
character and work of the institution which bears it. Professor 
Perry has set out illustrations of this fact with great clearness. 1 
Nevertheless, the distinctions between secondary school, college, 
and university are more widely recognized each year, and it is not 
too much to hope that, in course of time, the various institutions 
will adopt the names which properly belong to each. 

The definition of a university which I have suggested else- 
where 2 is this: "An institution where students, adequately 
trained by previous study of the liberal arts and sciences, are 
led into special fields of learning and research by teachers of high 
excellence and originality; and where, by the agency of museums, 
laboratories, and publications, knowledge is conserved, advanced, 
and disseminated." In this sense there are at least half a dozen 
American universities now in existence, and as many more in the 
process of making. These universities are markedly different 
from those of France, Germany, and Great Britain, but they re- 
spond in a most complete way to the educational needs of the 
American people, and they are playing an increasingly important 
part in the advancement of knowledge and the development of 
its applications to problems of government, of industry, and of 
commerce. The administrators of American universities have 
studied carefully the experience of European nations, and they 
have applied the result of that experience, wherever possible, in 
the solution of their own problems. 

Literature of education — The variety and value of American 
contributions to the literature of education are worthy of notice. 
Nearly 300 periodical publications of one type or another are 
devoted mainly to education. A few of these rank with the lead- 
ing educational journals of the world. Perhaps the publications 
of the National Education Association, a voluntary organization 
of teachers of every grade, are the most characteristic American 
contributions. They include not only the invaluable series of 
annual Proceedings, containing papers and discussions by the 
leaders of American education for a generation, but reports upon 
subjects the particular investigation of which has been undertaken 

1 p. 254. 2 The Meaning of Education (New York, 1898), p. 130. 



XIV INTRODUCTION 

from time to time by special committees. Among the subjects so 
reported upon are these: Secondary school studies, Organization 
of elementary education, Rural schools, College entrance require- 
ments, Relation of public libraries to public schools, and Normal 
schools. 

The most valuable official publications are these: the annual 
reports, issued since 1868, by the United States commissioner of 
education, those since 1889 being particularly noteworthy; the 
reports issued by Horace Mann as secretary of the State board of 
education of Massachusetts, 1838-49; the twelve volumes of 
reports issued by William T. Harris, as superintendent of the 
public schools of St. Louis, Mo., 1867-79; the- annual reports of 
Frederick A. P. Barnard as president of Columbia College, 1865- 
88; and the annual reports of Charles W. Eliot as president of 
Harvard University, 1871-99. The annual reports of State and 
city superintendents of schools are a storehouse of information 
and often contain elaborate discussions of educational theory and 
practice. 

Private aid to education — One fact in American education is 
certainly unique. That is the vast sum given in aid or endow- 
ment of education by individuals. It recalls the best traditions of 
the princes and churchmen of the Middle Ages, but is on a vastly 
larger scale. For some time past the income of Harvard Uni- 
versity from this source has been nearly or quite a million dollars 
annually. In 1898-99 the total amount of gifts to Harvard Uni- 
versity for purposes of general or special endowment was 
$1,383,460.77, and for immediate use $161,368.90. Columbia Uni- 
versity has received in the last decade $6,736,482 in money and in 
land. An unofficial estimate of the amount given by individuals 
during the year 1899 for universities, colleges, schools, and libraries 
is over $70,000,000. The tendency which these colossal figures 
indicate is one of the most fortunate and most hopeful in American 
life. The makers and holders of great fortunes are pouring out 
from their excess for the development of the higher life and greater 
productive capacity of the people. The religious bodies, in par- 
ticular the Roman Catholic Church, are doing the same thing 
upon a very large scale. The conviction that education is funda- 






INTRODUCTION XV 

mental to democratic civilization is perhaps the most widespread 
among the American people. Public funds and private wealth 
are alike given unstintingly in support of it. 

Fundamental principles of American education — The con- 
trolling principles that, consciously or unconsciously, underlie 
American education are three in number: 

i. American education is far wider than the system of tax- 
supported schools and universities, numerous and excellent as 
those schools and universities are. All schools, colleges, and uni- 
versities, tax-supported or not, are public in the important sense 
that they all reflect and represent some part or phase of the 
national life and character. 

2. There is no restriction upon the amount, kind, or variety 
of education which a district, town, or city may furnish, save 
that which is found in the willingness or unwillingness of citizens 
to vote the necessary taxes. 

3. The tax-supported schools are public schools in the fullest 
possible sense, and are not maintained for the benefit of persons 
of any special class or condition, or from any motive which may 
properly be described as charitable or philanthropic. 

As to each of these principles a brief explanation may be 
necessary. 

The State and the government — While all forms of education 
may be under government control, yet government control of 
education is not exclusive, and the national system of education 
in the United States includes schools and institutions carried on 
without direct governmental oversight and support, as well as those 
that are maintained by public tax and administered by govern- 
mental agencies. 

Some very important consequences follow from the accept- 
ance of this principle. A nation's life is much more than an in- 
ventory of its governmental activities. For example, the sum 
total of the educational activity of the United States is not to be 
ascertained by making an inventory of what the government - 
national, State, and local — is doing, but only by taking account 
of all that the people of the United States are doing, partly through 
governmental forms and processes and partly in non-governmen- 



XVI INTRODUCTION 

tal ways and by non-governmental systems. In other words, the 
so-called public education of the United States, that which is tax- 
supported and under the direct control of a governmental agency, 
is not the entire national educational system. To get at what the 
people of the United States are doing for education and to measure 
the full length and breadth of the nation's educational system., we 
must add to public or tax-supported education, all activities of 
similar kind that are carried on by private corporations, by vol- 
untary associations, and by individuals. The nation is represented 
partly by each of these undertakings, wholly by no one of them. 
The terms "national" and "governmental" are happily not con- 
vertible in the United States, whether it be of universities, of 
morals, or of efficiency that we are speaking. 

This point is of far-reaching importance, for it has become 
one of the familiar political assumptions of our time that any 
undertaking to be representative of the nation must be one which 
is under governmental control. Should this view ever command 
the deliberate assent of a majority of the American people, our 
institutions would undergo radical change, and our liberties and 
right of initiative would be only such as the government of the 
moment might vouchsafe to us. But we are still clear-sighted 
enough to realize that our national ideals and our national spirit 
find expression in and through the churches, the newspaper press, 
the benefactions to letters, science, and art, the spontaneous 
uprisings in behalf of stricken humanity and oppressed peoples, 
and a hundred other similar forms, quite as truly as they find ex- 
pression in and through legislative acts and appropriations, judi- 
cial opinions, and administrative orders. The latter are govern- 
mental in form and in effect; the former are not. Both are 
national in the sense that both represent characteristics of the 
national life and character. 

The confusion between a nation's life and a nation's govern- 
ment is common enough, but so pernicious that a few words con- 
cerning it are permissible. 

When Hegel asserted that morality is the ultimate end for which 
the State — that is, politically organized mankind — exists, he 
stated one of the profoundest moral and political truths. But it 



A 



INTRODUCTION XV11 

is pointed out to us by political science that before any such ulti- 
mate end can be gained, the proximate end of the development of 
national States must be aimed at. The State operates to develop 
the principle of nationality which exists among persons knit together 
by common origin, common speech, and common habitat, through 
creating and perfecting two things — government and liberty. 
The first step out of barbarism is the establishment of a govern- 
ment strong enough to preserve peace and order at home and to 
resist successfully attack from without. This accomplished, the 
State must turn to the setting up of a system of individual liberty. 
It does this by marking out the limits within which individual 
initiative and autonomy are permitted, and by directing the gov- 
ernment to refrain from crossing these limits itself and to prevent 
any one else from crossing them. After government and liberty 
have both been established, then all subsequent history is the story 
of a continually changing line of demarcation between them, ac- 
cording as circumstances suggest or dictate. In the United States, 
for example, the post office is in the domain of government; the 
express business and the sending of telegrams are in the domain 
of liberty. In different countries, and in the same country at 
different times, the line between the Sphere of government and the 
sphere of liberty is differently drawn. In Germany the conduct 
of railways is largely an affair of government ; in the United States 
it is largely an affair of liberty. Schools, for example, are to-day 
much more an affair of government than ever before, but they are 
still an affair which falls in the domain of liberty as well. In 
short, government plus liberty, each being the name for a field of 
activity, gives the complete life of the State; government alone 
does so just as little as the sphere of liberty alone would do so. 
These principles are all set forth with great lucidity and skill by 
Professor Burgess, in his work entitled Political Science and Com- 
parative Constitutional Law. In discussing this distinction, he 
writes : — 

It is often said that the State does nothing for certain causes, as, for in- 
stance, religion or the higher education, when the government does not 
exercise its powers in their behalf. This does not at all follow. If the 
State guarantees the liberty of conscience and of thought and expression, 



XVill INTRODUCTION 

and permits the association of individuals for the purposes of religion and 
education, and protects such associations in the exercise of their rights, it 
does a vast deal for religion and education; vastly more, under certain social 
conditions, than if it should authorize the government to interfere in these 
domains. The confusion of thought upon this subject arises from the erro- 
neous assumptions that the State does nothing except what it does through 
the government ; that the State is not the creator of liberty ; that liberty is 
natural right, and that the State only imposes a certain necessary restraint 
upon the same. . . There never was, and there never can be, any liberty 
on this earth and among human beings outside of State organization. . . . 
Mankind does not begin with liberty. Mankind acquires liberty through 
civilization. Liberty is as truly a creation of the State as is government. 1 

A written constitution, it may be added, is a formal act of crea- 
tion of a government and a careful delimitation of its powers. It 
also defines the sphere of individual liberty, directly or indirectly, 
and so the individual is protected by the State against the govern- 
ment. Through the government he is also protected against en- 
croachment from elsewhere. In the Constitution cf the United 
States, for example, the individual is guaranteed by the State the 
rights peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a 
redress of grievances, and the government must both refrain from 
invading those rights and prevent others from invading them. If 
the government should fail to do this, the State which created the 
government would surely remodel or destroy it. 

The distinction between state and government is of crucial 
importance for right thinking upon the larger problems of 
American educational polity. When once the distinction between 
state and government is grasped, and also the farther distinction 
between the sphere of government and the sphere of liberty, then 
it is seen to be a matter of expediency, to be determined by a study 
of the facts and by argument, whether a given matter — such as 
support of schools or the control of railways and telegraphs — 
should be assigned to the sphere of government or to the sphere of 
liberty. 

In the United States there are three different types of educa- 
tional institution, all resting upon the power of the State. One 
of the three depends wholly and one partly upon the government. 

1 Burgess, Political Science and Comparative Constitutional Law, 1 : 87-S9. (N. Y., 1890.) 



A 



INTRODUCTION XIX 

The third type is without any governmental relationship whatever. 
The three types are these: 

i. Those institutions which the government establishes and 
maintains, such as the public schools, the public libraries, and 
the State universities. 

2. Those institutions which the government authorizes, such 
as school, college, and university corporations, private or semi- 
public in character, which gain their powers and privileges by a 
charter granted by the proper governmental authority, and which 
are often given aid by the government in the form of partial or 
entire exemption from taxation. 

3. Those institutions which the State permits, because it has 
conferred on the government no power to forbid or to restrict 
them, such as private-venture (unincorporated) educational un- 
dertakings of various kinds. 

The American educational system is made up of all these, and 
whether a given school, college, or university is national or not 
does not in the least depend upon the fact that it is or is not gov- 
ernmental. France and Germany have great national universi- 
ties which are governmental; England and the United States 
have great national universities which are non-governmental. 
Oxford and Cambridge are no less truly English, and Harvard 
and Columbia are no less truly American, because their funds are 
not derived from public tax and because the appointments to their 
professorships are not made or confirmed by government officers. 
Whether a given institution is truly national or not depends, in 
the United States, upon whether it is democratic in spirit, catholic 
in temper, and without political, theological, or local limitations 
and trammels. It may be religious in tone and in purpose and 
yet be national, provided only that its doors be not closed to any 
qualified student because of his creed. 

It is worth noting that while in the United States the govern- 
ment bears nearly the entire brunt of elementary education, it finds 
a powerful ally in non-governmental institutions in the field of 
secondary and higher education. The statistics gathered by the 
commissioner of education show that for the year ending June 30, 
1900, of all elementary-school pupils 92.27 per cent were enrolled 



XX INTRODUCTION 

in governmental institutions, while for secondary and higher 
education the percentages were 73.75 and 38.17, respectively. In 
other words, non-governmental institutions — those which are 
loosely described as private schools and colleges — are instructing 
about one-thirteenth of the pupils of elementary grade, about 
one-fourth of the pupils of secondary grade, and about two- 
thirds of the pupils of higher grade. Almost exactly one-tenth 
of the whole number of pupils of all grades are enrolled in non- 
governmental, so-called private, institutions. It is just this word 
"private" which increases the confusion against which my argu- 
ment is directed. It is my contention that none of these institu- 
tions is properly described as "private "; they are all public, but 
not all governmental. If this point is clear, then we shall have 
escaped the fallacies and dangers that follow from confusing 
tax-supported, governmental undertakings with public tenden- 
cies and movements. In education and in our political life 
generally, the public tendencies and movements are a genus of 
which governmental activities are a species. 

The unlimited power of the people to provide tax-supported edu- 
cation — The duly constituted authorities of any school district or 
other political unit may establish and maintain schools of any 
kind or grade for which the voters consent in regular form to bear 
the expense. 

There is a widespread belief that elementary education under 
government control is a matter of right, but that secondary and 
higher education under government control are improper invasions 
of the domain of liberty. There is no ground in American public 
policy for this belief. The government has the same right to do 
for secondary and for higher education that it has to do for ele- 
mentary education. What and how much it shall do, if anything, 
in a particular case, is a question of expediency; the right to do as 
much as it chooses is unquestionable. 

Upon this point there is an important decision, 1 made by unani- 
mous vote of the Supreme Court of Michigan in 1874, which 
may fairly be taken to represent our established policy. The 
opinion was written by Justice Thomas M. Cooley, one of the most 

1 Michigan Reports, 30 : 69-S5. 



A 



INTRODUCTION XXI 

learned and authoritative of American constitutional lawyers. 
The decision was rendered in a suit known as "the Kalamazoo 
case," to restrain the collection of such portion of the school taxes 
assessed against the complainants for the year 1872, as was voted 
for the support of the high school and for the payment of the 
salary of the superintendent of schools in school district No. 1 of 
Kalamazoo. The position of the complainants, as stated by the 
court, was as follows: 

While there may be no constitutional provision expressly prohibiting 
such taxation, the general course of legislation in the State and the general 
understanding of the people have been such as to require instruction in the 
classics and in living modern languages in the public schools to be regarded 
as in the nature, not of practical and therefore necessary instruction for 
the benefit of the people at large, but rather as accomplishments for the 
few, to be sought after in the main by those best able to pay for them, and 
to be paid for by those who seek them, and not by general tax. And further, 
that the higher learning, when supplied by the State, is so far a matter of 
private concern to those who receive it that the courts ought to declare the 
State incompetent to supply it wholly at the public expense. 

In answer to this contention the court expresses surprise that 
the legislation and policy of the State were appealed to against the 
right of the State to furnish a liberal education to the youth of the 
State in schools brought within the reach of all classes. 

We supposed [adds the court] it had always been understood in this 
State that education, not merely in the rudiments, but in an enlarged sense, 
was regarded as an important practical advantage to be supplied at their 
option to rich and poor alike, and not as something pertaining merely to 
culture and accomplishment, to be brought as such within the reach of those 
whose accumulated wealth enabled them to pay for it. 

The court then passes in review, in most instructive fashion, 
the development of the educational policy of the State from the 
beginning, and concludes, as follows: 

We content ourselves with the statement that neither in our State policy, 
in our constitution, nor in our laws, do we find the primary school districts 
restricted in the branches of knowledge which their officers may cause to 
be taught, or the grade of instruction that may be given, if their voters 
consent in regular form to bear the expense and raise the taxes for the 
purpose. 



XX11 INTRODUCTION 

In consonance with this opinion is one delivered by the Supreme 
Court of Missouri in 1883, 1 in which it is held that the term " com- 
mon," when applied to schools, is used to denote the fact that they 
are open and public to all rather than to indicate the grade of 
the school, or what may or may not be taught therein. The 
court also holds that the term "school" of itself does not imply a 
restriction to the rudiments of an education. 

It is interesting to contrast these decisions in Michigan and in 
Missouri with the conclusion reached by the Court of Queen's 
Bench in England in 1901 in the now famous case of the Queen 
versus Cockerton, 2 in which it is expressly held that it is not within 
the power of a school board to expend money raised by local taxes 
upon any education other than elementary. The terms of the 
Education Act of 1870 and of the many acts supplementary thereto 
no doubt justified the court's decision ; but the fact that such a con- 
clusion is bad public policy has been brought to the attention of a 
large number of thoughtful persons, and had no small part in the 
educational debate which for some time was, perhaps, the most im- 
portant matter before Parliament and the English people. 

Tax-supported schools not charity schools — The schools 
which are maintained by governmental authority are established 
in the interest of the whole people, and because of the controlling 
conviction that an instructed and enlightened population is es- 
sential to the perpetuity of democratic institutions and to their 
effective operation. The schools are therefore a proper charge 
upon all taxpaying persons and property, and not merely upon 
those whose children receive instruction therein. Nor are they 
in any sense schools which are provided for the poor or the un- 
fortunate. 

When stated, this principle seems axiomatic. Nevertheless, 
it is openly or impliedly denied with surprising frequency. It 
is safe to say that in all of our large cities there is a class of persons, 
by no means inconsiderable in number, who look upon the tax- 
supported schools as they look upon almshouses and asylums. 
Such persons regard the schools as a part of the community's 

1 See Missouri Reports, 1S82-83, 77 : 4 s 5-48o. 
2 See Law Reports, King's Bench, 1901, 1:322-360, 726-740. 



A 



INTRODUCTION XX111 

charitable or philanthropic equipment. In my view, on the other 
hand, the schools are a part of the community's life. They are 
not merely to give relief or shelter to individuals, they are to min- 
ister to the democratic ideal. The very children who sit on the 
benches are regarded not merely as children, interesting, lovable, 
precious, but as future citizens of a democracy, with all the privi- 
leges and responsibilities which that implies. 

Any one who wishes, for personal, social, or religious reasons, to 
have his child receive a training other than that which the tax- 
supported schools give, is at liberty to make such provision for his 
child as he chooses ; but he is not thereby released from the obli- 
gation resting upon him as a citizen to contribute to the support 
of the tax-supported schools. It follows, too, that the parents of 
those who are pupils in the tax-supported schools have no peculiar 
rights in connection with the policy of those schools that are not 
shared by all other citizens. The schools are for the people as a 
whole, not for those of a district or ward, or of a political party or 
religious communion, or for those who are either poor or rich. 
We poison our democracy at its source if we permit any qualifi- 
cation of this fundamental principle. 

It is sometimes gravely argued that positions as school officers 
or teachers should be given only to those who live, at the moment, 
in the civil community or subdivision in which the school in ques- 
tion is situated. This is the theory that the schools exist, not for 
the people or for the children, but in order that places may be 
provided for the friends, relatives, and neighbors of those who are 
charged for the time being with the power of appointment. It is 
an undemocratic theory, because it substitutes a privileged class 
for open competition among the best qualified. Pushed to its 
logical extreme, it would look first in the ranks of the descendants 
of the aborigines for persons to appoint to posts in the educational 
system. Very few Americans live where their grandparents lived, 
and it is usually those who have come most recently to a city, town, 
or village who are loudest in insisting that no "outsider," as the 
saying is, be given a place as teacher or superintendent. The 
democratic theory, on the contrary, asks only for the best ; and if 
the community cannot provide the best it holds that such com- 



XXIV INTRODUCTION 

munity should enrich itself by bringing in the best, from wherever 
it is to be had. As teaching becomes a profession, the teacher and 
school officer will acquire a professional reputation and status 
which will make short work of town, county, and even State 
boundaries. 

Study of education — Education, conceived as a social insti- 
tution, is now being studied in the United States more widely and 
more energetically than ever before. The chairs of education in 
the great universities are the natural leaders in this movement. 
It is carried on also in normal schools, in teacher's training classes, 
and in countless voluntary associations and clubs in every part 
of the country. Problems of organization and administration, of 
educational theory, of practical procedure in teaching, of child 
nature, of hygiene and sanitation, are engaging attention every- 
where. Herein lies the promise of great advances in the future. 
Enthusiasm, earnestness, and scientific method are all applied to 
the study of education in a way which makes it certain that the 
results will be fruitful. The future of democracy is bound up 
with the future of education. 

The present work passes in review these and many other tend- 
encies in American education. It describes the organization and 
influence of each type of formal school; it takes note of the more 
informal and popular organizations for popular education and 
instruction; it discusses the educational problems raised by the 
existence of special classes and of special needs, and sets forth how 
the United States has set about solving these problems. It may 
truly be said to be a cross-section view of education in the United 
States. 

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER. 

Columbia University. 






1 

EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION 

AND 

ADMINISTRATION 



BY 
ANDREW SLOAN DRAPER 

Commissioner of Education for the State of New York 



EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND 
ADMINISTRATION 



INTRODUCTORY 

Any treatment of the legal organization and the authori- 
tative methods of administration by which the great public 
educational system of the United States is carried on must 
almost necessarily be opened by a statement of the salient 
points in the evolution of that system, for the form of organi- 
zation and the laws governing the operations of the schools 
have not preceded, but followed and been determined by the 
educational movements of the people and the necessities of 
the case. 

The first white settlers who came to America in the early 
part of the seventeenth century were from the European 
peoples, who were more advanced in civilization than any 
others in the world. Each of the nations first represented 
had already made some progress in the direction of popular 
education. Such educational ideals as these different peo- 
ples possessed had resulted from historic causes, and were 
very unlike. The influences more potent than any others in 
determining the character of American civic institutions 
were English and Dutch. The English government was a 
constitutional monarchy, but still a monarchy, and the con- 
stitutional limitations were neither so many nor so strong 
as later popular revolutions have made them. English 
thought accepted class distinctions among the people. The 
advantages of education were for the favored class, the 
nobility. The common people expected little. Colleges 
and fitting schools were maintained for the training of young 
men of noble birth for places under the government and in 
the government church, but there were no common schools 
for all. The nobility were opposed to general education lest 



4 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [4 

the masses would come to recognize God-given rights and 
demand them, and the masses were yet too illiterate to 
understand and enforce the inalienable rights of human 
nature. The Dutch had gone farther than the English ; 
they had just waged a long and dreadful and successful war 
for liberty, and with all its horrors war has uniformly sharp- 
ened the intelligence of a people. This war for civil and 
religious liberty had enlarged their freedom and quickened 
their activities ; they had become the greatest sailors and the 
foremost manufacturers in the world ; and they had estab- 
lished the government policy of maintaining not only col- 
leges, but common schools for all. 

The first permanent white settlers in the United States 
were English and Dutch. In the beginning they had no 
thought of ceasing to be Englishmen and loyal subjects of the 
English monarchy, or Dutchmen with permanent fellowship 
in the Dutch Republic. They each brought their national 
educational ideas with them. Each people was strongly 
influenced by religious feelings, and life in a new land inten- 
sified those feelings. The English in Massachusetts were 
at the beginning very like the English in England. The 
larger and wealthier and more truly English colony recog- 
nized class distinctions and followed the English educational 
policy. They first set up a college to train their aristocracy 
for places in the state and the church, and for a considerable 
time their ministers, either at the church or in the homes, 
taught the children enough to read the Bible and acquire the 
catechism. The Dutch, more democratic, with smaller num- 
bers and less means, and more dependent upon their govern- 
ment over the sea, at once set up elementary schools at public 
cost and common to all. In a few years the English over- 
threw the little Dutch government and almost obliterated 
the elementary schools. For a century the English royal 
governors and the Dutch colonial legislatures struggled 
over the matter of common schools. The o-overnment was 
too strong for the humble people ; little educational progress 
was made. Near the close of that century the government 



f 



c] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 5 

established King's college to educate sons of noble birth 
and prevent the spread of republican ideas. The Revolu- 
tion of 1776 changed all. In fighting together for national 
independence the different peoples assimilated and became 
Americans in the new sense. They not only combined their 
forces in war, but in peace they combined the enlarged intel- 
ligence which the war had brought to them. They realized 
that education in all its phases and grades must be encour- 
aged, and, so far as practicable, made universal under a democ- 
racy in which the rights of opportunity were to be equal. 

But while they began to be interested in education it was 
because they saw that schools would help the individual and 
so promote virtue and extend religion. It did not occur to 
them at the first that the safety of the new form of govern- 
ment was associated with the diffusion of learning among- all 
the people. This is not strange, for the suffrage was not 
universal at the beginning of independent government in 
America. Therefore, while the desirability of education was 
recognized, it was understood to be the function of parents 
to provide it for their children, or of guardians and masters 
to extend it to their wards and apprentices. When schools 
were first established they were partnership affairs between 
people who had children in their care, and for their con- 
venience. They apportioned the expense among themselves ; 
such as had no children were without much concern about 
the matter. 

It was soon seen that many who had children to educate 
would neglect them in order to avoid the expense of con- 
tributing to the support of the school. Aside from this the 
schools were very indifferent affairs. If they were to be of 
any account they must have recognition and encouragement 
from government. It was easily conceived to be a function 
of government to encourage schools. Encouragement was 
given by official and legislative declarations in their behalf 
and then by authorizing townships to use funds derived from 
excise fees and other sources for the benefit of the schools 
when not otherwise needed. It was a greater step to attempt 



6 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [6 

to say that townships should require people, who had chil- 
dren to educate, to maintain schools, and a still greater one 
to adopt the principle that every child was entitled to at least 
an elementary education as of right, that this was as much 
for the safety of the state as for the good of the child, that 
therefore the state was bound to see that schools were pro- 
vided for all, and that all the property of all the people 
should contribute alike to their support. Perhaps it was 
even a greater step to provide secondary and collegiate, and 
in many cases professional and technical, training at the 
public cost. But these great positions were in time firmly 
taken. 

There was nothing like an educational system in the 
United States at the beginning of the nineteenth century. 
At that time there were four or five colleges, here and there 
a private academy or fitting school, and elementary schools 
of indifferent character in the cities and the thinly settled 
towns. In the course of the century a great system of 
schools has come to cover the land. It is free and flexible, 
adaptable to local conditions, and yet it possesses most of 
the elements of a complete and symmetrical system. The 
parts or grades of this system may perhaps be designated 
as follows : 

a) Free public elementary schools in reach of every home 
in the land. 

b) Free public high schools, or secondary schools, in 
every considerable town. 

c) Free land grant colleges, with special reference to the 
agricultural and mechanical arts, in all the states. 

d) Free state universities in practically all of the southern 
states and all the states west of Pennsylvania. 

e) Free normal schools, or training schools for teachers, 
in practically every state. 

f) Free schools for defectives, in substantially all of the 
states. 

g) National academies for training officers for the army 
and navy. 



yl EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION J 

h) A vast number of private kindergartens, music and 
art schools, commercial schools, industrial schools, profes- 
sional schools, denominational colleges, with a half dozen 
leading and privately endowed universities. 

This mighty educational system has developed with the 
growth of towns and cities and states. It has been shaped 
by the advancing sagacity of the people. Above all other 
of American civic institutions, it has been the one most 
expressive of the popular will and the common purposes. 
Everywhere it is held in the control of the people, and so far 
as practicable in the control of local assemblages. While 
the tendencies of later years have, from necessities, been 
towards centralization of management, the conspicuous char- 
acteristic of the systems has always been the extent to which 
the elementary and secondary schools are controlled and 
directed by each community. The inherent and universal 
disposition in this direction has favored general school laws 
and yielded to centralized administration only so far as has 
come to be necessary to life, efficiency and growth. But 
circumstances have made this necessary to a very consider- 
able extent. 

Bearing in mind the historic facts touching the develop- 
ment of the school system, we may proceed to consider the 
legal organization and authoritative scheme of administra- 
tion which have arisen therefrom. We will begin with the 
most elementary and decentralized form of organization and 
proceed to the more general and concentrated ones, following 
the steps which have marked the growth of the system in a 
general way, but with no thought of tracing the particular 
lines of educational advancement in the several states. 

THE SCHOOL DISTRICT 

The " school district " is the oldest and the most primary 
form of school organization. Indeed, it is the smallest civil 
division of our political system. It resulted from the natural 
disposition of neighboring families to associate together for 
the maintenance of a school. Later it was recognized by 



8 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [8 

law and given some legal functions and responsibilities. 
Its territorial extent is no larger than will permit of all the 
children attending a single school, although it sometimes 
happens that in sparsely settled country the children have to 
go several miles to school. It ordinarily accommodates but 
a few families : districts have had legal existence with but 
one family in each : many with not more than a half dozen 
families. It is better adapted to the circumstances of the 
country than to those of the town or city. A different form 
has been provided for the considerable towns, and still 
another for the cities as they have developed. The " district 
system " is in operation in most of the states, and in such 
the number of districts extends into the thousands. In New 
York, for example, there are over eleven thousand and in 
Illinois over twelve thousand school districts. 

The government of the school district is the most simple 
and democratic that can be imagined. It is controlled by 
school meetings composed of the resident legal voters. In 
many of the states women have been constituted legal voters 
at school meetings. These meetings are held at least 
annually and as much oftener as may be desired. They 
may vote needed repairs to the primitive schoolhouse and 
desirable appliances for the school. They may decide to 
erect a new schoolhouse. They may elect officers, one or 
more, commonly called trustees or directors, who must carry 
out their directions and who are required by law to employ 
the teacher and have general oversight of the school. 
Although the law ordinarily gives the trustees free discre- 
tion in the appointment of teachers, provided only that a 
person duly certificated must be appointed, yet it not infre- 
quently happens that the district controls the selection of 
the teacher through the election of trustees with known 
preferences. 

Much has been said against the district system, and doubt- 
less much that has been said has been justified. At the 
same time it cannot be denied that the system has had much 
to commend it. It has suited the conditions of country life : 



g] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 9 

it has resulted in schools adapted to the thought and wants 
of farming people : it has done something to educate the 
people themselves, parents as well as children, in civic spirit 
and patriotism : and it has afforded a meeting place for the 
people within comfortable reach of every home. The school 
has not always been the best, but it has been ordinarily as 
good as a free and primitive people would sustain or could 
profit by. It is true that the teachers have generally 
been young and inexperienced, but they have not yet been 
trained into mechanical automatons, and as a rule they have 
been the most promising young people in the world, the 
ones who, a few years later, have been the makers of opinion 
and the leaders of action upon a considerable field. Cer- 
tainly the work has lacked system, continuity and progres- 
siveness, the pupils have commenced at the same place in the 
book many times and never advanced a great distance, but, 
on the other hand, the children in the country schools have 
had the home training and the free, natural life which has 
developed strong qualities in character and individual initia- 
tive in large measure, and so have not suffered seriously, in 
comparison with the children living in the towns. The dis- 
trict system has sufficed well for them and it has otherwise 
been of much advantage to the people ; and with all its 
shortcomings, or the abuses that are common where it pre- 
vails, they are hardly worse than are found under more pre- 
tentious systems. Surely the " American District School 
System " is to be spoken of with respect, for it has exerted a 
marked influence upon our citizenship, and has given strong 
and wholesome impulses in all the affairs of the nation. 

THE TOWNSHIP SYSTEM 

While in the first half of the century the general educa- 
tional purpose seems to have been to make the district sys- 
tem more perfect, the tendency in the latter half has unmis- 
takably been to merge it into a more pretentious organization, 
covering a larger area, and capable of larger undertakings. 
The cause of this has been the desire for larger schools, 



IO EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 



[10 



taught by teachers better prepared, and capable of broader 
and better work, as well as the purpose to distribute educa- 
tional advantages more evenly to all the people. Accord- 
ingly, in most of the states there has been a serious discus- 
sion of the relative advantages of the township as against 
the district system, and in quite a number of the states the 
former has already supplanted the latter. 

The township system makes the township the unit of 
school government. It is administered by officers chosen at 
annual town meetings, or sometimes by central boards, the 
members of which are chosen by the electors of different 
sub-districts. In any event, the board has charge of all the 
elementary schools of the township, and if there is one, as 
is frequently the case, of the township high school. The 
board, following the different statutes governing them and 
the authorized directions of the township school electors, 
provides the buildings and cares for them, supplies the 
needed furnishings and appliances, employs the teachers, and 
regulates the general operations of the school. 

It is at once seen that the township system is much less 
formally democratic and much more centralized than the dis- 
trict system. It has doubtless produced better schools and 
schools of more uniform excellence. One of its most benefi- 
cent influences has been the multiplication of township high 
schools, in which all the children of the township have had 
equality of rights. These high schools have given an uplift- 
ing stimulus to all the elementary schools of the township, 
and have led all the children to see that the work of the 
local school is not all there is of education, and given many 
of them ambitions to master the course of the secondary 
school. 

Very much has been said upon the subject, but it is not 
necessary to go into it at length here. The township sys- 
tem has many advantages over the district system for a people 
who are ready for it. It is adapted to the development and 
to the administration of a higher grade of schools and very 
likely to better schools of all grades. It is a step, and an 



1 1] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION I I 

important step, towards that general centralization in man- 
agement and greater uniformity of improved methods of 
supervision and instruction now so manifest throughout the 
school system of the United States. 

THE COUNTY SYSTEM 

The southern states, most if not all of them, have a 
county system of school administration. This has not 
resulted from the development of the school system, but 
from the general system of county rather than township 
government prevalent in all the affairs of the southern 
states from the beginning, and easily traceable to historic 
causes. The county is the unit of school government in 
the southern states, because it has been the unit of all 
government. 

The county system is not constituted identically in all of 
the southern states of the union. In Georgia, for example, 
the grand jury of each county selects from the freeholders 
five persons to comprise the county board of education ; in 
North Carolina the justices of the peace and county com- 
missioners of each county appoint such a county board of 
education, while in Florida such a board is elected by the 
people biennially, and in some states a county commissioner 
or superintendent of schools is the responsible authority for 
managing the schools of the county. In Georgia "each 
county shall constitute one school district," but in. several of 
the states the county board or superintendent divides the 
territory into sub-districts and appoints trustees or directors 
in each. In the latter case the local trustees seem to be 
ministerial officers carrying out the policy of the county 
board. In any case the unit of territory for the administra- 
tion of the schools is the county, and county officials locate 
sites, provide buildings, select text-books, prescribe the 
course of work, examine and appoint teachers, and do all the 
things which are within the functions of district or township 
trustees or city boards of education in the northern states. 



12 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [12 



THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 

As communities have increased in population they have 
outgrown any primary or elementary system of organization 
for school purposes. Laws of general application or com- 
mon usage in a county sparsely settled would not suffice for 
a city of many thousands of people. In such cities the peo- 
ple could not meet to fix the policies and manage the busi- 
ness of the schools : they could not meet even to choose 
officers to manage the schools. So the state legislatures 
have made special laws to meet the circumstances of the 
larger places. In some states these laws are uniform for all 
cities of a certain class, that is, cities having populations of 
about the same number, but more often each city has gone 
to the legislature and procured the enactment of such stat- 
utes as seemed suited to the immediate circumstances. 

Because of this there is no uniform or general system of 
public school administration in the American cities. Of 
course there are some points of similarity. In nearly every 
case there is a board of education charged with the manage- 
ment of the schools, but these boards are constituted in 
almost as many different ways as there are different cities, 
and their legal functions are as diverse as there is diversity 
in cities. In the city of Buffalo, New York state, the school 
affairs are managed by a committee appointed by the city 
council, but happily this case stands by itself, and the evil 
consequences possible under such a scheme have been much 
ameliorated in this particular case for the last half dozen 
years by a most excellent superintendent of schools, elected 
by the people of that city. 

In the greater number of cities the boards of education 
are elected by the people, in some cases on a general city 
ticket, and again by wards or sub-districts ; in some places at 
a general or municipal election, and in others at elections 
held for the particular purpose. But in many cities, and 
particularly the larger ones, the boards are appointed by 
the mayor alone, or by the mayor and city council acting 



13] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 1 3 

jointly. In the city of Philadelphia the board is appointed 
by the city judges, in Pittsburgh by local directors, and in 
New Orleans by the state board of education. In a few 
instances the board is appointed by the city councils. 

In the city of Cleveland, Ohio, the board of education 
consists of two branches : a school director elected by the 
people for the term of two years, and a school council of 
seven members, likewise elected by the people in three groups 
with terms of three years each. This scheme was devised 
in 1892 by prominent business men of the city, and, having 
been enacted by the legislature, has been in very satisfac- 
tory operation since. 

It must be said that there has been much dissatisfaction 
with the way school affairs have been managed in the larger 
cities. In the smaller places, even in cities of a hundred 
thousand or more inhabitants, matters have gone well enough 
as a general rule, but in the greater cities there have been 
many and serious complaints of the misuse of funds, of 
neglect of property, of the appointment of unfit teachers, 
and of general incapacity, or worse, on the part of the 
boards. Of course it is notorious that the public business 
of American cities has very commonly been badly managed. 
It would not be true to say that the business of the schools 
has suffered as seriously as municipal business, but it cer- 
tainly has been managed badly enough. 

All this has come from the amounts of money that are 
involved and the number of appointments that are con- 
stantly to be made. More than a hundred millions of 
dollars are paid annually for teachers' wages alone in the 
United States. People who are needy have sought positions 
as teachers without much reference to preparation, and the 
kindly disposed have aided them without any apparent appre- 
ciation of the injury they were doing to the highest interests 
of their neighbors. Men engaged in managing the organi- 
zations of the different political parties have undertaken to 
control appointments in the interests of their party machines. 
And the downright scoundrels have infested the school 
organization in some places for the sake of plunder. 



14 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [14 

As cities have grown in size and multiplied in numbers, 
the more scandal there has been. And American cities have 
grown marvelously. In 1790 there was but one having 
between eight and twelve thousand inhabitants: in 1890 
there were one hundred and forty-seven such. By the census 
of the latter year there were fourteen cities having between 
seventy-five thousand and one hundred and twenty-five thou- 
sand inhabitants. Now there are certainly a dozen with 
more than a half million of people each. The aggregate 
population of a dozen cities exceeds the aggregate popula- 
tion of twenty states. But if the troubles have multiplied 
and intensified as the cities have grown, so has the determi- 
nation of the people strengthened to remedy the difficulties. 

There has been no more decided and no more healthy 
educational movement in the United States in recent years, 
and none with greater or more strongly intrenched obstacles 
in its way, than that for better school organization and 
administration in the larger cities. Its particular features 
or objective points are pointed out by the committee of fif- 
teen of the National educational association in the following 
declarations : 

* " In concluding this portion of the report, the committee 
indicates briefly the principles which must necessarily be 
observed in framing a plan of organization and government 
in a large city school system. 

First. The affairs of the school should not be mixed up 
with partisan contests or municipal business. 

Second. There should be a sharp distinction between leg- 
islative functions and executive duties. 

Third. Legislative functions should be clearly fixed by 
statute and be exercised by a comparatively small board, 
each member of which is representative of the whole city. 
This board, within statutory limitations, should determine 
the policy of the system, levy taxes, and control the expendi- 
tures. It should make no appointments. Every act should 
be by a recorded resolution. It seems preferable that this 
board be created by appointment rather than election, and 



jcj EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 1 5 

that it be constituted of two branches acting against each 
other. 

Fourth. Administration should be separated into two 
great independent departments, one of which manages the 
business interests and the other of which supervises the 
instruction. Each of these should be wholly directed by a 
single official who is vested with ample authority and charged 
with full responsibility for sound administration. 

Fifth. The chief executive officer on the business side 
should be charged with the care of all property and with the 
duty of keeping it in suitable condition : he should provide 
all necessary furnishings and appliances : he should make all 
agreements and see that they are properly performed : he 
should appoint all assistants, janitors, and workmen. In a 
word, he should do all that the law contemplates and all that 
the board authorizes, concerning the business affairs of the 
school system, and when anything goes wrong he should 
answer for it. He may be appointed by the board, but we 
think it preferable that he be chosen in the same way the 
members of the board are chosen, and be given a veto upon 
the acts of the board. 

Sixth. The chief executive officer of the department of 
instruction should be given a long term and may be appointed 
by the board. If the board is constituted of two branches, 
he should be nominated by the business executive and con- 
firmed by the legislative branch. Once appointed he should 
be independent. He should appoint all authorized assist- 
ants and teachers from an eligible list to be constituted as 
provided by law. He should assign to duties and discon- 
tinue services for cause, at his discretion. He should deter- 
mine all matters relating to instruction. He should be 
charged with the responsibility of developing a professional 
and enthusiastic teaching force, and of making all the teach- 
ing scientific and forceful. He must perfect the organization 
of his department and make and carry out plans to accom- 
plish this. If he cannot do this in a reasonable time he 
should be superseded by one who can." 



l6 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [16 

It ought to be said before passing from this phase of the 
subject that these principles have made much headway, and 
that the promise is excellent. There is not a city of any 
importance in the country in which they are not under dis- 
cussion, and there are few in which some of them have not 
been adopted and put in operation. 

The powers of the city boards of education are very 
broad, almost without limits as to the management of the 
schools. They commonly do everything but decide the 
amount of money which shall be raised for the schools, and 
in some cases even that high prerogative is left to them. 
They purchase new sites, determine the plans and erect new 
buildings, provide for maintenance, appoint officers and 
teachers, fix salaries, make promotions, and, acting within 
very few and slight constitutional or statutory limitations, 
enact all of the regulations for the control of the vast system. 

The high powers, cheerfully given by the people to school 
boards, have arisen from the earnest desire that the schools 
shall be independent and the teaching of the best. Of 
course these independent and large prerogatives are exceed- 
ingly advantageous to educational progress when exercised 
by good men : when they fall into the hands of weak or bad 
men they are equally capable of being put to the worst uses. 
And it is not to be disguised that in some of the foremost 
cities they have fallen into some hands which are corrupt, 
but more often into the hands of men of excellent personal 
character, but who do not see the importance of applying 
pedagogical principles to instruction, and who are, in one 
way or another, used by designing persons for partizan, self- 
ish or corrupt purposes. Of course it is not to be implied 
that there are not to be found in every school board men or 
women with clear heads and stout hearts who understand the 
essential principles of sound school administration and are 
courageously contending for them. Nor must the serious 
difficulty of holding together pupils from such widely differ- 
ent homes in common schools be lost sight of. And again, 
the obstacles in the way of choosing and training a teaching 



17] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 1 7 

force of thousands of persons, and of continually energizing 
the entire body with new pedagogical life, must be remem- 
bered. And yet again, the dangers of corruption where 
millions of dollars are being annually disbursed by boards 
which are practically independent, are apparent. But, not- 
withstanding all of the hindrances, the issue is being joined 
and the battle will be fought out to a successful result. 
There can be but one outcome. The forces of decency and 
progress always prevail in the end. 

The demands of the intelligent and sincere friends of 
popular education in our great cities are for a more scientific 
plan of organization which shall separate legislative and 
executive functions, which shall put the interests of teachers 
upon the merit basis and leave them free to apply pedagogi- 
cal principles to the instruction, which shall give authority to 
do what is needed and protect officers and teachers, while it 
locates responsibility and provides the way for ousting the 
incompetent or the corrupt. The trouble has been that the 
boards were independent and the machine so ponderous and 
the prerogatives and responsibilities of officials so confused 
that people who were aggrieved could not get a hearing or 
could not secure redress, perhaps for the reason that no one 
official had the power to afford redress. What is demanded 
and what is apparently coming is a more perfect system, 
which will give one credit for good work in the schools and 
enable a parent to point his finger at and procure the dis- 
missal of one who inflicts upon his child a school room 
which is not wholesome and healthful, or a teacher who is 
physically, pedagogically or morally unfit to train his child. 

THE STATES AND THE SCHOOLS 

Since the American school system has come to be sup- 
ported wholly by taxation, it has come to depend upon the 
exercise of a sovereign power. In the United States the 
sovereign powers are not all lodged in one place. Such as 
have not been ceded to the general government are retained 
by the states. The provision and supervision of schools is 



1 8 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [18 

one of these. Hence the school system, while marked by 
many characteristics which are common throughout the 
country, has a legal organization peculiar to each state. 

The dependence upon state authority which has thus 
arisen has gone farther than anything else towards the 
development of a system and towards the equalization of 
school privileges to the people of the same state. Naturally 
indisposed to relinquish the management of their own school 
affairs in their own way, they have been obliged to bow to 
the authority of their states, in so far as the state saw fit to 
assert its authority, because they could not act without it, as 
counties, cities, townships and districts have no power what- 
ever to levy taxes for school purposes except as authorized by 
the state. They have become reconciled to the interven- 
tion of state authority, moreover, as they have seen that 
such authority improved the schools. 

Of such improvement by such intervention there can be 
no doubt. In many cases state school funds have been 
created, or large sums are raised by general levy each year, 
which are distributed so as to give the most aid to the sec- 
tions which are poorest and most need it. In the state of 
New York, for example, the cities pay more than half a mil- 
lion of dollars every year to the support of the schools in 
the country districts. In practically all of the states excel- 
lent normal schools are maintained to prepare teachers for 
the elementary and secondary schools. In all of the south- 
ern and western states great state universities are sustained 
as parts of the state school systems. In ten universities of 
the North-Central division of states there are twenty thou- 
sand students in college and professional courses, and the 
work is of as high grade and of as broad range as in the 
oldest universities of the country. These things are exert- 
ing strong influences upon the sentiment of the people of 
the different states and increasing their respect for the 
authority of their states over their schools. 

And the application of state authority to all of the schools 
supported by public moneys of course makes them more 



19] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 1 9 

alike and better. The whims of local settlements disappear. 
The schoolhouses are better. More is done for the prepara- 
tion of teachers, and more uniform exactions are put upon 
candidates for the teaching service. The courses of study 
are more quickly and symmetrically improved. There is 
criticism and stimulus from a common center for all of the 
educational work of the state. 

The different states have gone to very different lengths 
in exercising their authority. The length to which each has 
gone has depended upon the necessity of state intervention 
by the exercise of the taxing power, or of delegating that 
power to subdivisions of the territory, and upon the senti- 
ment of the people. In most cases it has been determined 
by the location of the point of equipoise between necessity 
and free consent. The state government has, of course, 
not been disposed to go farther than the people were willing, 
for all government is by the people. The thought of the 
people in the different states has been somewhat influenced 
by considerations which arise out of their early history, but 
doubtless in most cases it is predicated upon their later 
experiences. 

All of the state constitutions now contain provisions 
relating to popular education. This was not true of the 
original constitutions of all of the older states, for when 
they were adopted the maintenance of schools was looked 
upon as a personal or local rather than a state concern. 
But later amendments have since introduced such provisions 
into all of the older state constitutions. And all of the 
newer ones have contained strong and elaborate sections, 
making it a fundamental duty of the government they estab- 
lished to encourage education and provide schools for all. 

Of course, all of the states have legislated much in refer- 
ence to the schools, and there is scarcely a session of one of 
the state legislatures in which they do not receive consider- 
able attention. In all of the states there is some sort of a 
state school organization established by law. In practically 
all there is an officer known as the state superintendent of 



20 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 



[20 



public instruction, or the state school commissioner. In 
some there is a state board of education. In New York 
there is a state board of regents in charge of the private 
academies, in some measure of the public secondary schools, 
and of all of the higher institutions ; and also a state super- 
intendent of public instruction, with very high authority 
over the elementary schools and in a large measure over 
the public high schools. 

The officer last referred to doubtless is vested with larger 
authority than any other one educational official in the 
country. Reapportions the state schools funds; he deter- 
mines the conditions of admission, the courses of work and 
the employment of teachers, and audits all the accounts of 
the twelve normal schools of the state; he has unlimited 
authority over the examination and certification of teachers ; 
he regulates the official action of the school commissioners 
in all of the assembly districts of the state ; he appoints the 
teachers' institutes, arranges the work, names the instructors, 
and pays the bills. He determines the boundaries of school 
districts. He provides schools for the defective classes and 
for the seven Indian reservations yet remaining in the state. 
He may condemn schoolhouses and require new ones to be 
built. He may direct new furnishings to be provided. He 
is a member of the state board of regents and of the board 
of trustees of Cornell university. He may entertain appeals 
by any person conceiving himself aggrieved from any order 
or proceeding of local school officials, determine the practice 
therein, and make final disposition of the matter in dispute, 
and his decision cannot be " called in question in any court 
or in any other place." 

All this, with the splendid organization of the state board 
of regents, unquestionably provides New York with a more 
complete and elaborate educational organization than any 
other American state. 

There are some who think that it is more elaborate and 
authoritative than necessary ; that it unduly overrides local 
freedom and discourages individual initiative. One who has 



21] 



EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 21 



been a part of that system, and who has also been associated 
with educational work where there is but very slight state 
supervision, will hardly be disposed to think so. But it is 
certainly exceptional among the states. Most of them 
undertake to regulate school affairs but very little. In the 
larger number of cases the state board of education only 
controls the purely state educational institutions, and the 
principal functions of the leading educational official of the 
state are to inspire action through his addresses and gather 
statistics and disseminate information deducible therefrom. 

However, there can be no doubt about the general ten- 
dency being strongly towards greater centralization. Not 
only are its advantages quite apparent, but the overwhelming 
current of legislation and of the decisions of the courts is 
making it imperative. These are practically in accord, and 
are to the effect that in each state the school system is not 
local, but general ; not individual schools controlled by sepa- 
rate communities, but a closely related system of schools 
which has become a state system and is entirely under state 
authority. Local school officials are now uniformly held to 
be agents of the state for the administration of a state sys- 
tem of education. 

The granting of aid by the state, the necessity of the 
exercise of powers without which the schools cannot live, 
and which powers reside exclusively in the state, implies the 
right of the state to name the conditions upon which the aid 
shall be received, and the duty to see that the exercise of 
such powers shall result in equal advantages to all. 

Widely dissimilar conditions lead different states to a 
greater or lesser appreciation of their educational responsi- 
bilities and make them more or less able or disposed to exer- 
cise their leo-al functions to the full measure of their good. 
Yet all are appreciating the fact that a constitutional, self- 
governing state exists for the moral and intellectual advan- 
tage of every citizen and for the common progress of the 
whole mass. All are moving as best they are able, and 
according to the light they have, in fulfillment of wise public 



22 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION ["22 

policy and constitutional obligation. They have employed 
and will continue to employ different methods. Some will 
act directly through state officials : some will delegate a 
large measure of authority to local boards and officials so 
long as it seems well : but all have the highest authority, the 
supreme responsibility in the matter, and under the influence 
of the later knowledge will undo whatever may be necessary, 
and take whatever new steps may be necessary, to carry the 
best educational opportunities to every child. 

And it is the purpose of the people and the law of most 
of the states that such educational opportunities shall not 
only be provided for every American child, but that every 
one shall be required to take advantage of them. Compul- 
sory attendance laws have been enacted in most of the states. 
These are not as carefully framed as a good knowledge of 
educational administration might very easily lead them to 
be, and they are not as completely enforced as the true inter- 
ests of many unfortunate children require, yet it may be said 
safely that the right and the duty of the state to educate 
them is recognized, and that the tendency towards greater 
thoroughness in the way of making education universal as a 
safeguard to our free citizenship is general. 

It was not so in the beginning, but American public 
schools are rapidly coming to be related together in a sys- 
tem of schools, that system a state system, and at once the 
most flexible and adaptable to our manner of living, our 
social ideals and our national ambitions. 

THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION 

As already pointed out, the authoritative management of 
the schools has never been conferred upon the general gov- 
ernment, but is reserved to and exercised by the several 
states. What might have been done at the time of the 
framing of the federal constitution, if it had been supposed 
that in a few years the support and management of schools 
would develop into a government function, can only be 
speculated upon. It is well known that the members of the 



23] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 23 

first constitutional convention were not indifferent to edu- 
cation. But their view of the subject was the view of all 
men of their time, i. e., that it was highly desirable that all 
social organizations should encourage, perhaps even by that 
time that it was proper for government to see that schools 
were maintained, but that the real responsibility, and of 
course the expense, should fall upon people legally charge- 
able with the custody of children. The functions of gov- 
ernment touching education were not then under considera- 
tion at all, and when they forced themselves upon public 
attention the towns, and, when the exercise of the power of 
taxation became imperative, the states assumed them as 
they were bound to do. 

Accordingly, the federal government has never exercised 
any control over the public educational work of the country. 
But it may be said with emphasis that that government has 
never been indifferent thereto. It has shown its interest at 
different times by generous gifts to education, and by the 
organization of a bureau of education for the purpose of 
gathering the fullest information from all of the states, and 
from foreign nations as well, and for disseminating the same 
to all who would be interested therein. 

The gifts of the United States to the several states to 
encourage schools have been in the form of land rights from 
the public domain. In the sale of public lands the practice 
of reserving one lot in every township " for the maintenance 
of public schools within the township " has uniformly been 
followed. In 1786 officers of the revolutionary army peti- 
tioned congress for the right to settle territory north and 
west of the Ohio river. A committee reported a bill in 
favor of granting the request, which provided that one sec- 
tion in each township should be reserved for common schools, 
one section for the support of religion, and four townships 
for the support of a university. This was modified so as to 
give one section for the support of religion, one for common 
schools, and two townships for the support of a " literary 
institution to be applied to the intended object by the leg- 



24 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [24 

islature of the state." This provision, coupled with the 
splendid declaration that " religion, morality and knowledge 
being necessary to good government and the happiness of 
mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever 
be encouraged," foreshadowed the general disposition and 
policy of the central government and made the " Ordi- 
nance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest terri- 
tory" famous. The precedent here established became 
national policy, and after the year 1800 each state admitted 
to the Union, with the exception of Maine, Texas and West 
Virginia, received two or more townships of land for the 
founding of a university. In 1836 congress passed an act 
distributing to the several states the surplus funds in the 
treasury. In all $28,101,645 was so distributed, and in a 
number of the states this was devoted to educational uses. 

But the most noble, timely, and carefully guarded gift of 
the federal government was embodied in the land grant 
act of 1862 for colleges of agriculture and the mechanic 
arts. This act gave to each state thirty thousand acres of 
land for each senator and representative in congress to 
which the state was entitled under the census of i860, for 
the purpose of founding " at least one college where the 
leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific 
and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach 
such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and 
the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the 
states shall respectively prescribe, in order to promote the 
liberal education of the industrial classes in the several pur- 
suits and professions of life." This act has been added to 
by other congressional enactments and the proceeds of the 
sales of lands have been generously supplemented by the 
state legislatures until great peoples' colleges and universi- 
ties have arisen in all of the States. 

The work of the United States bureau of education is a 
most exact, stimulating and beneficent one. Without exer- 
cising any authority, it is untiring and scientific in gathering 
data, in the philosophic treatment of educational subjects, 



25] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 25 

and in furnishing the fullest information upon every con- 
ceivable phase of educational activity to whomsoever would 
accept it. Its operations have by no means been confined 
to the United States. It has become the great educational 
clearing house of the world. The commissioners who have 
been at the head of this bureau have been eminent men and 
great educational leaders. The present commissioner, Dr. 
William T. Harris, stands without a peer as the most philo- 
sophical thinker and the readiest writer upon educational 
subjects in the world. Under such fortunate direction the 
bureau of education has collected the facts and made most 
painstaking research into every movement in America and 
elsewhere which gave promise of advantage to the good cause 
of popular education. 

So, while the government of the United States is not 
chargeable under the constitution with providing or super- 
vising schools, and while it does not exercise authority in the 
matter, it will be quickly seen that it has been steadily and 
intelligently and generously true to the national instinct to 
advance morality and promote culture by its influence and 
its resources. 

PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS 

Up to this time we have been treating of the American 
public school system, using the term in its strictest sense. 
We have been referring to the schools supported by public 
moneys and supervised by public officers. Yet there is an 
infinite number of other schools which comprise an import- 
ant part of the educational system of the country and are 
of course subject to its laws. Any statement concerning 
American school organization and administration, even of 
the most general character, would be incomplete which did 
not cover these, but obviously it is not desirable in this con- 
nection to do more than touch upon the relation in which 
they stand, by common usage and under the laws, to Ameri- 
can education. 

In the first half of the century just closing many private 
" academies " or " seminaries " sprang up in all directions 



26 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 



[26 



where the country had become at all settled. This was in 
response to a demand from people who began to reach out, 
but could not get what they wanted in the common schools. 
Any teacher with a little more than ordinary gifts could open 
one of these schools upon a little higher plane than usual 
and very soon have an abundance of pupils and a profitable 
income. Many of these institutions did most excellent work. 
Not a few of the leading citizens of the country owe their 
first inspiration and much help to them. The larger part of 
these schools served their purpose and finally gave way to 
new public high schools. Some yet remain and continue to 
meet the desires of well-to-do and select families who prefer 
their somewhat exclusive ways. A considerable number have 
been adopted by their states and developed into state nor- 
mal schools, and not a few have by their own natural force 
grown into literary colleges. 

The earlier American colleges were, in the beginning, in 
a large sense the children of the state. Yale, Harvard, 
Princeton, Columbia were all chartered by and in some meas- 
ure supported by their states at the start, and are yet sub- 
ject to the law, though they have become independent of 
such support. A vast number of colleges has been estab- 
lished by the religious denominations for the training of their 
ministry, and, so far as possible, for giving all their youth a 
higher education while keeping them under their denomina- 
tional influence. 

In recent years innumerable schools have arisen out of 
private enterprise. Every conceivable interest has produced 
a school to promote its own ends and accordingly adjusted 
to its own thought. So professional, technical, industrial and 
commercial schools of every kind have sprung up on every 
hand. 

All such schools operate by the tacit leave of the states 
in which they exist. The states are not disposed to inter- 
fere with them, as they ask no public support. Some of 
them hold charters granted by the legislature, and more 
secure recognized standing by organizing under general cor- 



27] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 2J 

poration laws enacted to cover all such enterprises. In some 
cases the states distribute public moneys to some of these 
institutions by way of encouragement, and perhaps impose 
certain conditions upon which they shall be eligible to share 
in such distributions. But ordinarily a state does no more 
than protect its own good name against occasional impostors 
who wear the livery of heaven to serve the devil more effectu- 
ally, and it is feared that some states have not yet come to 
do this as completely as they ought. 

The tendency to regulate private schools by legislation, to 
the extent at least of seeing that they are not discreditable 
to the state, is unmistakable. New York, for example, has 
prohibited the use of the name " college " or " university " 
except when the requirements of the state board of regents 
are met. All of the reputable institutions, — and they con- 
stitute nearly the whole number, — desire reasonable super- 
vision, for it certifies their respectability and constitutes them 
a part of the public educational system of the state. 

EXPERT SUPERVISION 

It has not been convenient in tracing the preceding pages 
to treat of an exceedingly important phase of the American 
school system which distinguishes that system from any other 
national system of education, and which has come to be well 
established in our laws ; that is, supervision by professional 
experts, both generally and locally. 

From the beginning the laws have provided methods for 
certificating persons deemed to be qualified to teach in the 
schools. This has ordinarily been among the functions of 
state, city, and county superintendents or commissioners. 
Sometimes boards of examiners have been created whose 
only duty should be to examine and certificate teachers. The 
functions of certificating and of employing teachers have, 
for obvious reasons, not commonly been lodged in the same 
officials. Superintendents began to be provided for by law 
in the early part of the century. The first state superin- 



28 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [28 

tendency was established by New York in 1812. Other 
states took similar action in the next thirty years. Town, 
city and county superintendencies came along rapidly, and 
by or soon after the middle of the century had been set in 
operation in most parts of the then settled country. 

The main duty of these officials in the earlier days was to 
examine candidates for teaching, report statistics, and make 
addresses on educational occasions. In later years, however, 
they are held in considerable measure responsible for the 
quality of the teaching. In the country districts the super- 
intendents hold institutes, visit the schools, commend and 
criticise the teaching, and exert every effort to promote the 
efficiency of the schools, until a discreet and active county 
superintendent comes to exert almost a controlling influence 
over the school affairs of his county. 

In the cities, and particularly the larger ones, the problem 
is much more difficult. The teachers are much greater in 
number and the task of securing persons of uniform excel- 
lence is much enlarged. The schools are less homogeneous 
and instruction less easy. Frequently the superintendent 
cannot know the personal qualities of each teacher, or even 
visit all of the schools. Yet a system must be organized by 
which, through the aid of assistants, the superintendent's 
office will be advised fully of the work of every teacher in 
the system. And if the system is to have anything like uni- 
form excellence, if the rights of children are to be met, and 
the instruction is to have life in it, all teachers must be upon 
the merit basis, the most deserving must be advanced in rank 
and pay as rapidly as practicable, and the weak must be 
helped and trained into efficiency or removed from their 
positions. 

The laws are coming to recognize the responsibilities and 
difficulties of the superintendent's position, and are continu- 
ally throwing about that officer additional safeguards and 
giving him larger powers and greater freedom of action. 
The great issue that is now on in American school affairs is 



2q] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 29 

between education and politics. The school men are insist- 
ing upon absolute immunity from political influence in their 
work. It would doubtless seem strange to people of other 
nations not familiar with our political conditions, that such 
insistence may be necessary. Pure democracy has its 
troubles. The machinations of men who are seeking politi- 
cal influence constitute the most serious of them. However, 
the good cause of education against political manipulation 
is making substantial progress. The law books of all of the 
states show provisions recognizing the professional school 
superintendent : in many of the states they contain provis- 
ions directing and protecting his work : and in some of them 
they are beginning to confer upon him entire authority over 
the appointment, assignment and removal of teachers, while 
they impose upon him entire responsibility for the quality of 
the teaching. 

It is this professional supervision, by states and counties 
as well as by towns and cities, taken up almost spontane- 
ously at the beginning and early established and compen- 
sated by law, which has given the American schools their 
peculiar spirit. As intelligence has advanced and the people 
have come to know the worth of good teaching and have 
been unwilling that their children should be associated with 
teachers who have not the kindly spirit of a true teacher, or 
be kept marking time by incompetents, they have favored 
larger exactions and closer supervision over the teaching, to 
the end that it might be in accord with the best educational 
opinion. All this is yearly becoming more and more appar- 
ent in the laws, and it is advancing the great body of 
American teachers along philosophical lines more steadily 
and rapidly than any other great body of teachers in the 
world is advancing. American teachers have always had 
freedom. Now they are learning to exercise it, and they are 
being permitted to exercise it, in accord with educational 
principles. 



30 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION ["30 



CONCLUSION 

In conclusion a few facts touching the great school sys- 
tem, the legal organization of which we have briefly tried to 
sketch, and which has produced that organization and in 
turn has in part been produced by it, will be of interest. 
The enrollment of pupils in the state common schools alone 
was, in 1895-6, 14,379,078. These schools were kept open 
an average of 140.5 days in the year. The number of teach- 
ers employed was 130,366 males and 269,959 females, a total 
of 400,325. The total value of the public school prop- 
erty was $455,948,164, and the running expenses for the 
year were $184,453,780. There was raised by taxation 
$163,023,294. Of institutions above the grade of elemen- 
tary schools there were 677 colleges and universities, with 
97, 134 collegiate students and 69,014 preparatory students. 
Some of these are too ambitious in calling themselves 
" colleges," it is true, yet all are doing work that counts, and 
educational nomenclature is straightening itself out slowly 
but steadily. There were 5,108 public high schools with 
409,433 secondary pupils, and there were 2,100 private high 
schools and academies with 107,633 secondary pupils. 
There were yy law schools with 10,449 students, 148 medi- 
cal schools with 24,265 pupils, 157 theological schools with 
8,173 students, and 362 normal schools with 67,380 students. 
In cities of over 8,000 inhabitants there were 601 schools 
with 3,590,875 pupils. In the whole country there were 
7,184 public libraries with 34,596,258 volumes. 

In the year 1896 there was paid for teachers' and superin- 
tendents' wages in the common schools $116,377,778, or 63. 1 
per cent of the total expenditure for school purposes. 

Laws making attendance at school compulsory have been 
enacted in 32 states and territories. 

One of the most gratifying facts in connection with the 
educational work of the United States is the large increase 
in the number of graduate students in the colleges. The 
following table exhibits the number of resident graduate 



3i] 



EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 



31 



students in universities and colleges of the United States 
for 25 years and down to as late a time as the figures are 
available : 



1871-72 198 

i872-'73 219 

1873-74 283 

1874-75 369 

1875-76 399 

1876-77 389 

1877-78 4H 

1878-79 465 

1879-80 411 



i88o-'8i . 


. . . 460 


1882-83.. 


522 


1883-84. . 


... 778 


1884-85.. 


. .. . 869 


1885-86.. 


••• 935 


i886-'87.. 


... 1,237 


1887-88.. 


. . . 1,290 


1888-89.. 


• •• i,343 



1889-90 1,717 

i890-'9i 2,131 

1891-92 2,499 

1892-93 2,851 

1893-94 3,493 

1894-95 3,999 

1895-96 4,363 

1896-97 .. 4,919 



The United States bureau of education, to which I am 
indebted for the foregoing figures and much other informa- 
tion, is aided by a corps of 15,000 voluntary correspondents 
who furnish printed reports and catalogs and cheerfully 
answer the bureau's inquiries upon every phase of educa- 
tional work. 

It is of course difficult for one not familiar with American 
institutions and American ways to understand or appreciate 
the American school system. To him it seems anything but 
a system. It is a product of conditions in a new land, and 
it is adapted to those conditions. It is at once expressive of 
the American spirit and it is energizing, culturing and ennob- 
ling that spirit. It is settling down to an orderly and sym- 
metrical institution, it is becoming scientific, and it is doing 
its work efficiently. It exerts a telling influence upon every 
person in the land, and is proving that it is supplying an 
education broad enough and of a kind to support free 
institutions. 



KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 



BY 

SUSAN E. BLOW 

Cazenovia, New York 



KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 



The history of the kindergarten in America is the record 
of four sharply defined movements ; the pioneer movement, 
whose point of departure was the city of Boston ; the philan- 
thropic movement, whose initial effort was made in the vil- 
lage of Florence, Mass., and whose greatest triumphs have 
been achieved in San Francisco ; the national movement, 
which emanated from St. Louis ; and the great maternal 
movement which, radiating from Chicago, is now spreading 
throughout the United States. The first of these move- 
ments called public attention to the several most important 
aspects of the Froebelian ideal ; the second demonstrated the 
efficiency of the new education as a redemptive force ; the 
third is making the kindergarten an integral part of the 
national school system ; the fourth is evolving a more 
enlightened and consecrated motherhood and thereby 
strengthening the foundations and elevating the ideals of 
American family life. 

In 1840 the first kindergarten was established by Friedrich 
Froebel at Blankenburg, Germany. Nineteen years later 
Miss Elizabeth Peabody of Boston became interested in 
Froebel's writings. In 1867 she went to Germany to study 
the kindergarten system. Returning to America in 1868 
she devoted the remainder of her life to the propagation of 
Froebel's educational principles. Through her apostolic 
labors parents were inspired to seek the help of the kinder- 
garten in the education of their children ; philanthropists 
were incited to establish charity kindergartens ; the Boston 
school board was persuaded to open an experimental kinder- 
garten in one of its public schools and a periodical devoted 
to the elucidation and dissemination of Froebelian ideals was 
founded and sustained for four years. The pioneer move- 
ment, therefore, broke paths in the four directions of private, 



4 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [36 

public, philanthropic and literary work. Above all through 
the contagious power of devout enthusiasm it created the 
consecrated endeavor without which the kindergarten as 
Froebel conceived it can have no actual embodiment. 

In 1872 an independent pioneer movement was begun in 
New York by Miss Henrietta Haines who invited Miss 
Boelte to conduct a kindergarten in her school for young 
ladies. Miss Boelte had studied three years with Froebel's 
widow, had won a high reputation in Germany, and later had 
done efficient work in England. About a year after her 
arrival in America she married Prof. John Kraus and estab- 
lished an independent kindergarten and normal class. Her 
normal work still continues and she is to-day the leading rep- 
resentative in America of the Froebel tradition. The power 
of her work results from her resolute adherence to all the 
details of the original Froebelian method. By this unswerv- 
ing conformity she has kept alive, through their practical 
application, ideas which are of the highest importance to 
the theoretic development of the kindergarten system. 

In 1874 Mr. S. H. Hill, of Florence, Mass., contributed 
funds to open the first charity kindergarten in the United 
States and later put in trust a sum sufficient to sustain and 
extend the work. Four years later a philanthropic move- 
ment was initiated in Boston by Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw, who 
for the ensuing fourteen years supported free kindergartens 
for poor children, these beneficent institutions reaching at 
one time to thirty in number. The influence of her noble 
example has doubtless conspired with other causes to create 
the one hundred and fifteen local associations which are now 
rendering efficient service to the Froebelian cause in differ- 
ent sections of the United States. Of such philanthropic 
associations the wealthiest and best organized is the Golden 
Gate association of San Francisco. At the time of its 
greatest prosperity this organization supported forty-one 
kindergartens ; had given training to more than thirty thou- 
sand children ; had received in endowments and other forms 
of contribution five hundred thousand dollars ; and had pub- 



37] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 5 

lished and distributed over eighty thousand annual reports. 
Unfortunately the financial depression of 1893 reduced its 
subscription list and at present it supports only twenty-three 
kindergartens. A training school for kindergartners is con- 
ducted under its auspices. Other associations deserving 
of special mention are the New York kindergarten associa- 
tion, which supports seventeen kindergartens, and whose 
aim is to provide for the children against whom the over- 
crowded public schools still close their doors ; the Brooklyn 
association, which provides for sixteen kindergartens, and 
under whose auspices there were conducted during the past 
year one hundred and eighty-three mothers' meetings ; the 
Pittsburgh and Allegheny free kindergarten association, 
which in six years has established twenty-eight kindergar- 
tens, with an enrollment of fourteen hundred children ; the 
Cincinnati association, which supports twenty-four kinder- 
gartens ; the Free kindergarten association of Chicago, 
which supports eighteen kindergartens and has a flourishing 
normal school ; the Chicago Froebel association, whose presi- 
dent organized the first charity kindergarten in that city, and 
to the veteran leader of whose normal department is due in 
large measure the introduction of the kindergarten into the 
Chicago public schools ; the Louisville association, which 
supports nine kindergartens, and has parents, nurses, Sun- 
day school, boarding and normal departments. 

Valuable as is the work accomplished by private kinder- 
gartens and kindergarten associations, it is necessarily a 
restricted work ; and had the Froebel ian movement devel- 
oped only upon these lines the kindergarten must have 
remained forever the privilege of the wealthy few, and the 
occasional gift of charity to the abject poor. The public 
kindergarten opened in Boston, though carried on for sev- 
eral years, was finally given up upon the plea that the city 
could not afford to appropriate funds to extend the system, 
and a second public kindergarten, which was opened in Brigh- 
ton, Mass., in January, 1873, was abolished when Brighton 
was annexed to Boston in 1874. Meantime, however, Hon. 



6 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [38 

William T. Harris, the present United States commis- 
sioner of education, who was then superintendent of schools 
in St. Louis, had called attention to the kindergarten and 
suggested that experiments be made with a view to intro- 
ducing into the public school such features of the system as 
might prove helpful in the education of children between 
the ages of four and six. The outcome of this suggestion 
was the opening of an experimental kindergarten in the fall 
of 1873. The work was approved by the school board; 
new kindergartens were opened as rapidly as competent 
directors could be prepared to take charge of them, and when 
Dr. Harris resigned his position as superintendent in 1880 
the St. Louis kindergartens had an enrollment of 7,828 chil- 
dren and the system was so firmly established that it has 
since that time proved itself impregnable to all attack. 

The experiment in St. Louis was a crucial one and had it 
failed it would have been difficult to prevail upon other cities 
to introduce the kindergarten into their public schools. 
There were many ready arguments against such an innova- 
tion : the argument from expense ; the argument based on 
the tender age of kindergarten children ; the argument that 
kindergartens would spoil the children and fill the primary 
grade with intractable pupils ; the argument that only rarely 
endowed and, therefore, rarely to be found persons could suc- 
cessfully conduct a kindergarten. These arguments would 
have acquired irresistible force when confirmed by an abor- 
tive experiment. Dr. Harris steered the kindergarten cause 
through stormy waters to a safe harbor. He proved that the 
kindergarten could be made an integral part of the public 
school system. He reduced the annual expense to less than 
five dollars for each child. He called attention to the fact 
that the years between four and six were critical ones and 
that the needs of the child at this period were not provided 
for either by the family or the school. He convinced him- 
self that children who had attended kindergartens conducted 
by competent directors did better on entering school than 
those who had received no such training, and the weight of 



39] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 7 

his authoritative statement gave other educators faith in the 
• possibilities of the system. Finally, he proved that with 
wise training young women of average ability made satisfac- 
tory kindergartners. It was impossible to go on repeating 
that a thing could not be done in face of the fact that it had 
been done, and with the success of the experiment in St. 
Louis recognition of the kindergarten as the first stage of all 
public education became simply a matter of time. 

The reasons which convinced Dr. Harris of the value of 
the kindergarten are stated in the following extract from his 
monograph entitled Early History of the Kindergarten in 
St. Louis, Mo. : 

" If the school is to prepare especially for the arts and 
trades it is the kindergarten which is to accomplish the 
object, for the training of the muscles, if it is to be a train- 
ing for special skill in manipulation, must be begun in early 
youth. As age advances it becomes more difficult to acquire 
new phases of manual dexterity. Two weeks' practice of 
holding objects in his right hand will make the infant in his 
first year right handed for life. The muscles yet in a pulpy 
consistency are very easily set in any fixed direction. The 
child trained for one year in Froebel's gifts and occupations 
will acquire a skillful use of his hand and the habit of accu- 
rate measurement of the eye, which will be his possession 
for life. 

" In the common school, drawing, which has obtained only 
a recent and precarious foothold in our course of study, is 
the only branch which is intended to cultivate skill in the 
hand and accuracy in the eye. The kindergarten, on the 
other hand, develops this by all its groups of gifts. 

" Not only is this training of great importance by reason 
of the fact that most children must depend largely upon 
manual skill for their future livelihood, but from a broader 
point of view, we must value skill as the great potence 
which is emancipating the human race from drudgery by 
the aid of machinery. Inventions will free man from thral- 
dom to time and space. 

" By reason of the fact already adverted to, that a short 
training of certain muscles of the infant will be followed by 



8 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [40 

the continued growth of the same muscles through his after 
life, it is clear how it is that the two years of the child's life 
(his fifth and sixth), or even one year, or a half year in the 
kindergarten will start into development activities of muscle 
and brain which will secure deftness and delicacy of indus- 
trial power in all after life. The rationale of this is found 
in the fact that it is a pleasure to use muscles already inured 
to use ; in fact a much-used muscle demands a daily exercise 
as much as the stomach demands food. But an unused 
muscle or the mere rudiment of a muscle that has never 
been used, gives pain on its first exercise. Its contraction 
is accompanied with laceration of tissue, and followed by 
lameness, or by distress on using it again. Hence it hap- 
pens that the body shrinks from employing an unused muscle, 
but, on the contrary, demands the frequent exercise of 
muscles already trained to use. Hence in a thousand ways 
unconscious to ourselves, we manage to exercise daily what- 
ever muscles we have already trained, and thus keep in prac- 
tice physical aptitudes for skill in any direction. 
H«n5-H**=H * * * * * 

" The kindergarten should be a sort of sub-primary edu- 
cation, and receive the pupil at the age of four or four and 
a half years and hold him until he completes his sixth year. 
By this means we gain the child for one or two years when 
he is good for nothing else but education, and not of much 
value even for the education of the school as it is and has 
been. The disciplines of reading and writing, geography 
and arithmetic, as taught in the ordinary primary school, are 
beyond the powers of the average child not yet entered upon 
his seventh year. And beyond the seventh year the time of 
the child is too valuable to use it for other than general 
disciplines, — reading, writing, arithmetic, etc., and drawing. 
He must not take up his school time with learning a 
handicraft. 

" The kindergarten utilizes a period of the child's life for 
preparation for the arts and trades without robbing the 
school of a portion of its needed time. 

" Besides the industrial phase of the subject which is per- 
tinent here, we may take note of another one that bears 
indirectly on the side of productive activity, but has a much 
wider bearing. At the age of three years the child begins 
to emerge from the circumscribed life of the family, and to 
acquire an interest in the life of society and a proclivity to 



41] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 9 

form relationship with it. This increases until the school 
period begins, at his seventh year. The fourth, fifth and 
sixth years are years of transition not well provided for 
either by family life or by social life in the United States. 
In families of great poverty the child forms evil associations 
in the street, and is initiated into crime. By the time he is 
ready to enter the school he is hardened in vicious habits, 
beyond the power of the school to eradicate. In families of 
wealth, the custom is to entrust the care of the child in this 
period of his life to some servant without pedagogical skill 
and generally without strength of will power. The child of 
wealthy parents usually inherits the superior directive power 
of the parents, who have by their energy acquired and pre- 
served " the wealth. Its manifestation in the child is not 
reasonable, considerate will power, but arbitrariness and self- 
will — with such a degree of stubbornness that it quite over- 
comes the much feebler native will of the servant who has 
charge of the children. It is difficult to tell which class 
(poor or rich,) the kindergarten benefits most. Society is 
benefited by the substitution of a rational training of the 
child's will during his transition period. If he is a child of 
poverty, he is saved by the good associations and the indus- 
trial and intellectual training that he gets. If he is a child 
of wealth, he is saved by the kindergarten from ruin through 
self-indulgence and the corruption ensuing on weak manage- 
ment in the family. The worst elements in the community 
are the corrupted and ruined men who were once youth of 
unusual directive power, — children of parents of strong will." 

By reducing his argument in favor of the kindergarten to 
a brief statement which no one could dispute and whose 
force every one could appreciate, Dr. Harris greatly 
increased its weight, and immediately upon the publication 
of his report the movement in favor of public kindergartens 
showed an increased momentum. In the twenty-nine years 
which have elapsed since the successful experiment in St. 
Louis the kindergarten has been made part of the public 
school system in one hundred and eighty-nine cities. In 
1897-98 the total number of public kindergartens was 1,365 ; 
the total number of teachers 2,532 ; the total number of 
pupils 95,867. 



IO 



KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 



[42 



The cities which have the most fully developed systems of 
public kindergartens are Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, Phila- 
delphia, New York, Brooklyn, Milwaukee, Indianapolis, 
Rochester, Des Moines, Grand Rapids, Brookline, Newark, 
Jamestown and Los Angeles. Philadelphia, which reports 
201 kindergartens, leads in numbers all the cities of the 
United States. St. Louis follows with 115 kindergartens, 
New York with 100, Boston with 67, and Chicago with 63. 
An estimate, based on the sale of kindergarten material, 
fixes the total number of kindergartens in New York at 
600, so that, including private work and association work, 
this city has presumably a more extensive provision of kin- 
dergartens than any other in the United States. 

Sixteen cities have a special supervisor of kindergartens. 

The following states have the most extensive provision of 
kindergartens, public and private. The order of the names 
indicates the relative extent of the provision : 

1 New York 8 Wisconsin 

2 Massachusetts 9 Pennsylvania 

3 Michigan 10 Ohio 

4 Illinois 11 Indiana 

5 California 12 Iowa 

6 Connecticut 13 Colorado 

7 New Jersey 14 Minnesota 

15 Washington 

In the year 1873 the National bureau of education began 
collecting statistics with regard to the total number of kin- 
dergartens in the United States. The results are necessa- 
rily imperfect, but they enable us to form an approximate 
idea of the growth of the system. Taking public and pri- 
vate work together, the advance of the kindergarten is shown 
in the following tables : 



1873 



1S82 



1892 



Kindergartens, 

Teachers 

Pupils 



42 

73 
1 252 



348 

814 

16916 



1 311 

2 535 
65 296 



4 363 

8 937 

1 89 604 



43] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION II 

Since the aim of the kindergarten is not instruction, but 
development, its results cannot be tested by examinations or 
expressed in statistical tables, but must be gathered from 
the testimony of experts who have had time and opportunity 
to study its influence. In other words, kindergarten children 
must be judged by elementary teachers and principals of 
schools, and unless, upon entering the primary grade, they 
show superiority to children coming direct from the home, 
the kindergarten cannot be said to have justified its adoption 
into our national system of education. Conversely, if the 
mental and moral superiority of kindergarten children prove 
to have converted primary teachers and school principals 
from enemies into warm friends of the Froebelian method, 
this fact should be accepted as convincing evidence of the 
merit of the work. 

Before presenting the testimony which I have collected, 
it is necessary to call attention to the fact that, in the kinder- 
garten, talking is not forbidden, but, on the contrary, chil- 
dren are encouraged to share with the kindergartner and 
with each other all their happy experience of effort and suc- 
cess. It is, therefore, natural that pupils promoted from the 
kindergarten should not at first understand the law of silence 
imposed by the character of the work in the elementary 
grades, and hence that, without any bad motive on their 
own part, they should prove troublesome pupils during the 
first weeks of school life. The failure to understand this fact 
has caused some unjust criticism of kindergarten children. 
It will, however, be apparent to all who read carefully the 
testimony now to be submitted that the adjustment of the 
kindergarten child to the school environment is a problem 
which is rapidly progressing towards a happy solution. 

The more complete the testimony offered, the more cer- 
tainly should we expect to find some differences of opinion 
as to the characteristics of kindergarten children. In any 
large city there will probably be a few incompetent kinder- 
gartners and some unintelligent or reactionary primary 
teachers. That the kindergarten fails to commend itself to 



X 



12 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [44 

teachers who are themselves mere martinets should be 
accounted a merit rather than a defect. The condemnation 
of incompetent kindergartners by wise primary teachers is a 
cause of rejoicing to all true friends of the Froebelian 
method. The influence of the kindergarten should be 
determined by the majority report. Variations of opinion 
should be explained by the occasional defect of the kinder- 
gartens and the occasional incapacity or prejudice of the 
judge. 

The most extensive and carefully collected information 
which I have received with regard to the characteristics of 
kindergarten children came from Miss Laura Fisher, director 
of the sixty-nine public kindergartens of Boston, and con- 
sisted of 163 letters from teachers of the first grade sent in 
reply to the following circular communication from Mr. 
Edwin P. Seaver, superintendent of the Boston schools: 

" To the principals of districts : 

" For the Paris Exposition of 1900 Miss Susan E. Blow 
has been appointed to prepare a monograph of the kinder- 
garten in the United States. She desires to use the infor- 
mation which you can gather by asking teachers of your first 
grade primary to answer carefully the questions hereto 
appended. Please give a copy of these questions to each 
first grade teacher, asking her to prepare her answers and 
give them to you as soon as possible. Ask her to be per- 
fectly frank in her expression of opinion even if she must 
make some unfavorable criticisms. 

"In returning the answers to me after you have collected 
them, you will confer a great favor if you yourself will write 
your impressions of the kindergarten system of instruction. 

" QUESTIONS 

" i. How many years have you taught children in the 
first grade ? 

" 2. About what proportion (per cent) of your children 
have come to you from the kindergarten ? 

" 3. What, if anything, have you observed as to the char- 
acteristics of kindergarten children as compared with other 
children ? 



45] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 1 3 

" 4. How do you think the kindergarten training has affected 
the progress of the children in the primary grade, particu- 
larly in your own grade? Has their progress been quicker 
in point of time ? Has the character of the work done been 
improved ? " 

From the 163 letters received in reply to this circular I 
eliminated those reporting that less than ten per cent of the 
children attending the given primary room had received 
kindergarten training. I also omitted several letters based 
upon experience with children who had been only a few 
weeks or months in the kindergarten. The total number of 
letters omitted was 36. Of the remaining 127 letters 102 
are favorable and 2 5 unfavorable to the kindergarten. Among 
the letters which I have classed as unfavorable one only is 
unqualified in its disapprobation. All the others admit 
some distinctive merits in kindergarten children, those most 
frequently specified being increased power of observation 
and linguistic expression, greater manual skill, and more 
general information. The most frequent criticisms are that 
kindergarten children are talkative and not easily amenable 
to school discipline. I quote two letters which represent the 
general trend of unfavorable criticism : 

I 

" I have taught the lowest grade one year, two months. 

" About fifty per cent of my children came from the 
kindergarten. 

" I find the kindergarten children are less inclined to obey 
quickly. They have acquired the habit of whispering over 
their work which has seriously hurt my other children. I 
find they understand in some cases more quickly than the 
other children and are more deft with their fingers. 

" My kindergarten children are evenly scattered over my 
class. Owing to limited experience I think I am hardly 
competent to make a trustworthy estimate of the work of 
kindergarten children as compared with others. The chil- 
dren who came from home were nearly seven years of age, 
and as the children who came from the kindergarten were 
in most cases younger, there has been but little difference in 
the results of their work." 



14 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [46 



II 

" I have taught children in the first grade something over 
two years in all. About one-fifth of this present class has 
attended a kindergarten, but has not come direct to me from 
there. 

" I have noticed that they observe much more closely 
than ordinary children, that they are skillful with their hands 
in any kind of work that calls for skill, as drawing, clay 
work, science, etc. That in the arrangement of material, 
such as busy work, they are more orderly and careful in 
arrangement. I have found by looking the matter up that 
the children who have passed through kindergarten now pres- 
ent in my room are among the worst behaved and trouble- 
some in the whole room. I also notice a habit to watch each 
other's work too much. 

" I cannot say that I have found them any more able to 
take the work than ordinary children. I do not know that 
their minds are any more fitted for the retention of new 
ideas. I think, in some cases, the work is better done by 
these children than it would be without such training. But I 
do not know that some of the others would have done any bet- 
ter work with the kindergarten training. For some children 
I think it a great help, for others I might say unnecessary." 

Contrasting the 102 favorable with the 25 unfavorable 
letters, the first fact which thrusts itself upon the notice of 
the reader is that the majority of their writers seem to have 
had little difficulty in solving the problem of discipline. A 
large proportion of these letters make no direct reference to 
this question, while the account given of the moral charac- 
teristics of kindergarten children precludes the thought 
that they have been found difficult to control. Most of the 
varying shades of opinion expressed by the remaining writ- 
ers are indicated in the following extracts, and in the letters 
quoted in full at the conclusion of my summary of the Bos- 
ton testimony in behalf of the kindergarten : 

DISCIPLINE 

" During the first weeks of the school term the children 
from the kindergarten are very lively, in fact more so than 



47] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 1 5 

is best for the good order of the school room. This is 
due to the great amount of freedom which the children are 
allowed in the kindergarten. This fault, if it may be con- 
sidered as such, must be corrected. When the child realizes 
that he is in a new atmosphere and that he must attend to 
one person he very soon adapts himself to the change." 



" The kindergarten has done so much that is of great 
value to the children, that I am willing to overlook the only 
little difficulty that I have found. During the first few 
weeks of school the children like to go about and show their 
little friends what they have succeeded in doing or finding 
out and whisper or talk about it. But they soon learn that 
we can all work better when each one takes care of his 
own work and the inclination to move and talk gradually 
diminishes." 

3 
"The children I received from the -kindergarten were 
more restless at first. They were easier to discipline after a 
short time." 

4 
" Kindergarten children are alert and active, with eager 
questioning minds and eyes that see and note everything. 
They know how to use their hands and how to talk and are 
lovable and sympathetic. They come to the primary room 
happy, self-confident and talkative. On the other hand, the 
discipline of such children is very hard and it requires the 
greatest effort on the teacher's part to accustom them to the 
quiet, independent work of the primary room." 

5 
" Entering school from the kindergarten the children have 
already learned their social relations and their obligations to 
their companions. Hence from the first there is an absence 
of shyness and fear, and a school made up of kindergarten 
children is a delightfully social community. This trait, if 
firmly and tactfully dealt with, leads not to disorder but to 
right school spirit. I have not found it more difficult to 
tone down this trait than to arouse it as it lies dormant in 
other children." 



1 6 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [48 



" Each year the kindergarten children come to school 
better prepared than the year before. I have noted this 
particularly in regard to discipline. They are each year 
more ready to settle down to quiet work. They seem each 
year to be more evenly developed." 

7 
" The discipline in my class during the time I had kinder- 
garten children was as good, if not better, than it was when 
I had children come to me from their homes. In point of 
fact, I much prefer the kindergarten children." 



"The moral side of the child's nature receives special care 
in the kindergarten. The careful, firm discipline of the kin- 
dergarten has a great effect upon the receptive minds and 
hearts of the children. Many of the mothers are glad to 
testify to this influence. The rough child grows more gentle, 
the thoughtless child more careful." 

9 
" The most important characteristic of my kindergarten 
children was their high moral tone. There was among them 
more than the usual spirit of kindness, good will and help- 
fulness. They were more easily controlled than other chil- 
dren by an appeal to reason or honor. For little children, 
they had a very quick perception of right and wrong." 

10 

" Kindergarten children give so much better attention, 
follow directions so much more readily and apply themselves 
so much more diligently that they progress much more rap- 
idly than other children. Their work is always well done 
and they do all the work given them, particularly what is 
known as busy work. A great deal of time is saved in this 
way and the discipline of the school is made much easier." 

Replying to the questions with regard to the relative 
progress of kindergarten children and the character of 



49] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION I J 

their work thirty-eight teachers report both a progress 
quicker in point of time and improvement in the quality of 
work. Thirteen teachers report increased rapidity without 
change in the character of work, and twenty-eight improve- 
ment in the character of work without increased rapidity of 
progress. Thus fifty-one report greater rapidity, sixty-six 
improvement in quality of work, and seventy-nine a decided 
gain either in speed or quality or in both. The remaining 
twenty-three teachers seem to consider that kindergarten 
training increases the child's general intelligence but does 
not noticeably affect the ordinary routine of school work. 

In the Kindergarten Magazine for March of the current 
year Miss Sarah Louise Arnold, superintendent of primary 
schools, Boston, pronounces a judgment which confirms 
the majority report of the teachers whose testimony I have 
summarized. Her statement is as follows : " As a matter of 
fact the children who have had the full kindergarten training 
advance much more rapidly than do the children who come 
to the primary room without such training. In certain 
schools the kindergarten children have been separated from 
the other children entering the first grade, and have been 
taught by teachers who understood the work of the kinder- 
garten. In almost every instance these classes have com- 
pleted the primary course in two years instead of three." 

To the disciple of Froebel the most interesting para- 
graphs of the Boston letters are those which answer the 
question, " What, if anything, have you observed as to the 
characteristics of kindergarten children as compared with 
other children?" In condensing these replies I have 
grouped them under three heads, first, specific gain in 
knowledge and skill, second, intellectual, and, third, moral 
characteristics. The specific gains mentioned are clearer 
ideas of number, form and color ; greater knowledge of and 
interest in nature, improved singing, better expression in 
reading, improved articulation, more orderly and careful 
arrangement of material in busy work, and greater manual 
skill shown especially in writing and drawing. The intel- 



1 8 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [50 

lectual characteristics of kindergarten children as compared 
with others are said to be greater general activity of mind, 
quicker comprehension, a more receptive mental attitude, 
greater logical power, greater concentration, more imagina- 
tion, greatly increased powers of observation and expression, 
quicker recognition of likenesses, differences and relations, 
greater love for the beautiful and visibly increased origi- 
nality and creative power. Of their moral characteristics it 
is said that as compared with others kindergarten children 
are neater, cleaner, more orderly, more industrious and more 
persevering. They are also more self-reliant, more pains- 
taking and more self-helpful. They are less self-conscious 
and more polite. They obey more quickly and are more 
gentle towards each other. They have a more developed 
spirit of helpfulness. They are more eager, alert, enthusi- 
astic and responsive. They are interested in a wider range 
of subjects. They have finer sensibilities, manifest love for 
and confidence in their teachers and show special interest in 
everything pertaining to home and family life. 

In thus condensing the evidence of many different writers 
I necessarily rob it of force and color. It seems well, there- 
fore, to present a limited number of replies in full in order 
that readers may judge for themselves of the impression 
created by kindergarten children upon teachers of different 
character, age and experience. 

I 

" I have taught children in the first grade about six years. 
About 35 per cent have come to me from the kindergarten. 

" These children show certain characteristics which are 
not so fully developed in the other children. Their intel- 
lectual qualities are, as a rule, more fully developed, espe- 
cially perception, imagination, memory and power of thought. 
Their sensibilities, too, as a general thing, are much quicker 
to act. For example, if a flower is given to each member 
of the class, it is the little boy or girl who has attended the 
kindergarten who is the first to feel its beauty. Power of 
expression is well developed in these children. What stands 



51] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION ig 

out more than anything else in these small kindergarten 
people is the cheerful, sunny atmosphere they bring to the 
primary room and the spirit of kindness and helpfulness. 
In other words, they have begun to come into that stage 
where love for all humanity is developed in a simple child- 
like way. It seems to me that this is the most important 
characteristic of the child from the kindergarten. 

" I think the progress of these children in the primary 
school is greatly facilitated by their previous training. 
Their progress has been quicker as to time. The character 
of the work done has been improved." 

II 

" I have taught children in the first grade two years. 

" The first year 72 per cent had attended kindergarten ; 
the second year 74 per cent. 

" The kindergarten child observes more quickly and with 
greater accuracy. He is methodical in thought, and, conse- 
quently, in all expression, oral, written and manual. From 
an ethical standpoint he is superior to the non-kindergarten 
child. In all ways he is more intelligent, more nearly the 
being his Creator meant him to be. 

" The kindergarten training has been a powerful agent in 
stimulating the ambition of the child and in making pro- 
gress a continual joy. 

" In the majority of cases the progress of the kinder- 
garten children has been quicker in point of time. In all 
cases the character of the work has been improved." 

Ill 

" I have taught a little over two years in the first grade. 

" Last year all my children had attended the kindergarten ; 
this year only 5 per cent. 

" I have found that where the children have had a kinder- 
garten training they are much more industrious, interested, 
observant, enthusiastic, imaginative, responsive and courte- 
ous. They have more general information. The training 
they have received is a great help in number, language, 
expression in reading, drawing and all manual work. 

" The progress has been quicker in point of time, and the 
work on an average much neater." 



20 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [52 



IV 

" I have taught children in the first grade for five years. 

" Until November of the present school year about 80 
per cent of my children have come to me from the kinder- 
garten. Very few children have come directly to me from 
their homes. Those who have not come from the kinder- 
garten have usually spent more or less time in the first grade 
before they have come to me. 

" The majority of the kindergarten children have been 
more anxious to work. They have had more confidence in 
their ability to do what is required of them, and have shown 
more perseverance in conquering difficulties. Their work 
has been cleaner, neater and arranged in a more orderly 
manner. Their power of concentration is much stronger. 
Their creative power is also much more highly developed. 
Through their games and talks, they have acquired more 
knowledge of the world about them, which knowledge has 
been of much help to them in their new work, especially in 
reading, language and drawing. They have learned to write 
more readily, and they have clearer ideas of number. Their 
love of the beautiful and their power of appreciating beauti- 
ful thoughts have been much greater. 

" As a rule, the child who has had a full kindergarten 
training has done much better, stronger work in the first 
grade than one who has been in the kindergarten but a 
short time, or than one whose attendance has been very 
irregular. 

" Progress has been quicker in point of time, for the chil- 
dren who have had the benefit of the full kindergarten 
training have accomplished more in a given time than those 
of the same age who have not received the same training. 
The character of the work has been improved." 

V 

" I have taught children in the first grade thirty-two years. 

"Since the kindergarten was established in our district, 
about four years ago, about fifty per cent of my pupils have 
come to me from that grade. Before that time, I received 
only a few children from the kindergarten. 

" The characteristics of kindergarten children consist of 
trained powers of observation, skill in using the hands, a 



53] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 21 

knowledge of number, form, color and music. A great deal 
has been done for some children in teaching them self-control. 

" I think the effect of the kindergarten training; has been 
decidedly favorable to the progress of the children in my 
own grade. 

" Their progress in point of time has not been much 
quicker, as I have had very few who have had more than 
one year of kindergarten training, and several of the 
bright ones have been delicate children who could only 
attend half a day or quite irregularly. 

" I have a class of children whose parents are not anxious 
to have them pushed. 

" The character of the work done has been much improved." 

VI 

" I have taught four years, one in the Hancock district 
and three in the W. Allston. 

" The first year fifty per cent of my children were from 
the kindergarten ; the second, third and fourth years about 
fifteen per cent. 

" Kindergarten children are creative, self-active and inde- 
pendent. They are accustomed to school life and used to 
being one of many instead of one alone. 

" They have been waked up and are used to thinking. 
They are ready to begin to learn, whereas other children, 
with the exception of those who have brilliant minds, have 
to become accustomed to school work. Kindergarten chil- 
dren have learned how to work, how to use their hands, how 
to care for property. 

" They have a good foundation for any kind of work. 

" For the above reasons they are able to do the work of 
my grade in half the prescribed time. They always get 
more out of their work than other children and are always 
at the head of the class." 

VII 

" I have taught six years in the first grade. About 30 
per cent of my children have come to me from the 
kindergarten. 

" I have observed that kindergarten children are interested 
and ready at once for the work. The other children do not 
know how to act. Much time is taken up in teaching them 
minor details. They are not so quick with their ringers. 



22 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [54 

" The kindergarten children know how to handle their 
pencils and learn to write in a very short time. 

" In every case the kindergarten children have shown 
marked progress in the primary grades. 

" Toward the latter part of the school year they have 
done second grade work. I have been interested in follow- 
ing their course through the grammar school, and have found 
that they received double promotion." 

VIII 

" I have taught children in the first grade fifteen years. 

" Last year about fifty per cent, this year about sixty per 
cent, and in preceding years perhaps thirty or forty per cent, 
of my children came to me from the kindergarten. 

" I find the children who have had two years of kinder- 
garten training ready to do the work of the first grade, 
whereas other children need a great deal of preliminary 
work. The muscles of the hands of these children have 
been so trained that they are ready to use pen or pencil for 
writing and drawing, ready to cut and fold paper, ready to 
handle material for seat work. This training of the hands 
has had its corresponding development in the brain, and 
their minds are ready to intelligently guide the hands and 
to grasp new ideas. Their eyes have been so trained that 
they are ready for the color, form and observation work. 
This training of the eye affects also the work in reading very 
noticeably, as the children distinguish the forms of words 
and letters more easily. Their ears have been so trained 
that they are ready to listen and follow directions. Their 
number experiences have been many and varied, and it is in 
arithmetic especially that I notice their advantage over other 
children. 

" In fact the normal child who has had a thorough kinder- 
garten training does rapidly, and with ease, understanding, 
joy and appreciation what the normal child without this 
training does slowly and with difficulty. 

" The kindergarten training has helped many of my chil- 
dren to do the work of the primary grade in less time than 
other children, but I think the great gain has been in the 
character of the work. It has been in quality rather than 
in quantity ; in enrichment and expansion rather than in 
extent." 



55] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 23 



IX 

" I have taught children in the first grade eight years. 

" I have always had some kindergarten children in my 
class with the exception of this year. Last year my class 
was made up wholly of the kindergarten children. The 
kindergarten children are wide-awake. I never had such 
an enthusiastic spirit in my class as I did the year it was 
made up wholly of kindergarten children. The children 
who come directly from home are, as a rule, diffident, and not 
responsive. It usually takes two weeks to get acquainted, 
to find some common bonds of interest. The kindergarten 
children I had watched in the kindergarten. I knew the 
stories and pictures they loved ; the work they had done 
in form and color, and the games they had played. We 
were friends at once, and the work began earlier and with 
less friction. The children from home stand in awe of the 
teacher ; the others have grown to love school and its 
work. The spirit of helpfulness is very strong. The first 
two weeks of school I was troubled with the discipline. 
The children talked aloud and hummed, but they worked. 
The humming did mean a happy spirit, but of course it did 
hinder the work. The talking without permission I found 
was almost always prompted by good motives. At the end 
of three weeks these children succeeded very well in these 
directions. They are good workers and they must have 
enough to do. Folding hands and sitting up straight does 
not appeal to them. 

" The training given the children in the kindergarten 
enables them to take up work more intelligently. They are 
wide-awake in observation lessons. They are quick in rec- 
ognition of form and color, and in seeing resemblances. 
They are intensely interested in stories and poems. I never 
had a class who read with so much expression. I think the 
work done in the kindergarten sonars sweetened their voices. 

• 1 

Of course I do not think the kindergarten training makes a 
dull boy bright, but I do think that a dull child is brighter 
and more responsive than if he had not had this training. 

" In point of time, if by that is meant double promotions, 
the children have not gone on any faster. But I do think 
the children were better developed and more ready to take 
up the second grade work than the children entering the 
first grade from home. 



24 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [56 

" I think the kindergarten children do better and neater 
work. They are more self-reliant. They have more cre- 
ative power and are always ready with new combinations in 
design work." 

X 

" I have taught the lowest grade in the primary school for 
four years. My first class contained no kindergarten chil- 
dren ; my second, third and fourth contained 33 1-3, 100 and 
70 per cent respectively, making an average of 51 per cent. 

" I have found the kindergarten children to have broader, 
more original and better trained minds than most of the 
other children. They are better able to concentrate their 
attention ; they grasp an idea more readily and go ahead by 
themselves. They distinguish form more quickly, and so 
learn to write and read in a shorter time than the others. 
They have already formed habits of cleanliness and punctu- 
ality which, with other children of the lower classes, we have 
to struggle some months to establish. 

" I think the kindergarten training has advanced the pro- 
gress of the children in the primary school both in point of 
time and in the character of the work. If a child has had 
two years' training in a kindergarten and then enters my 
room at the age of five and a half or six he can generally 
finish the first grade work by March first and enter the third 
grade in September, and, as I have stated in the previous 
paragraph, the work is better and more intelligently done 
and shows much originality." 

XI 

" It is a great pleasure to me to have the opportunity 
offered by the questions sent us relative to kindergarten 
work in preparation for the Paris Exposition to say that I 
think the kindergarten training is of vital importance to the 
children of foreign and ignorant parentage such as we have 
in our district. From general judgment I say that all chil- 
dren need the kindergarten, but I know that it is of the first 
importance to those who come from oppressed, lawless and 
unlovely homes. I hope the fact that I have taught only two 
years in this grade will not render my testimony worthless. 

" Last year about 5 per cent of my children had had some, 
but not a complete kindergarten training. This year, for 
one month, about 95 per cent of my children were, from the 



57] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 25 

kindergarten. At the end of that time the best 45 per cent 
moved on, the rest remaining with me. None of those left 
with me had completed the kindergarten course before enter- 
ing the primary grade. That one month's experience with 
nearly a whole class of kindergarten children was delightful. 
" To my mind the comparative characteristics of the kin- 
dergarten child and the street child are these : 

" The kindergarten child observes and discriminates ; is 
intelligent in his attitude towards things ; is able to remem- 
ber things taught ; is ingenious, spontaneous, interested and 
imaginative ; has a sense of honor and respects the property 
and rights of others ; is gentle, kind, helpful and thought- 
ful ; possesses a sense of the beautiful, and a sense of indi- 
vidual moral responsibility ; is cognizant of the Supreme 
Being and reverential. 

" The street child is unobservant, dull in attitude, weak 
in imagination, indifferent to things. He is rough, shame- 
less, thoughtless, teasing, disregards the rights and property 
of others, is little moved by the beautiful, is ignorant in gen- 
eral, and, therefore, lacking in love and reverence. He has 
no sense of individual responsibility and is morally chaotic. 
" The kindergarten child has further learned to direct him- 
self along a specific line of action whether it be work or 
control, in obedience to a spoken or unspoken law. He is, 
in short, intelligent, sensitive, responsive and self-directing 
in a far greater degree than the other child. With regard 
to rapidity of progress, I can answer only in regard to the 
work in my own grade. The kindergarten child, as I have 
observed him, moves much more rapidly over the ground of 
work than another child of equal ability. 

" The character of the work done by kindergarten chil- 
dren shows a great improvement over that done by other 
children. Their manual training helps them to learn writing 
and seat work more quickly. The information they have 
acquired in the kindergarten and the dexterity they have 
gained enable them to progress rapidly, while at the same 
time their work is better done. They bring to their work a 
respect for it which increases their sense both of its dignity 
and of their own dignity. 

" Of great importance in such a district as ours is the 
training in understanding good English which the kinder- 
garten gives the child. Our children who come directly 
from the homes are a long time learning to understand us 



26 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [58 

when we speak plain but good English. They are also a 
long time learning to express themselves. In the expression 
of what has been impressed upon them, kindergarten chil- 
dren are greatly in advance. 

" The whole mental and moral character of the children 
who have attended the kindergarten is much superior to that 
of the children who come to us directly from the home. 

" I have one suggestion, not a criticism, to make. A very 
few children, who have strong imagination and who prefer 
to use their imagination rather than their perception, are 
likely to have that tendency increased by the training in 
imagination given in the kindergarten, so that they have 
difficulty in seeing things as they really are. For example, 
such children repeatedly read one word of a sentence and 
then recite a sentence totally unlike what is before them. I 
think that kindergarten teachers do not realize this as we do, 
and that in the care of such children they ought, perhaps, to 
lay more stress upon truth-telling. This is the only possible 
fault I have seen in a child as a kindergarten child, and this 
only in a very few children. 

" I wish that all children under six years of age in our 
district were compelled to go to the kindergarten before 
entering the primary room." 

XII 

" It is my pleasure, as it is also my duty, to submit the 
following answers to the questions issued in the recent cir- 
cular with regard to the effects of kindergarten training 
upon the pupils of my own grade, the first primary. 

" Five years has been the length of my service in the first 
grade. 

" About forty per cent of my pupils have received instruc- 
tion in the kindergarten. The children who have had kin- 
dergarten training seem to possess greater enthusiasm for 
and interest in their school work, and, therefore, concentrate 
their attention sooner and for a longer period than those 
from home. 

" My pupils from the kindergarten have greater and more 
accurate powers of observation and discrimination. This 
fact is noticeable in their quick recognition of written forms 
and their associated sounds. 

" The vocabulary of the kindergarten child is larger, and 
his power of expression, therefore, greater. He is less shy 



59] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 2j 

and timid and so expresses himself readily and freely. He 
is able from this fact to take up the regular language work 
in reading sooner, and so time is saved. The willingness to 
narrate his experiences is so marked that I have to be care- 
ful that the others have equal opportunities to express them- 
selves. This is true particularly at the beginning of the 
school year. 

" The experience gained in the kindergarten helps the child 
to understand the literature presented to him more readily 
and thoroughly. 

" Generally the kindergarten child recognizes numbers and 
performs operations with them more quickly than other chil- 
dren, helped by his former work in weaving and other kin- 
dergarten occupations. These latter also help him to be 
more skillful with his hands. He can be left at his busy 
work with less oversight and with better results to be seen 
on inspection. This is a saving of time. The manual 
training which he has received also results in a greater power 
of expression in the drawing and writing lessons. The 
terms used in drawing are also more familiar, being recalled 
instead of newly learnt. Consequently less drill is needed. 

" The kindergarten child is more familiar with school 
routine, and, therefore, requires fewer directions. Having 
attended school before, the primary teacher is not obliged 
to spend time and energy in comforting him on his separa- 
tion from home friends. 

" Finally, the kindergarten child seems to me more cour- 
teous, more helpful and more ready to recognize the rights 
of his fellow-pupils. 

" The kindergarten pupils now in my own grade have 
been able to accomplish more in the required studies than 
those of the same age who came directly from home. The 
few exceptions occur in the cases of children who are not to 
be regarded as normal. 

" Several children who have received the full kindergarten 
course have been able to omit the second year course in the 
primary, and have, therefore, completed that course in two 
years instead of the usual three years. This does not occur 
with other children unless they are unusually old when they 
enter or have special home training. One child, who proved 
too immature for the work of my grade, after a short train- 
ing in the kindergarten, was able to do the work better and 
more quickly than he could possibly have done without it. 



28 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [60 

" That the character of the work has been improved, I 
have no doubt. Since I have always been so fortunate as to 
have some pupils from the kindergarten, I cannot compare 
the work accomplished with that of pupils, all of whom came 
direct from home. The comparison I have made between 
the latter and kindergarten children seems to be just, and I 
feel sure the kindergarten has helped to produce better 
results throughout my class, even when a very small propor- 
tion of the children in the class had had the benefit of its 
training." 

The following letter, also received from Boston, and writ- 
ten by a teacher of third grade, shows that the influence of 
kindergarten training extends beyond the primary room : 

" In speaking of the value of kindergarten training I 
judge from observation and inference rather than from a 
close grade connection with it. 

" I have more than once met with such contrasts in the 
moral attitude and mental atmosphere of younger children 
who had been under kindergarten training, and older ones 
from the same family who began school life before kinder- 
gartens were established, that I can attribute the source of 
the happy and healthful influence to but one cause. Indeed, 
it was unmistakably evident in several instances that the 
leaven had worked where it would happily do so much good 
in the future in raising the minds of the parents to a finer 
conception of the duties and possibilities in training their 
children. This has come to me more than once from a per- 
sonal confession and acknowledgment. An influence that 
makes thus early for the formation of character surely can- 
not have too high an estimate, especially from those whose 
efforts must succeed it in the work. 

" I feel that to the kindergarten training is due much of 
the possibility of developing in the children the power to 
observe, to generalize, to execute and to express themselves 
as intelligently and thoughtfully as they were able to do a 
year or two later in school life, before kindergartens were 
with us. In my present class the kindergarten children are 
all to be promoted with one exception, and they are ten 
months younger than the other children. Their average 
age is eight years and ten months, while that of the non- 
kindergarten children is nine years and eight months, or 
practically a year of school life. I find the difference is 



6l] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 2Q. 

about the same in favor of kindergarten children for several 
years back, as far as I examined. There seems to be but 
one influence as to the cause for this, the quickening and 
brightening influence of the first training, coming at a time 
when the children are awakening fast to the multitude of 
influences and interests which surround them, and which is 
of a character to lead the little hearts and hands to the best 
they can think and do." 

The limits prescribed for this monograph prevent me 
from doing full justice to the valuable material sent me 
from Boston. So far as I am aware, no equal number of 
competent witnesses reporting upon children received from 
so large a number of kindergartens have ever been publicly 
cited in behalf of the Froebelian method. Their testimony 
proves beyond peradventure that the kindergartens of Bos- 
ton have actually achieved nearly all the results claimed for 
the system by its most enthusiastic friends. The following 
letter from Mr. Edwin P. Seaver, superintendent of the 
Boston public schools, describes the obstacles with which 
the kindergarten has still to contend and suggests a plan by 
which its influence may be increased : 

" My acquaintance with kindergartens began in the year 
1 88 1, when, in making my first official visits in the Boston 
schools, I found the kindergartens then privately supported 
by Mrs. Shaw in certain school rooms granted rent free for 
that purpose by the school committee. At first I was 
amused by the novel exercises, and then pleased by the evi- 
dent hold these exercises, or the teachers, or both, had upon 
the children. Longer and closer study of the kindergarten 
exercises convinced me that here was a real educational 
agency of singular efficiency. 

" Looking at it from the practical side I observed that 
there were some thousands of children in Boston whose 
education both morally and intellectually would be greatly 
advanced by their being placed at an early age in good 
kindergartens. I thought too that for all children the 
kindergarten was the best means of passage from the home 
to the primary school. A knowledge of the spirit and 
methods of the kindergarten spread among the primary 
teachers seemed likely to exercise a beneficial influence on 



30 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [62 

the primary schools. There was no doubt that this same 
benign influence had made itself felt in many homes. 
Among the strongest early friends of the kindergarten were 
many parents whose children had been kindergarten pupils. 
There were many primary teachers whose experience with 
kindergarten children enabled them to analyze and describe 
the effects of the kindergarten system of instruction in favor- 
able terms. 

" These were some of the considerations which moved me 
in the year 1888 to recommend that the kindergarten be 
made an integral part of the system of public instruction in 
the city of Boston. Since this was done, the public kinder- 
gartens have steadily grown in number and in popularity, in 
so much that nearly all school districts in the city are sup- 
plied with them, and about one-third of the children now 
pass through them before entering the primary schools. 
Our primary teachers have become more and more appre- 
ciative of the excellent foundation the kindergarten gives 
for the child's subsequent instruction. Altogether, it may 
truly be said that the public kindergartens of Boston have 
fulfilled, and more than fulfilled, the expectations formed of 
them at the time of their adoption. Imperfections they 
have shown, as what schools or what things human do not ? 
But every year there have been improvements, every year a 
better understanding of the essential principles of kinder- 
garten instruction, and every year a more widespread knowl- 
edge of the practical benefit of these principles when prop- 
erly applied. 

" As to the subsequent progress of kindergarten children 
in the school grades, it has been impossible for me to arrange 
and properly carry out a thorough statistical inquiry. I can 
only say in general that my impressions, gathered from con- 
versations with teachers these many years, lead me to the 
conclusion that the progress of kindergarten children com- 
pares very favorably with that of other children of the same 
age and similar environment. This progress is not so much 
manifested by quicker passage from grade to grade in the 
schools — for there is much that is arbitrary and artificial in 
the rules governing the promotion of pupils through the 
grades — as it is in the broader and stronger work done by 
children whose education has been started aright in the 
kindergarten. 

" Another influence which obscures the result in statistical 



63] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 3 1 

inquiry arises from the fact that the tests applied to deter- 
mine progress are often quite out of harmony with that 
theory of education of which the kindergarten is an exem- 
plification. The principles worked out by Froebel in the 
kindergarten were also by him applied to the later education 
of children and youth. Therefore, the subsequent progress 
of kindergarten children ought to be tested by methods 
which are consistent with those principles. 

"Still another obstacle in the way of satisfactory statistical 
work is the fact that in very many of the classes of the first 
primary grade only a minority of the children are from kin- 
dergartens. The teacher is apt to adapt her methods to the 
wants of the majority. So it happens that the kindergarten 
children suffer from a change in the method of their instruc- 
tion. What was so well begun in the kindergarten is 
broken off, and, consequently, the results that might other- 
wise have been expected never appear. Notwithstanding 
all these difficulties it has been possible in Boston to organ- 
ize a few primary classes, composed wholly, or almost wholly, 
of kindergarten children. The progress made by such 
classes has been eminently satisfactory. This result seems 
to warrant the belief that if all children could be taken 
through the kindergarten before entering the primary schools 
the instruction in the latter would be advanced and enlarged 
to a degree not now possible." 

Much of the information received from other cities I omit 
because it does not relate to experiences with a sufficiently 
large number of children. I have, however, condensed the 
following results from letters sent me by Miss Mary C. 
McCulloch, supervisor of the St. Louis kindergartens. These 
letters, thirteen in number, were written by teachers of the 
first grade, and reported the progress of kindergarten chil- 
dren in each of the several districts of the city. Two of the 
letters I eliminated because, while kindly in feeling, they 
were not precise in statement. Of the remaining eleven let- 
ters nine reported that kindergarten children were proficient 
in arithmetic, and affirmed the conviction that the training 
of the kindergarten facilitated progress in learning to write, 
and was of marked value in learning to read. The other 
two recognized no difference in these respects between kin- 



32 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [64 

dergarten children and children who came to school direct 
from the home. The unanimous verdict was that kinder- 
garten children were superior to others in drawing. All the 
letters concurred likewise in the statement that kindergarten 
culture developed the aesthetic sense. The intellectual 
characteristics specified were accurate observations ; correct 
expression ; power to make numerical combinations ; famili- 
arity with geometric forms ; quick recognition of magnitude 
and relation ; a generally increased perceptive power, and 
signal ability in illustrating poems and stories. With regard 
to manners and morals nine teachers recognized the good 
influence of the kindergarten. Of the remaining two one 
found " few causes for complaint," and the other referred 
merely to a possible good effect upon order and punctuality. 
The moral characteristics which were said to distinguish 
kindergarten children were order, cleanliness, courtesy, con- 
sideration, kindness, a perceptible development of the ideal 
of social dependence and " a love for the beautiful in char- 
acter awakened by fairy tales and developed along the lines 
of self-abnegation through song, stories, games and daily 
practice." 

From Mrs. Alice H. Putnam, to whose labors is largely 
due the adoption of the kindergarten by the school board 
of Chicago, I have received the following valuable testi- 
mony of superintendents and principals of schools : 

From Dr. E. Benj. Andrews, superintendent of schools : 
" Our best first grade pupils are from the kindergarten, 
and the influence of kindergarten teaching- is more and more 
felt in all the grades. Its ethical and social value is equal 
to its intellectual value. In fact the kindergarten is now 
recognized by all thoughtful persons as one of society's main 
hopes for the future." 

From Albert G. Lane, Esq., district superintendent : 
" It has been noticeable that children well trained in the 
kindergarten have keen sense-perception, possess construct- 
ive and expressive power and are alert, active and open- 
minded." 



65] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 33 

From James Hannan, Esq., assistant superintendent : 
" The most positive friends of the kindergarten are those 
who know it best. No principal who has had one in his 
school is willing to do without it. We have had several 
cases where the principal of an old school has been trans- 
ferred to a new one and in every such case there has been 
urgent demand for the establishment of a kindergarten in 
the new school." 

From Mr. Lincoln P. Goodhue of the D. S. Wentworth 
school : 

" The kindergarten-trained child is more responsive in 
early primary work, has greater freedom of thought and 
expression, better and more definite control of motor activi- 
ties and many well-established useful habits not usually 
found in the ordinary beginner. 

" During the first year many of the kindergarten children 
take first rank in their rooms, although some fall into the 
lower classes, even into the C class. It is seldom, however, 
that a kindergarten child is found overtime in grade. In 
the second year and above opportunity for the observation 
of the kindergarten child in this school has been quite lim- 
ited, and I am unable to submit any definite statement. 

" That the average child is helped very materially by the 
kindergarten course must be admitted. That the children 
of the poor are led into habits of thought and conduct which 
their home environment could never develop is also true. 

" The dull child, while he may still be dull, must be quick- 
ened more or less by kindergarten training well done. The 
whole question as to the value of the kindergarten can be 
answered only when the other question as to the training 
and qualifications of the kindergarten teachers has been 
positively settled. It is more true in the kindergarten per- 
haps than in the grades that the teacher makes the school." 

From Miss Minnie R. Cowan, principal of the McAllister 
school : 

" In the following respects we find the pupils who have 
had kindergarten training very superior to children who 
come directly from the home, — power of observing closely 
and accurately and ability to express their thoughts readily 
and clearly. 



34 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [66 

" They have also a considerable degree of manual skill, 
and in the first year of school life especially this is a great 
aid to their progress. 

" I have not found that they ordinarily gain any time in 
the grades, but they do the work of the grades more easily 
and perfectly." 

From Mrs. Elizabeth Huntington Sutherland, principal of 
the Alice E. Barnard school : 

" Having been seventeen years in this school, I have had 
many large families begin and complete their work with me. 

" The older three or four children of said families were in 
school before our kindergarten was established ; the younger 
three or four since. Invariably there is a marked contrast 
in the ability of the two groups. The younger ones are 
brighter in every way, and often seem hardly to belong to 
the same stock. Much of this difference I believe to be due 
to the early wholesome awakening brought about by the 
training in the kindergarten." 

From Mr. Fulton B. Ormsby, principal of the Perkins 
Bass school : 

" My observations thus far convince me that the kinder- 
garten is a distinct and positive help to the future progress 
of the child. 

" The motor activities are so developed that the various 
occupations of the school room are taken up with skill and 
readiness, and the powers of observation so aroused that the 
more formal instruction, if desired, may be undertaken at 
once with success. 

" In our school, the children who have had the kinder- 
garten training are advancing more satisfactorily than those 
who lack such training." 

From Mr. Samuel A. Harrison, principal of the Burroughs 
school : 

" The observations of myself and teachers are that pupils 
coming from the kindergarten : 

" i. Know better how to handle themselves. They have 
been trained to control their attention, and can begin school 
work at once. 

" 2. They have gained some little learning in singing and 
numbers. 



67] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 35 

" 3. They are cleaner, neater and better mannered, and 
their training shows to advantage in all school proprieties." 

From Mr. Frank A. Houghton, principal of the Kershaw 
school : 

" The kindergarten has a most excellent influence on the 
primary grades. I feel its influence on the work of the first 
grade especially." 

Miss Ida De La Mater, extra teacher, who supervises the 
primary work of the Kershaw school, adds : 

" I have found that the kindergarten children lack concen- 
tration, self-control, and are hard to discipline. 

"In the games, story work, language and general informa- 
tion, they are better than other children. I am in hearty 
sympathy with the work." 

From Mr. Charles F. Babcock, principal of the Holden 
school : 

" The children who have been in the kindergarten classes 
are noted for their powers of observation and expression, 
fluency in language, etc. They are vastly superior to those 
who have not had this training. The only objection to 
them is that they develop into regular chatterboxes, and it 
takes some time to tone them down. We have the kinder- 
garten and non-kindergarten classes together and can speak 
of them better for so doing." 

From Mr. Daniel Appleton White, principal of the 
Everett school : 

" I have carefully revised the records of this school in 
regard to the progress of kindergarten children. By com- 
paring the progress of several hundreds of children who are 
at present members of this school, I obtain the following 
statistics : 

" Of one hundred promotions from first to second grade, I 
find that the children who have had the kindergarten work 
required an average time of thirty-seven and one-half weeks 
for the completion of the grade work, while the others 
required forty-four and one-third weeks for the same. For 
the second grade the respective results are forty-five and 
one-tenth weeks and forty-four and eight-tenths weeks. For 
the third grade forty-three and seven-tenths weeks and forty- 



36 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [68 

six weeks, while for the fourth grade the average time 
required was thirty-three weeks and forty-four and four- 
tenths weeks. 

" In addition to these facts I cheerfully submit my opinion 
of the advantages of the kindergarten training so far as I 
have observed them. In my judgment * * * the chil- 
dren gain exceedingly in regard to the following points : 

" The formation of good habits, the development of free- 
dom and activity, the power to understand directions, the 
social element, and last, but not the least, the attention paid 
to cleanliness." 

Since the kindergarten system has been more highly 
developed in Boston, Chicago and St. Louis than in other 
places, testimony from these cities has seemed to me of the 
highest importance. Similar results are, however, showing 
themselves in many smaller cities and towns, in witness 
whereof I permit myself to quote the following published 
statements : 

I 

" Having often been asked if there is any difference in 
the ages of those children in the several grades who have 
had kindergarten training and those who have not been so 
fortunate, I have this year taken some pains to see if there 
is really any difference. I find that the age of the kinder- 
garten trained children in every grade is actually less than 
that of the remainder of the class by a few months until the 
eighth grade is reached, where the difference is ten months, 
or one whole school year. At first this does not seem very 
much, but a year at school is a great factor in the life of any 
student." (Olive Mctienry, principal of Hawthorne school, 
Des Moines, Iowa. Published in report of city superintend- 
ent of schools for 1893-94.) 

II 

" Referring to our kindergartens and schools as we see 
them in New England, what is the opinion of the most intel- 
ligent primary teachers to-day concerning what the kinder- 
garten does ? Being very familiar with this matter in a 
town where eleven kindergartens, having some nineteen 
teachers, are feeding the primary schools, it is a pleasure to 
say that there is unanimous agreement on the part of all the 



69] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 37 

primary teachers that the children receive incalculable 
benefit through their kindergarten training, and are far bet- 
ter prepared to take up the activities of the school because 
of that training. 

" Many of these teachers are well advanced in life, and 
had long experience before the kindergarten was adopted in 
the town. They have not been hasty in making up their 
minds ; on the other hand, they have no doubt been slow in 
doing so. They find the kindergarten children coming to 
them full of anticipation of what they are to enjoy, and 
they are slow to adopt any measure that tends to dampen 
this enthusiasm. They find them active and needing activ- 
ity. They are quick to see, curious to ask questions, and 
anxious to co-operate in everything pertaining to the school. 
And it is delightful to note that the same methods which 
make the kindergarten a highly socialized community where 
there is much mutual sympathy, and co-operation operate 
also in the school so that it becomes something quite different 
from the school of other days when children were treated as 
little men and women and when the aim of the teacher was 
to have as little stir and activity as possible, doing violence 
to the nature of the child and often crippling him for life. 

" The time has come when we may safely claim that the 
kindergarten with all that it has brought to the school of 
spirit and method gives enlarged capacity to do work of all 
kinds and its beneficent influence is felt not only in all grades 
of schools but in college and in after life." (Samuel T. 
Dutton, Superintendent of Schools, Brookline, Mass., in 
Kindergarten Magazine for April, 1899.) 

In view of the attacks so freely and insistently made upon 
what is called the " sentimentalism " of the kindergarten, it 
may be well to call attention to the fact that none of the 
expert witnesses whose testimony I have quoted seem to have 
detected its existence. That among kindergartners there 
are some sentimentalists I have no doubt. That sentimen- 
talism is inherent in the Froebelian ideal or tolerated in the 
best training schools for kindergartners I unhesitatingly 
deny. There is greater danger of its appearance in private 
than in public work because any person calling herself a 
kindergartner may be accepted as such by ignorant or 



38 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [70 

thoughtless parents. In public kindergartens under compe- 
tent supervision its persistence is impossible. 

It is greatly to be desired that all cities establishing kin- 
dergartens in connection with their public schools, should 
insist'upon having a specially qualified supervisor. With- 
out watchful and intelligent guidance the kindergarten tends 
either to relapse into a mere play school or to become too 
closely conformed to the primary school. The ideal super- 
visor stands to the individual kindergartner in a relation 
similar to that which the latter occupies towards her children. 
She quickens their intellectual and moral aspiration, deepens 
in them the complementary impulses of self-culture and child- 
nurture, points out practical errors and suggests the ways 
and means of overcoming them. She must thoroughly under- 
stand the method of the kindergarten, its psycologic implica- 
tions and its relationship to education as a whole. She must 
unite intellectual insight with moral earnestness and practi- 
cal sagacity. Hence only the most gifted and illuminated 
kindergartners are adequate to the work of supervision. 

Two great dangers assail the kindergarten and threaten 
to impede its progress towards the realization of Froebel's 
ideal. The first of these dangers is reversion to instinctive 
games and traditional toys. In some kindergartens, children 
are taught to play street games, while it has recently been 
urged that " peg boards, tops, bean bags, kites, dolls, jack- 
straws, hoops, spool, chalk and wire games and the whole 
toy world " should be added to the Froebelian instrumentali- 
ties. Tendencies such as these indicate a complete failure 
to comprehend what Froebel has done. He recognized in 
traditional games the deposit of unconscious reason ; pre- 
served what was good and omitted what was crude and 
coarse in these products of instinct ; supplied missing links 
and presented a series of games wherein each is related to 
all the others and which, by means of dramatic and graphic 
representation, poetry and music, win for the ideals they 
embody a controlling power over the imagination. In like 
manner, from among traditional toys he selected those which 



Jl~] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 39 

possessed most educative value, ordered them into a related 
series and suggested a method by which they might be con- 
sciously used to interpret the child's experiences and develop 
his creative power. If this transfiguration of traditional 
games and toys is valueless, then the kindergarten has no 
raison d'etre. But if Froebel has translated the hieroglyphic 
of instinctive play and found means which, without detriment 
to the child's spontaneity, influence the growth of character 
and the trend of thought, then the clamor for street games 
and promiscuous toys is educational atavism. 

The second danger which threatens the integrity of the 
kindergarten is the substitution of exercises which attempt 
to wind thought around some arbitrarily chosen center for 
those Froebelian exercises whose confessed aim is to assist 
thought to unwind itself. Too many kindergartners have 
allowed themselves to be betrayed into selecting some object 
such as a pine tree or a potato, and making all songs, games, 
stories and gift exercises revolve around it. Between these 
so-called cores of interest and the exercises clustered around 
them there is no valid connection. The clustering like the 
subject depends wholly upon the caprice of the teacher. 
Could such exercises succeed in their object, the pupils of 
different teachers would have their thoughts set to revolving 
around different centers and more than this around arbitrary 
and contingent centers. That such a procedure directly 
contradicts Froebel's ideal will be apparent to all who have 
understood his writings. That it likewise contradicts every 
true ideal of education will be evident to all who understand 
that the function of education is to substitute objective and 
universal for subjective and contingent associations. The 
discovery of related qualities in nature, the disclosure of 
their causes and the reduction of these causes to a system is 
the great work of science. The discovery of the related 
activities of mind and their genetic evolution is the work of 
psychology. The portrayal of the universal and divine man 
latent in each individual is the supreme achievement of 
literature and art. To lead pupils away from what is capri- 



40 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION \_J2 

cious, arbitrary and accidental, and thus capacitate them to 
receive and augment their scientific, aesthetic, literary and 
psychologic inheritance is the great duty of education. The 
substitution of arbitrary for necessary cores of thought 
wherever attempted is, therefore, the parody of education. 

The future of the kindergarten in the United States is 
largely dependent upon the work of the normal schools for 
kindergartners. The friends of the system must, therefore, 
view with disapprobation and even with dismay the rapid mul- 
tiplication of schools with low standards of admission and a 
low conception of the training they should give. Inexperi- 
enced students are attracted to such schools, and the result is 
that the whole country is flooded with so-called kindergartners 
who are ignorant of the first principles of all true education. 

In the early days of the Froebelian movement it was 
believed that in a single year young girls could be prepared 
to conduct a kindergarten. In most reputable training 
schools the course has now been extended to cover two years. 
The requirements for admission into these schools are, gen- 
erally, graduation from a high school, or an education equiva- 
lent thereto. The courses of study include theory of the 
kindergarten gifts and occupations, study of the Mother Play, 
practice in songs and games, physical culture, lessons in sing- 
ing, drawing, modeling and color, lectures on the art of story 
telling, and more or less observation of the practical work 
of the kindergarten. Finally, some trainers insist that their 
normal pupils shall not only observe but assist in actual work 
with the children. 

In addition to this specific training, the best normal schools 
offer courses in science, literature, psychology, and the his- 
tory of education. 

Prominent among private training schools are those of 
Miss Garland, Miss Symonds, Miss Wheelock and Miss 
Page in Boston ; that of Mme. Kraus-Boelte in New York ; 
that conducted by Miss H. A. Niel in Washington, in con- 
nection with the work established and sustained by Mrs. 
Phoebe A. Hearst, and that of the Kindergarten institute of 



73] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 4 1 

Chicago, which is co-operative with the social settlement 
work in that city. Conspicuous among normal departments 
conducted under the auspices of kindergarten associations, 
is the training school of Miss C. M. C. Hart in Baltimore, 
which, in addition to a two years' course for kindergartners, 
offers a fine post-graduate course, and a course preparatory 
for normal work. Other training schools connected with 
kindergarten associations are the normal departments of the 
Froebel association, and the Free kindergarten association 
of Chicago, and the training schools conducted under the 
auspices of the Louisville and Golden Gate associations. 

Kindergarten departments have been established in sev- 
eral great guasz-puhlic institutions. Among the most nota- 
ble of these are the kindergarten department of Pratt insti- 
tute, Brooklyn, and of Teachers college, Columbia univer- 
sity, and of Workingman's institute, New York. 

Of the 164 public normal schools in the United States 36 
provide some kind of kindergarten training, the courses 
varying in length from about two years to six months. 
These kindergarten departments are distributed as follows in 
the normal schools of the different states : 

New York, 7 Illinois, 1 

Michigan, 5 Colorado, I 

Pennsylvania, 4 Kansas, 1 

California, 4 Rhode Island, I 

Massachusetts, 3 Georgia, 1 

New Jersey, 2 Nebraska, 1 

Connecticut, 2 Ohio, 1 

Wisconsin, 2 Minnesota, 1 

The public normal schools whose kindergartens are most 
worthy of mention are those of Boston, Milwaukee and 
Philadelphia. In general, however, the kindergarten work 
in public normal schools is inferior to that of private train- 
ing schools, kindergarten associations and the great institu- 
tions to which reference has been made above. 

Kindergartners are admitted to surpass all other teachers 
as students of educational literature. They are also distin- 



42 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [74 

guishing themselves by zealous and persistent attendance 
upon post-graduate courses in pedagogics, science, literature, 
history and psychology. Between the years 1880 and 1888 
large numbers of St. Louis kindergartners participated in 
classes organized during successive winters for the study of 
Herodotus, Thucydides, Sophocles, Homer, Dante and 
Goethe. They also followed lecture courses in psychology 
and philosophy, and constantly attended classes devoted to 
the deeper study of Froebel's educational principles and the 
illustration of his method. Through the efforts of the Chi- 
cago kindergarten college post-graduate work of a high order 
has become a feature of Froebelian activity in that city, and 
for many years there has been conducted each winter a liter- 
ary school whose lecturers are recognized as the greatest 
interpreters in America of the supreme works of literature. 
During successive winters Miss Laura Fisher, director of the 
public school kindergartens of Boston, has organized post- 
graduate classes in the study of the Mother Play and the 
Pedagogics of the Kindergarten and has also conducted valu- 
able courses in literature and psychology. Through the 
efforts of Miss C. P. Dozier, supervisor of the New York 
kindergarten association, and Miss Mary D. Runyan, head of 
the kindergarten department of Teachers college, Columbia 
university, post-graduate work has been organized in New 
York city. Classes in psychology, literature and the phil- 
osophy of history are conducted by Miss Hart in Baltimore, 
and courses in literature and psychology are already given 
in connection with the young but flourishing work of Miss 
Niel in Washington. In Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Buffalo 
and other cities post-graduate work is less developed, but 
good beginnings have been made. 

The power of the kindergarten over the minds of its stu- 
dents arises from the fact that it connects the ideal of self- 
culture with the ideal of child-nurture. The true woman 
does not wish to " deck herself with knowledge as with a gar- 
ment, or to wear it loose from the nerves and blood that 
feed her action." Therefore, she responds with whole heart 



75] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 43 

to the appeal to learn all she can, be all she can, and devote 
all she is and all she knows to the service of childhood. 

Rooted in maternal impulses it would be strange indeed if 
the kindergarten did not appeal to mothers. That classes 
for mothers should come into existence was a predestined 
phase of the Froebelian movement. Whoever has studied 
the writings of Froebel knows that the education of mothers 
was one of the most important features of his endeavor. 
Practically, however, the work in this direction amounted to 
very little until a mothers' department was established in 
that unique institution, the Chicago kindergarten college. I 
call this institution unique because it has consciously 
attempted the transformation of the girls' college into a school 
for motherhood. The colleges for men offer many different 
courses. Why should not the colleges for women offer at 
least elective courses in subjects fitting their students for 
the vocation of mother and home maker? Why should not 
the study of Froebel's Mother Play, the use of kindergarten 
gifts and the practice of kindergarten games be made one of 
these elective courses? Why should not all institutions 
which ignore the mission of woman as nurturer be supplanted 
by institutions like the Chicago kindergarten college, which, 
while giving general culture, make it their supreme aim to 
fit women for the work, which, if there be any meaning in 
the process of natural evolution, is theirs by divine appoint- 
ment ? And, finally, why should not such institutions give 
instruction not only to young girls but to mothers themselves ? 
During the single year 1891-92 the mothers' department of 
the Chicago college gave instruction to 725 mothers. In the 
eight years since its foundation it has given whole or partial 
courses to nearly five thousand mothers. The effects of such 
instruction in enhancing the sanctity and uplifting the ideals 
of family life can hardly be exaggerated. Recently the work 
of this department has been extended by holding convoca- 
tions for the discussion of all phases of child-nurture. Four 
of such convocations have already been held, each of which 
had nine sessions of from two to two and one-half hours in 



44 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [76 

length. The attendance was from three to five thousand 
persons. 

While the maternal ideal is dominant in the Chicago col- 
lege it is not exclusive. This organization supports a number 
of kindergartens wherein students learn to apply Froebelian 
principles. It has departments for kindergartners, kinder- 
garten trainers and primary teachers. It has also depart- 
ments of literature and publication and a philanthropic 
department, these several departments being all in the hands 
of competent specialists. Finally, it has developed and 
extended the literary and historic courses begun in St. Louis 
and by adding courses in science and art has connected the 
kindergarten with the total round of man's spiritual activity. 

Radiating from the kindergarten college as its center the 
maternal movement is spreading throughout the United 
States. It is the highest reach of the Froebelian ideal and 
means nothing more nor less than the attempted regenera- 
tion of all human life through the regeneration of the family. 

Froebel's supreme claim to our grateful remembrance rests 
upon the fact that consciously repeating the unconscious 
process of social evolution he set the little child in front of 
the great army of advancing humanity. Science affirms 
that the feebleness of infancy created the family and that 
from the family have been evolved the higher institutions. 
■ ' Without the circumstances of infancy," writes one of our lead- 
ing scientists, 1 "we might have become formidable through 
sheer force of sharpwittedness. But except for these cir- 
cumstances we should never have comprehended the mean- 
ing of such phrases as self-sacrifice or devotion. The phe- 
nomena of social life would have been omitted from the his- 
tory of the world and with them the phenomena of ethics 
and religion." In his cry, " Come, let us live for the chil- 
dren," Froebel utters in articulate speech the ideal whose 
unconscious impulsion set in motion the drama of human 
history. The little child was pioneer of the process which 
created human institutions. We must make him the pioneer 
of their perfection. 

1 Cosmic Philosophy, John Fiske, II: 363. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



BY 

WILLIAM T. HARRIS 

Sometime United States Commissioner of Education 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



PART I GENERAL SURVEY OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

In all the schools of the United States, public and private, 
elementary, secondary and higher, there were enrolled in the 
year 1898 about sixteen and one-half millions (16,687,643) 
pupils. (See appendix I.) This number includes all who 
attended at any time in the year for any period, however 
short. But the actual average attendance for each pupil 
in the public schools (supported by taxes) did not exceed 
98 days, although the average length of the school session 
was 143. 1 days. There were enrolled in the aggregate 
of public and private schools out of each 100 of the popu- 
lation between the ages of 5 and 18 years, 71 pupils. 

Out of the entire number of sixteen and a half millions 
of pupils deduct the pupils of private and parochial schools 
of all kinds, elementary, secondary, higher, and schools for 
art, industry and business, for defective classes and Indians, 
there remain over 15,000,000 for the public school enroll- 
ment, or nearly 91 per cent of the whole. (See appendix I.) 
In the 28 years since 1870 the attendance on the public 
schools has increased from less than 7,000,000 to 15,000,000. 
(Appendix II.) The expenditures have increased some- 
what more, namely, from 63,000,000 to 199,000,000 of dol- 
lars per annum, an increase from $1.64 per capita of popu- 
lation to $2.67. To account for this pro rata increase of 
61 per cent in the cost of the common schools one must 
allow for a slight increase in the average length of the school 
term, and for the increase of enrollment from less than 1 7 
per cent to more than 20 per cent of the population. But 
the chief items of increase are to be found in teachers' 
wages for professionally educated teachers, and the cost of 



A ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [80 

expert supervision. These account for more than two-thirds 
of the 50 per cent, while the remaining one-sixth (of the 
whole) is due to better apparatus and more commodious 
school buildings. 

The increase of cities and large villages, owing to the 
influence of the railroad, has brought nearly one-half the 
school population within reach of the graded school holding 
a long session of from 180 to 200 days per year, and taught 
by professional teachers. (See appendix III.) In 1870 
there were for each 10,000 inhabitants 12.75 miles of 
railway, but in 1890 the number of miles of railway for the 
same number of inhabitants had risen to 26.12 miles, or 
more than double the former amount. The effect of this 
increase of railway is to extend the suburbs of cities and 
vastly increase the urban population. The rural schools in 
sparsely settled districts still continue their old practice of 
holding a winter school with a session of 60 to 80 days 
only, and taught by the makeshift teacher who works at 
some other employment for two-thirds of the year. The 
school year of ideal length should be about 200 days, or 
5 days per week for 40 weeks, i. e., nine and one-half months. 
In the early days of city schools the attempt was made 
to hold a session of over 46 weeks in length, allowing only 
six weeks or less for three short vacations. But experi- 
ence of their advantage to the pupil has led to the increase 
of the holidays to nearly double the former amount. 

Reducing the total average attendance in all the schools, 
public and private, to years of 200 school days each, it 
is found that the average total amount of schooling each 
individual of the population would receive at the rates 
of attendance and length of session for 1898, is five years, 
counting both private and public schools. 

The average schooling, it appears from the above show- 
ing, amounts to enough to secure for each person a little 
more than one-half of an elementary school course of eight 
years, — enough to enable the future citizen to read the 
newspaper, to write fairly well, to count, add, subtract, mul- 



8l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 5 

tiply and divide, and use the simplest fractions. In addition 
he acquires a little geographical knowledge, so important to 
enable him to understand the references or allusions in his 
daily newspaper to places of interest in other parts of the 
world. But the multiplicity of cheap books and periodicals 
makes the life of the average citizen a continuation of school 
to some extent. His knowledge of reading is called into use 
constantly, and he is obliged to extend gradually his knowl- 
edge of the rudiments of geography and history. Even his 
daily gossip in his family, in the shop, or in the field is to 
some extent made up of comments on the affairs of the state, 
the nation, or distant peoples, — China, Japan, Nicaragua, 
or the Sandwich islands, as the case may be, — and world 
interests, to a degree, take the place of local scandals in his 
thoughts. Thus, too, he picks up scraps of science and 
literature from the newspaper, and everything that he learns 
becomes at once an instrument for the acquirement of 
further knowledge. In a nation governed chiefly by public 
opinion digested and promulgated by the daily newspaper, 
this knowledge of the rudiments of reading, writing, arith- 
metic and geography is of vital importance. An illiterate 
population is impenetrable by newspaper influence, and for 
it public opinion in any wide sense is impossible ; its local 
prejudices are not purified or eliminated by thought and 
feeling in reference to objects common to the whole civilized 
world. 

The transformation of an illiterate population into a 
population that reads the daily newspaper, and perforce 
thinks on national and international interests, is thus far the 
greatest good accomplished by the free public school system 
of the United States. It must be borne in mind that the 
enrollment in school of one person in every five of the entire 
population of the country means the same result for the 
southern states as for the northern, since the states on the 
Gulf of Mexico enroll nearly 22 per cent of their total popu- 
lation, colored and white, and the south Atlantic 20.70 per 
cent, while the north Atlantic and the western, mountain and 



6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [82 

Pacific divisions enroll only 18 per cent, having a much 
smaller ratio of children of school age. 

In a reading population one section understands the 
motives of the other, and this prevents political differences 
from becoming too wide for solution by partisan politics. 
When one section cannot any longer accredit the other with 
honest and patriotic motives, war is only a question of time. 
That this general prevalence of elementary education is 
accompanied by a comparative neglect of the secondary and 
higher courses of study is evident from the fact that out of 
the number of pupils enrolled more than ninety-five in every 
hundred are pursuing elementary studies ; less than four in 
a hundred are in secondary studies in high schools, acade- 
mies and other institutions ; only one in a hundred (13 in 
one thousand) is in a college or a school for higher studies. 

In considering the reasons for the increase of the length 
of the term of the elementary school and its adoption of a 
graded course of study, one comes upon the most important 
item of improvement that belongs to the recent history of 
education, namely, the introduction of professionally trained 
teachers. The first normal school established in the United 
States recently celebrated its fiftieth anniversary. It was 
founded at Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1839. The num- 
ber of public normal schools supported by the state or 
municipal governments has increased since that year to 167, 
enrolling 46,245 students, and graduating nearly 8,000 per 
annum. To this number are to be added 1 78 private normal 
schools, with an aggregate of 21,293 students and 2,000 
graduates. In 1880 there were 240 normal school students 
in each million of inhabitants; in 1897 there were 936, or 
nearly four times as many in each million. 

The professionally educated teacher finds his place in the 
graded schools, above mentioned as established in cities and 
large villages, and kept in session for the entire scholastic 
year of 200 days. It is the experience of school superin- 
tendents that graduates of normal schools continue to 
improve in skill and efficiency for many years. The advan- 



S3] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION J 

tage of the professionally educated teacher above others is 
to be found in the fact that he has been trained to observe 
methods and devices of instruction. On entering a school 
taught by another teacher he at once sees, without special 
effort, the methods of teaching and management, and notes 
the defects as well as the strong points if there are any. 
He is constantly increasing his number of successful 
devices to secure good behavior without harsh measures, 
and to secure industry and critical attention in study. Every 
normal school has a thorough course of study in the ele- 
mentary branches, taking them up in view of the higher 
branches from which they are derived, and explaining their 
difficult topics. This kind of work prepares the teacher in 
advance for the mishaps of the pupil, and arms him with the 
skill to assist self-activity by teaching the pupil to analyze 
his problem into its elements. He can divide each step that 
is too long for the pupil to take, into its component steps, 
down to any required degree of simplicity. The normal 
school graduate, too, other things being equal, has a better 
idea than other teachers of the educational value of a branch 
of study. He knows what points are essential, and what are 
accidental and subsidiary. He therefore makes his pupils 
thoroughly acquainted with those strategical positions, and 
shows him how to conquer all the rest through these. 

As it would appear from the statistics given, the rural dis- 
tricts are precluded by their short school terms from securing 
professional teachers. The corps of teachers in a highly- 
favored city will be able to claim a large percentage of its 
rank and file as graduates of its municipal training schools 
— perhaps 50 to 60 per cent. But the cities and villages as 
a whole in their graded schools cannot as yet show an aver- 
age of more than one teacher in four who has received the 
diploma of a normal school. 

Another important advantage has been named as belong- 
ing to the schools of the village or city. They are graded 
schools, and have a regular course of study, uniformity of 
text-books, and a proper classification of pupils. In the 



8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [84 

small rural schools some 20 to 50 pupils are brought together 
under one teacher. Their ages vary from 4 years to 20, and 
their degree of advancement ranges from new beginners in 
the alphabet up to those who have attended school for 10 or 
12 winters, and are now attempting Latin and algebra. It 
often happens that there is no uniformity of text-books, except 
perhaps in the spelling-book and reader, each pupil bringing 
such arithmetic, geography or grammar as his family at home 
happens to possess. Twenty pupils are classified in three 
classes in reading, three in spelling, and perhaps as many 
classes in arithmetic, grammar, geography, and other studies 
as there are pupils pursuing those branches. The result is 
from 20 to 40 separate lessons to look after, and perhaps five 
or 10 minutes to devote to each class exercise. The teacher 
finds himself limited to examining the pupil on the work 
done in memorizing the words of the book, or to comparing 
the answers he has found to the arithmetic problems with 
those in the printed key, occasionally giving assistance in 
some difficult problem that has baffled the efforts of the 
pupil — no probing of the lesson by analytical questions, no 
restatement of the ideas in the pupil's own words, and no 
criticism on the data and methods of the text-book. 

This was the case in the old-time district school — such 
as existed in 1790, when 29 out of 30 of the population 
lived in rural districts; also as late as 1840, when only one 
in twelve lived in a city. As the railroad has caused vil- 
lages to grow into cities, so it has virtually moved into the 
city a vast population living near railway stations in the 
country by giving them the morning newspaper and rapid 
transportation. In 1890 one-third of the population were 
living in cities of not less than 8,000 inhabitants. But the 
suburban populations made urban by the railroad — as indi- 
cated above — would swell the city population to one-half 
of the whole nation. Hence the great change now taking 
place in methods of building school houses and in organ- 
izing schools. 

In the ungraded schools the naturally bright pupils accom- 



85]' ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 9 

plished a fair amount of work if they happened to have good 
text-books. They were able to teach themselves from the 
books. But the rank and file of the school learned a little 
reading, writing and arithmetic, and probably studied the 
same book for several winters, beginning at the first page 
on the first day of school each year. Those who needed no 
help from the teacher learned to help themselves and enjoyed 
a delightful freedom. Those who were slow and dull did 
not get much aid. Their industry may have been stimulated 
by fear of the rod, which was often used in cases of real or 
supposed indolence. Harsh measures may succeed in forc- 
ing pupils to do mechanical work, but they cannot secure 
much development of the power of thought. Hence the 
resources of the so-called "strict" teacher were to compel 
the memorizing of the words of the book. 

With the growth from the rural to the urban condition of 
population the method of " individual instruction," as it is 
called, giving it a fine name, has been supplanted by class 
instruction, which prevails in village and city schools. The 
individual did not get much instruction under the old plan, 
for the simple reason that his teacher had only five or ten 
minutes to examine him on his daily work. In the properly 
graded school each teacher has two classes, and hears one 
recite while the other learns a new lesson. Each class is 
composed of twenty to thirty pupils of nearly the same 
qualifications as regards the degree of progress made in 
their studies. The teacher has thirty minutes for a recita- 
tion (or " lesson " as called in England), and can go into the 
merits of the subject and discuss the real thoughts that it 
involves. The meaning of the words in the book is probed, 
and the pupil made to explain it in his own language. But 
besides this all pupils learn more by a class recitation than 
by an individual recitation. For in the class each can see 
the lesson reflected in the minds of his fellow-pupils, and 
understand his teacher's views much better when drawn out 
in the form of a running commentary on the mistakes of the 
duller or more indolent pupils. The dull ones are encour- 



IO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [86 

aged and awakened to effort by finding themselves able to 
see the errors and absurdities of fellow-pupils. For no two 
minds take precisely the same view of a text-book exposition 
of a topic. One child is impressed by one phase of it, and 
another by a different phase. In the class recitation each 
one has his crude and one-sided views corrected more or 
less by his fellows, some of whom have a better comprehen- 
sion of this point, and some of that point, in the lesson. He, 
himself, has some glimpses of the subject that are more ade- 
quate than those of his fellows. 

The possibilities of a class recitation are, therefore, very 
great for efficient instruction in the hands of a teacher who 
understands his business. For he can marshal the crude 
notions of the members of the class one after another, and 
turn on them the light of all the critical acumen of the class 
as a whole, supplemented by his own knowledge and experi- 
ence. From beginning to end, for thirty minutes, the class 
recitation is a vigorous training in critical alertness. The 
pupil afterwards commences the preparation of his next les- 
son from the book with what are called new " apperceptive " 
powers, for he finds himself noticing and comprehending 
many statements and a still greater number of implications 
of meaning in his lesson that before had not been seen or 
even suspected. He is armed with a better power of analy- 
sis, and can "apperceive," or recognize and identify, more of 
the items of information, and especially more of the thoughts 
and reflections, than he was able to see before the discus- 
sions that took place in the recitation. He has in a sense 
gained the points of view of fellow-pupils and teacher, in 
addition to his own. 

It is presupposed that the chief work of the pupil in school is 
the mastery of text-books containing systematic treatises giv- 
ing the elements of branches of learning taught in the schools. 
For in the United States more than in any other country 
text-book instruction has predominated over oral instruction, 
its method in this respect being nearly the opposite of the 
method in vogue in the elementary schools of Germany. 



Sy] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION II 

The evil of memorizing words without understanding their 
meaning or verifying the statements made in the text-book 
is incident to this method and is perhaps the most widely 
prevalent defect in teaching to be found in the schools of the 
United States. It is condemned universally, but, neverthe- 
less, practiced. The oral method of Germany escapes this 
evil almost entirely, but it encounters another evil. The 
pupil taught by the oral method exclusively is apt to lack 
power to master the printed page and get out of it the full 
meaning ; he needs the teacher's aid to explain the techni- 
cal phrases and careful definitions. The American method 
of text-book instruction throws the child upon the printed 
page and holds him responsible for its mastery. Hence 
even in the worst forms of verbal memorizing there is per- 
force acquired a familiarity with language as it appears to 
the eye in printed form which gradually becomes more use- 
ful for scholarly purposes than the knowledge of speech 
addressed to the ear. This is the case in all technical, or 
scientific language, and in all poetry and literary prose ; the 
new words or new shades of meaning require the mind to 
pause and reflect. This can be done in reading but not in 
listening to an oral delivery. 

In the United States the citizen must learn to help him- 
self in this matter of gaining information, and for this reason 
he must use his school time to acquire the art of digging 
knowledge out of books. Hence we may say that a deep 
instinct or an unconscious need has forced American schools 
into an excessive use of the text-book method. 

In the hands of a trained teacher the good of the method 
is obtained and the evil avoided. The pupil is taught to 
assume a critical attitude towards the statements of the book 
and to test and verify them, or else disprove them by appeal 
to other authorities, or to actual experiments. 

This ideal hovers before all teachers, even the poorest, 
but it is realized only by the best class of teachers found in 
the schools of the United States, — a class that is already 
large and is constantly increasing, thanks to the analytic 



12 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [88 

methods taught in the normal schools. Text-book memoriz- 
ing is giving place to the method of critical investigation. 

This review of methods suggests a good definition of 
school instruction. It is the process of re-enforcing the 
sense-perception of the individual pupil by adding the expe- 
rience of the race as preserved in books, and it is more espe- 
cially the strengthening of his powers of thought and insight 
by adding to his own reflections the points of view and the 
critical observations of books interpreted by his teachers and 
fellow-pupils. 

In the graded school the pupil is held responsible for his 
work in a way that is impossible in the rural school of 
sparsely-settled districts. Hence the method of investiga- 
tion, as above described, is found in the city schools rather 
than in the rural schools. Where each pupil forms a class 
by himself, there is too little time for the teacher to ascertain 
the character of the pupil's understanding of his book. 
Even if he sees that there has been a step missed somewhere 
by the child in learning his lesson, he cannot take time to 
determine precisely what it is. Where the ungraded school 
makes some attempt at classification of pupils it is obliged 
to unite into one class say of arithmetic, grammar, or geog- 
raphy, pupils of very different degrees of progress. The 
consequence is that the most advanced pupils have not 
enough work assigned them, being held back to the standard 
of the average. They must " mark time " (or go through 
the motions of walking without advancing a step) while the 
rest are coming up. The least advanced find the average 
lesson rather too much for them, and become discouraged 
after trying in vain to keep step with their better prepared 
fellow-pupils. This condition of affairs is to be found in 
many rural districts even of those states where the advantages 
of classification are seen and appreciated in city schools, and 
an effort is in progress to extend those advantages to the 
rural schools. But the remedy has been, in many cases, 
worse than the disease. For it has resulted that classifica- 
tion gets in the way of self-help which the bright pupil is 



89] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 3 

capable of, and the best scholars "mark time" listlessly, 
while the poorest get discouraged, and only the average 
pupils gain something. 

It must be admitted, too, that in many village schools just 
adopting the system of grading, this evil of holding back 
the bright pupils and of over-pressure on the dull ones exists, 
and furnishes just occasion for the criticism which is made 
against the so-called " machine " character of the American 
public school. The school that permits such poor classifica- 
tion, or that does not keep up a continual process of read- 
justing the classification by promoting pupils from lower 
classes to those above them, certainly has no claim to be 
ranked with schools organized on a modern ideal. 

I have dwelt on this somewhat technical matter because 
of its importance in understanding the most noteworthy 
improvements in progress in the schools of the United 
States. Briefly, the population is rapidly becoming urban, 
the schools are becoming "graded," the pupils of the lowest 
year's work placed under one teacher, and those of the next 
degree of advancement under a second teacher ; perhaps 
from eight to twenty teachers in the same building, thus form- 
ing a "union school," as it is called in some sections. Here 
there is division of labor on the part of teachers, one taking 
only classes just beginning to learn to read and write, another 
taking the pupils in a higher grade. The inevitable conse- 
quence of such division of labor is increase of skill. The 
teacher comes to know just what to do in a given case of 
obstructed progress — just what minute steps of work to 
introduce — just what thin wedges to lift the pupil over the 
threshold that holds back the feeble intellect from entering- 
a new and higher degree of human learning. 

It will be asked : What proportion of the teachers of 
cities and villages habitually use this higher method in con- 
ducting recitations. According to a careful estimate, at 
least one-half of them may reasonably claim to have some 
skill in its use ; of the one-half in the elementary schools 
who use it perhaps two-fifths conduct all their recitations so 



14 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [90 

as to make the work of their pupils help each individual in 
correcting defects of observation and critical alertness. Per- 
haps the other three-fifths use the method in teaching some 
branches, but cling to the old memoriter system for the rest. 
It may be claimed for graduates of normal schools that a 
large majority follow the better method. 

The complaint urged against the machine character of the 
modern school has been mentioned. I suppose that this 
complaint is made quite as often against good schools as 
against poor ones. But the critical-probing method of con- 
ducting a recitation is certainly not machine-like in its effects. 
It arouses in the most powerful manner the activity of the 
pupil to think and observe for himself. Machine-like schools 
do not follow this critical method, but are content with the 
memoriter system, that prescribes so many pages of the book 
to be learned verbally, but does not inquire into the pupil's 
understanding, or " apperception," as the Herbartians call it. 
It is admitted that about 50 per cent of the teachers actually 
teaching in the schools of villages and cities use this poor 
method. But it is certain that their proportion in the corps 
of teachers is diminishing, thanks to the two causes already 
alluded to : first, the multiplication of professional schools 
for the training of teachers ; and second, the employment of 
educational experts as supervisors of schools. 

The rural schools, which in the United States enroll one- 
half of the entire number of school children, certainly lack 
good class teaching, even when they are so fortunate as to 
obtain professionally educated teachers, and not five per cent 
of such schools in the land succeed in procuring better serv- 
ices than the " makeshift" teacher can give. The worst that 
can be said of these poorly taught schools is that the pupils 
are either left to help themselves to knowledge by reading 
their books under the plan of individual instruction, or, in the 
attempt at classification and grading, the average pupils 
learn something, while the bright pupils become listless and 
indolent for want of tasks commensurate with their strength 
and the backward pupils lose their courage for their want of 



91] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 5 

ability to keep step. Even under these circumstances the 
great good is accomplished that all the pupils learn the 
rudiments of reading, writing and arithmetic, and all are 
made able to become readers of the newspapers, the maga- 
zines, and finally of books. 

Another phase of the modern school that more than any- 
thing else gives it the appearance of a machine, and the 
American city schools are often condemned for their mechan- 
ism, is its discipline, or method of organization and govern- 
ment. In the rural school with twenty-five pupils, more or 
less, it makes little difference whether pupils come into the 
school room and go out in military order, so far as the work 
of the school is concerned. But in the graded school with 
three hundred to eight hundred pupils order and discipline 
are necessary down to the last particular, for the safety of 
the pupils as well as for the accomplishment of the ends for 
which the school exists. There must be regularity and 
punctuality, silence and conformity to order, in coming and 
going. The whole school seems to move like a machine. 
In the ungraded school a delightful individuality prevails, 
the pupil helping himself to knowledge by the use of the 
book, and coming and going pretty much as he pleases, with 
no subordination to rigid discipline, except perhaps when 
standing in class for recitation. 

Regularity, punctuality, silence, and conformity to order, 
— military drill, — seem at first to be so much waste of 
energy, — necessary, it is true, for the large school, but to be 
subtracted from the amount of force available for study and 
thought. But the moment the question of moral training 
comes to be investigated, the superiority of the education 
given in the large school is manifest. The pupil is taught 
to be regular and punctual in his attendance on school and 
in all his movements, not for the sake of the school alone, 
but for all his relations to his fellow-men. Social combina- 
tion is made possible by these semi-mechanical virtues. 
The pupil learns to hold back his animal impulse to chatter 
or whisper to his fellows and to interrupt their serious 



1 6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [92 

absorption in recitation or study, and by so much self- 
restraint he begins to form a good habit for life. He learns 
to respect the serious business of others. By whispering he 
can waste his own time and also that of others. In moving 
to and fro by a sort of military concert and precision he 
acquires the impulse to behave in an orderly manner, to stay 
in his own place and not get in the way of others. Hence 
he prepares for concerted action, — another important lesson 
in citizenship, leaving entirely out of account its military 
significance. 

With the increase of cities and the growth of great indus- 
trial combinations this discipline in the virtues that lie at 
the basis of concerted action is not merely important, but 
essential. In the railroad system a lack of those semi- 
mechanical virtues would entirely unfit one for a place as 
laborer or employee ; so, too, in a great mill or a great busi- 
ness house. Precision, accuracy, implicit obedience to the 
head or directive power, are necessary for the safety of 
others and for the production of any positive results. The 
rural school does not fit its pupils for an age of productive 
industry and emancipation from drudgery by means of 
machinery. But the city school performs this so well that it 
reminds some people unpleasantly of a machine. 

The ungraded school has been famous for its harsh 
methods of discipline ever since the time of the flogging 
schoolmaster Orbilius whom Horace mentions. The rural 
schoolmaster to this day often prides himself on his ability 
to " govern " his unruly boys by corporal punishment. 
They must be respectful to his authority, obedient and studi- 
ous, or else they are made to suffer bodily pain from the 
hand of the teacher. But harsh discipline leaves indura- 
tions on the soul itself, and is not compatible with a refined 
type of civilization. The schoolmaster who bullies his 
pupils into obedience does what he can to nurture them into 
the same type as himself. 

In the matter of school discipline the graded school has 
an advantage over the school of the rural district. A corps 



93] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 7 

of teachers can secure good behavior more efficiently than a 
single teacher. The system, and what is disparaged as its 
" mechanism," help this result. In many cities of the largest 
size in the United States, corporal punishment is seldom 
resorted to, or is even entirely dispensed with. (See appen- 
dix V.) The discipline of the school seems to improve 
after the discontinuance of harsh punishments. The adop- 
tion of a plan of building better suited for the purpose of 
graded schools has had much to do with the disuse of the 
rod. As long as the children to the number of one or two 
hundred studied in a large room under the eye of the prin- 
cipal of the school, and were sent out to small rooms to recite 
to assistant teachers, the order of the school was preserved 
by corporal punishment. When Boston introduced the new 
style of school building with the erection of the Quincy 
school in 1847, giving each class-teacher a room to herself, 
in which pupils to the number of fifty or so prepared their 
lessons under the eye of the same teacher that conducted 
their recitations (/. e., "heard their lessons"), anew era in 
school discipline began. It is possible to manage a school 
in such a building with little or no corporal punishment. 

The ideal of discipline is to train the pupil into habits of 
self-government. This is accomplished partly by perfecting 
the habit of moving in concert with others, and by self- 
restraint in all actions that interfere with the work of other 
pupils. 

That the public schools of cities have worked great and 
favorable changes to the advantage of civil order cannot be 
doubted. They have generally broken up the feuds that 
used to prevail between the people of different precincts. 
Learning to live without quarreling with school-fellows is an 
efficient preparation for an orderly and peaceful life with 
one's neighbors. 

The rural school, with all its shortcomings, was, and is 
to-day, a great moral force for the sparsely settled regions, 
bringing together the youth of the scattered families, and 
forming friendships, cultivating polite behavior, affording to 



1 8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [94 

each an insight into the motives and springs of action of his 
neighbors, and teaching him how to co-operate with them in 
securing a common good. 

The city school is a stronger moral force than the rural 
school because of its superior training in the social habits 
named — regularity, punctuality, orderly concerted action 
and self-restraint. 

Take any country with a school system, and compare the 
number of illiterate criminals with the total number of illit- 
erate inhabitants, and also the number of criminals able to 
read and write with the entire reading population, and it will 
be found that the representation from the illiterate popula- 
tion is many times larger than from an equal number of 
people who can read and write. I n the U nited States the pre- 
vailing ratio is about eight to one — that is to say, the illit- 
erate population sends eight times its quota to jails. In the 
prisons or penitentiaries it is found that the illiterate stratum 
of the population is represented by two and a half times its 
quota. (See part IV of this monograph.) School educa- 
tion is perhaps in this case not a cause so much as an index 
of orderly tendencies in the family. A wayward tendency 
will show itself in a dislike of the restraints of school. If, 
however, the wayward can be brought under the humanizing 
influences of school, trained in good behavior, which means 
self-restraint and orderly concerted action, interested in 
school studies and the pursuit of truth, what can do more to 
insure a moral life, unless it is religion ? 

PART II EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES 

The European student of education inquiring about 
schools always asks concerning the laws and regulations 
issued by the central government at Washington, taking for 
granted that things of such interest as education are regu- 
lated by the nation, as in Europe. 

The central government of the United States, however, 
has never attempted any control over education within the 
several states. It is further than ever from any such action 



95] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 9 

at the present time. The idea of local self-government is 
that each individual shall manage for himself such matters 
as concern him alone ; that where two or more persons are 
concerned the smallest political subdivision shall have juris- 
diction and legislative powers ; where the well-being of sev- 
eral towns is concerned the county or the state may determine 
the action taken. But where the interests of more than one 
state are concerned, the nation has ultimate control. 

While the general government has not interfered to estab- 
lish schools in the states, it has often aided them by dona- 
tions of land, and in some cases by money, as in the acts of 
1887 and 1890, which appropriate annual sums in aid of 
agricultural experiment stations and increase the endowment 
of agricultural colleges, which were formerly established in 
1862 by generous grants of land. 

The total amount of land donated to the several states 
for educational purposes since 1785 to the present have been 
as follows : 

1. For public or common schools : Acres 

Every 16th section of public land in states admitted 
prior to 1848 and the 16th and 36th sections since 
(Utah, however, having four sections). 67,893,919 

2. For seminaries or universities : 

Two townships in each state or territory contain- 
ing public land 1,165,520 

3. For agricultural and mechanical colleges : 

30,000 acres for each member of congress to which 

the state is entitled 9,600,000 

Total number of acres 78,659,439 



At the rate of one dollar and a quarter an acre (the tra- 
ditional price asked by the government for its lands) this 
amounts to about one hundred millions of dollars. 

Besides this a perpetual endowment by act of 1887 is 
made of $15,000 per annum for each agricultural experiment 
station connected with the state agricultural college, and 
$25,000 perpetual additional endowment by act of 1890 for 



20 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [96 



each of the colleges themselves — this is equivalent to a 
capitalized fund of one million dollars at four per cent for 
each state and territory, or in the aggregate about fifty- 
millions more. 

The general government supports the military school at 
West Point, established in 1802, to which each congressional 
district, territory (and the District of Columbia) is entitled 
to send one cadet, the president appointing ten additional 
cadets at large. Each cadet receives $540 a year t.o pay his 
expenses. (The course of study is four years. The num- 
ber of graduates between 1802 and 1876 was 2,640, about 
fifty per cent of all admitted.) 

The United States naval academy at Annapolis was estab- 
lished in 1845. I ts course of study in 1873 was extended to 
six years. Cadets are appointed in the same manner as at 
West Point. 

The general government provides for the education of 
the children of uncivilized Indians and for all the children in 
Alaska. There have been, besides the general grants 
referred to, special grants of land for educational purposes 
such as the "swamp lands" (Acts of 1849, 1850, i860), by 
which 62,428,419 acres were given to 14 states (Alabama, 
Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Lou- 
isiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio and 
Wisconsin) and by some of these appropriated to education. 

By the act of 1841 a half million of acres was given to 
each of sixteen states (including all above named except 
Indiana and Ohio, and besides these Kansas, Nebraska, 
Nevada and Oregon). This gives an aggregate of 8,000,000 
of acres, the proceeds of most of which was devoted to 
education. The surplus funds of the United States treasury 
were in 1837 loaned to the older states for educational 
purposes to the amount of $15,000,000 and this fund con- 
stitutes a portion of the school fund in many of the states. 

The aggregate value of lands and money given for educa- 
tion in the several states is therefore nearly three hundred 
millions of dollars. 



97] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 2 1 

In 1867 congress established a national bureau of educa- 
tion " for the purpose of collecting such statistics and facts 
as shall show the condition and progress of education in the 
several states and territories, and of diffusing such informa- 
tion respecting the organization and management of school 
systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of 
the United States in the establishment and maintenance of 
efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of 
education throughout the country." This bureau up to 
1898 has published 350 separate volumes and pamphlets 
including 30 annual reports ranging from 800 to 2,300 pages 
each. The policy of the national government is to aid 
education but not in anywise to assume its control. 

The several states repeat in the general form of their state 
constitutions the national constitution and delegate to 
the subdivisions — counties or townships — the manage- 
ment of education. (See appendix VIII, The local unit of 
school organization.) But each state possesses centralized 
power and can exercise it when the public opinion of its 
population demands such exercise. 

Compulsory attendance — Even in colonial times as far back 
as 1642 a compulsory law was enacted in Massachusetts 
inflicting penalties on parents for the neglect of education. 
In the revival of educational interest led by Horace Mann 
in the years after 1837, it was felt that there must be a state 
law, with specific provisions and penalties and this feeling 
took definite shape and produced legislative action. A 
truant law was passed in 1850 and a compulsory law in 
1852, requiring a minimum of 12 weeks attendance on school 
each year for children between the ages of eight and four- 
teen under penalty of twenty dollars. 

In the Connecticut colony in 1650 the Massachusetts law 
of 1642 was adopted. Amendments were adopted in 1805 
and 1 82 1. By a law of 181 3 manufacturing establishments 
were compelled to see that " the children in their employ 
were taught to read, write and cipher [arithmetical calcu- 
lation], and that attention was paid to their morals." In 



22 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [98 

1842 a penalty was attached to a similar law which forbade 
" the employment of children under the age of 1 5 years unless 
they had been instructed at school at least three months of 
the 12 preceding." 

The efficiency of these early laws has been denied because 
cases of prosecution have not been recorded. But a law- 
abiding people does not wait until prosecuted before obey- 
ing the law. 

The existence of a reasonable law is sufficient to secure 
its general obedience in most parts of the United States. 
But in the absence of any law on the subject the parents 
yield to their cupidity and do not send their children to 
school. The efficiency of a law is to be found in its results 
and if twenty parents in a district send their children to 
school in obedience to the law and would not otherwise have 
sent them, it follows that the law is very useful though the 
twenty-first parent is obdurate and refuses to send his chil- 
dren and yet is not prosecuted for it. 

This explanation of the working of one compulsory law 
will throw light on the working of compulsory laws in the 
twenty-seven states and territories that have passed them. 
There are exceptional localities in each state where an 
obnoxious law is openly and frequently violated, but the 
law is obeyed in all but a few places. In each locality, too, 
there are individuals who are disposed to violate the law and 
succeed in doing so, while all the citizens except these few 
obey the law because they have a law-abiding disposition. 
Abolish the law and the number who neglect the education 
of their children will increase by a large per cent. More 
and more attention has been given in later years to drafting 
compulsory laws with provisions that are sure to be effi- 
cient. The advocates of these new laws are apt in their 
pleas for more stringent laws to do injustice to the old laws. 
The following paragraphs show what states have adopted 
compulsory laws and the dates of adoption (the earlier dates 
in Connecticut and Massachusetts being unnoticed) : 

Statistics of compulsory attendance — Thirty states, one 



gg] elementary education 23 

territory and the District of Columbia have laws making 
education compulsory, generally at a public or approved 
private school. Sixteen states and one territory do not 
make education compulsory, although all of these have fully 
organized systems of schools free to every child of school 
age of whatever condition. 

The most general period of required attendance at school 
is from eight to fourteen years of age, as is the case in Ver- 
mont, District of Columbia, West Virginia, Indiana, Michi- 
gan, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Mon- 
tana, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon and California. 
It begins likewise at eight, but is extended to 15 in Maine 
and Washington, and is from eight to 16 in New Hampshire, 
Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Minnesota and New 
Mexico. 

The child is required to begin attendance at the earlier age 
of seven, and continue to 12 in New Jersey, to 13 in Wiscon- 
sin, to 14 in Massachusetts, Kentucky and Illinois; to 15 in 
Rhode Island, and to 16 in Wyoming. 

This is a general statement of age limits ; the required 
time period is in some states shortened in the case of chil- 
dren employed to labor, or extended in the case of those not 
so employed, or growing up in idleness, or illiterate. 

In Massachusetts and Connecticut the child is required to 
attend the full time that the schools are in session ; in New 
York and Rhode Island, also, the full term, with certain 
exceptions in favor of children employed to work. In Penn- 
sylvania the attendance is required for 70 per cent of the 
full term ; in California for 66 2-3 per cent ; for 20 weeks 
annually in Vermont, New Jersey, Ohio and Utah ; 16 weeks 
annually in Maine, West Virginia, Illinois, Michigan and 
Nevada; 12 weeks annually in New Hampshire, District of 
Columbia, Indiana, Wisconsin, Kansas, North Dakota, South 
Dakota, Nebraska, New Mexico, Idaho, Washington, Ore- 
gon ; and eight weeks annually in Kentucky. 

In the following states habitual truants are sent to some 
special institution (truant or industrial school, reformatory, 



24 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lOO 

parental home, etc.) : Maine, New Hampshire, Massachu- 
setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan. 

Massachusetts requires counties, and New York requires 
cities to maintain truant schools, or provide for their truants in 
the truant schools of neighboring localities. Illinois requires 
cities of over 100,000 inhabitants to maintain truant schools. 
In Rhode Island towns and cities must provide suitable places 
for the confinement and instruction of habitual truants. 

Clothing is furnished in case of poverty to enable children 
to attend school in Vermont, Indiana and Colorado. 

Laws absolutely prohibiting the employment of children 
under a specified minimum age in mercantile or manufactur- 
ing establishments are in force in New Hampshire (under 
10 years), Rhode Island (under 12), and Massachusetts and 
Connecticut (under 14). These states, together with Ver- 
mont, New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, 
North and South Dakota, have laws permitting the employ- 
ment of children of a certain age only while the schools are 
not in session, or provided they have already attended school 
a given number of weeks within the year. 

Statistics of supervision — There are county superintend- 
ents of schools in all those states where the county is a 
political unit for the administration of civil affairs other than 
courts of law. About thirty-five states have this form of 
organization. But in the six New England states and in 
Michigan the only supervision is that of the township, and 
the counties in those states are units almost solely for the 
administration of justice through county courts. In Arkan- 
sas, Texas and North Carolina supervision is only that of 
the subdivisions of townships described as districts. Louis- 
iana, Mississippi and West Virginia have a modified town- 
ship supervision. The county superintendents are elected by 
the people in only 13 states. In the rest they are appointed 
by some state or county officers, or chosen by the combined 
vote of the school boards. (See appendix VIII for an expla- 
nation of the local unit of school organization.) 



IOl] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 25 

Each state has a superintendent of public instruction. 
He has this title in 29 states ; in the remaining states other 
designations, as " superintendent of common schools," " of 
free schools," or " of public schools," " of education " or 
" commissioner of public schools," are used ; he is called 
" secretary of state board of education " in Massachusetts 
and Connecticut. 

Eight hundred and thirty-six (836) cities have superin- 
tendents of their public schools. 

School boards — In cities the local boards which have the 
management of the schools are generally termed "boards 
of education ; " in towns and districts the designations most 
generally used are "school directors" and "school trustees." 

They are termed "school directors" in Arkansas, Illinois, 
Iowa, Louisiana, Pennsylvania, Tennessee and Washington ; 
"school trustees" in Indiana, Kentucky, New Jersey, New 
York, Mississippi, Nevada, South Carolina and Texas ; 
" school boards " in Michigan, Wisconsin, Nebraska and New 
Hampshire ; " school committees " in Massachusetts and 
Rhode Island ; "school visitors" in Connecticut; "superin- 
tending school committees " in Maine ; " boards of educa- 
tion" in Ohio; and "prudential committees" in Vermont. 

These boards are similar in their constitution, powers and 
duties, and are generally chosen by the voters at elections. 
They are corporate bodies and can make contracts, acquire, 
hold and dispose of property. 

They employ teachers (and superintendents when such are 
deemed necessary) and fix their salaries. They make the 
rules and regulations for the government of the schools and 
fix the course of study and the list of text-books to be used. 
They hold meetings monthly or oftener. 

Women in school administration — There are at present 
(1899) two women holding the position of state superin- 
tendent of schools, 18 that of city superintendent, and 256 
that of county superintendent. The last named are divided 
between California, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kan- 
sas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, 



26 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l02 

Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsyl- 
vania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Washing- 
ton, Wisconsin and Wyoming. In all these states, women 
hold minor school offices also. Ohio, Maine, New Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut have 
no officers corresponding to county superintendents, but in 
all those states there are women who are members of county 
examining boards, township superintendents and the like. 
They may be district trustees or members of local school 
boards in still other states, as in New Jersey. Women may 
hold any school office in Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, 
Louisiana, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Wyo- 
ming, and any office of school management in Minnesota." 
One of the members of the Iowa educational board of exam- 
iners must be a woman. 

Women have like suffrage, in all particulars, with men in 
Colorado, Idaho, Utah and Wyoming. With certain lim- 
itations specified, in some of the states they may vote at 
school elections in Arizona, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, 
Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, 
Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North 
Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Vermont, Washing- 
ton and Wisconsin. The limitations, when there are any, 
usually restrict the suffrage of women to widows with chil- 
dren to educate, guardians and taxpayers, or to certain kinds 
of elections. 

Salaries of teachers — The expenditure for salaries in the 
public schools, teachers and superintendents both included, 
was $123,809,412, in 1897-98, or 63.8 per cent of the total 
expenditure for school purposes. The highest average sal- 
aries are found in the western division, among the Pacific 
states and territories, the average per month for men being 
$58.59, and for women $50.92, in that section of the union. 
The lowest average salaries and the least variance between 
the averages for men and women are found in the South 
Atlantic section. The averages are, for men $31.21, and 
for women $31.45. 



IO3] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 2 J 

The length of the school year must be considered in 
determining the annual salary. This period averages for 
the whole country 143. 1 days, or about seven months of 20 
days each, and ranges from 98.6 days in the south central 
division to 174.5 days in the North Atlantic. (See appendix 
VI, Teachers' pensions, etc.) 

Co-education of the sexes — In both the central and the 
western divisions the education of boys and girls in the same 
schools is common and exceptions rare in the public schools. 
In the North and South Atlantic divisions many of the older 
cities continue to educate the girls in separate schools. In 
newly-added suburban schools, however, co-education is the 
rule (as in Boston, for example). In the rural districts of 
the Atlantic divisions north and south, co-education has 
always been the custom. Considering the whole country, it 
may be said that co-education, or the education of boys and 
girls in the same classes, is the general practice in the ele- 
mentary schools of the United States. The cities that pre- 
sent exceptions to this rule are fewer, apparently, than 6 
per cent of the total number. In the majority of these 
cities the separation of boys and girls has arisen from the 
position or original arrangement of buildings, and is likely 
to be discontinued under more favorable conditions. Of 
the 50 principal cities enumerated by the census of 1890, 
4, namely, Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) ; Newark (New 
Jersey); Providence (Rhode Island) ; and Atlanta (Geor- 
gia) — report separation of the sexes in the high schools 
only ; 2 cities of this class, San Francisco (California), and 
Wilmington (Delaware), reported in 1892, separation in 
all grades above the primary. In 6 cities, New York and 
Brooklyn (New York) ; Boston (Massachusetts) ; Balti- 
more (Maryland) ; Washington (District of Columbia), and 
Louisville (Kentucky) — both separate and mixed classes 
are found in all grades. Five cities of the second class, hav- 
ing a population of 8,000 or more, report separation of the 
sexes in the high schools, and 10 cities of the same group 
separate classes in other grades. Of cities whose population 



28 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [104 

is less than 8,000, nine report separate classes for boys and 
girls in some grades. 

Co-education is the policy in about two-thirds of the total 
number of private schools reporting to this bureau, and in 65 
per cent of the colleges and universities. 

Sectarian division of school funds — In connection with this 
matter of state compulsory laws against neglect of schools it 
is well to mention the provisions made in the several states 
prohibiting appropriations of money to aid denominational 
schools. 

There are forty states with constitutional provisions for- 
bidding all, or at least sectarian diversion of the money 
raised for the support of education. 

/. Constitutions which prohibit sectarian appropriations 

— California, 1 Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, 
Indiana, 2 Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, 3 Mis- 
souri, Montana, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oregon, 2 
South Dakota, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin, 2 Wyoming, 

— 21 states. 

2. Constitutions which do not prohibit sectarian appropri- 
ations — Alabama, 4 Arkansas, 4 Connecticut, Delaware, Iowa, 4 
Kansas, Kentucky, 5 Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, 
Nebraska, 6 Nevada, 6 New Jersey, 7 New York, North Caro- 
lina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 4 Rhode Island, South Carolina, 6 
Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, — 23 states. 

j. Constitutions which prohibit any diversion of the school 
fund — Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Flor- 
ida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Min- 
nesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New 

1 Can make per capita grants to institutions. 

2 Covers only religious and theological institutions. 

3 Prohibits any devise, legacy, or gift by last will and testament to religious or 
ecclesiastical corporations or societies. 

4 Sectarian appropriations can be made by two-thirds vote of all the members 
of both houses of the legislature. 

5 Has a revised constitution pending popular adoption. 

6 Prohibits sectarian instruction in public schools. 

1 Prohibits appropriations to societies^ associations or corporations. 



IO5] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 29 

Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, 
Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South 
Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, Vir- 
ginia, Wisconsin, — 36 states. 

The local unit of school organization — The state exercises 
remote authority over all public schools in its borders. 
The county in most states has a closer supervision of all 
schools in its limits, but has very little to do with schools in 
New England. In certain states it becomes the unit for the 
entire local administration of public schools. The town or 
township takes more or less of the local functions in other 
states, and the district becomes a local unit for variable 
functions in yet others. In 35 counties of Texas there is a 
community system. Counties generally receive, hold and 
disburse moneys for townships and districts formed by sub- 
division of counties. Towns or townships generally hold 
the same relation to districts formed by division of towns 
or townships. In a few states districts have their own tax 
collectors and treasurers. 

The summarized statement below shows the principal 
agency through which local support and control of schools is 
exercised, special laws excepted, under which cities, towns 
and independent districts exist. 

County — Alabama, with either town or township ; Florida, 
with provision for districts of limited power ; Georgia ; Lou- 
isiana, recognizing congressional townships in accounts of 
sixteenth section land funds ; Maryland ; Mississippi, with 
provision for separate districts ; North Carolina, with dis- 
tricts capable of holding real estate ; Tennessee, with some 
local functions in districts and only supervisory powers in 
sub-districts ; Utah, with provision for division. 

Town or township — Alabama, the congressional township r 
for administrative convenience, its officers appointed and its 
accounts kept by county officers ; Connecticut, the town may 
abolish districts ; Illinois, township based on congressional 
township or district, optional ; Indiana, New Jersey, Ohio 

1 The expression " congressional township " refers to the division established in 
new territories by the government survey. Lines of latitude and longitude cross 
one another six statute miles apart, making townships exactly six miles square. 



3Q 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lo6 



and Pennsylvania, each township, incorporated town or city 
(or borough in Pennsylvania), a district corporation for 
school purposes ; Iowa, township based on congressional 
township, with sub-districts for supervisory convenience and 
independent districts, both in use ; Maine, Massachusetts ; 
Minnesota, township may be a district as a part of a county ; 
New Hampshire ; New York, recognized for certain land 
funds, but districts generally ; North Dakota, based on con- 
gressional township ; Rhode Island, may create or abolish 
districts ; South Dakota, based on congressional township ; 
Vermont, Wisconsin, optional in formation of districts. 

District — Arkansas, Arizona, California, Colorado ; Con- 
necticut, where not abolished by the town ; Delaware, 
Florida, Idaho ; Illinois, optional with townships ; Iowa, 
independent districts as well as townships ; Kansas, Minne- 
sota, Missouri, districts may be less than townships ; Ken- 
tucky, Michigan, Mississippi, optional ; Montana, Nebraska ; 
Nevada, each village, town or city is a district ; New Mexico ; 
New York, commissioner's district, a county or part of a 
county, has supervisory authority, school districts are parts 
of commissioners' districts, towns recognized for certain 
land funds ; North Carolina, with limited powers as stated 
under county ; Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina ; Ten- 
nessee, with limited powers as stated under county ; Texas, 
but cities may acquire exclusive control of their schools, 
towns and villages may be incorporated for school purposes 
only, in 35 community counties families associate from year 
to year to support schools and draw their share, of public 
money ; Utah, permissible as stated under county ; Virginia, 
West Virginia, corresponding geographically to magisterial 
districts ; Washington, each city or town (incorporated) ; 
Wisconsin, optional, see town or township ; Wyoming. 

PART III THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

A committee appointed by the National Educational Asso- 
ciation in 1894 prepared a course of study for the eight years 
of the elementary schools recommending two innovations, 



IO7] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 3 1 

namely, the introduction of Latin, French or German in the 
eighth year and algebra in the seventh and eighth years. 
The following presents the course as given in the report of 
the committee together with a conspectus in the nature of a 
yearly program. 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COURSE 

Reading. Eight years, with daily lessons. 

Penmanship. Six years, ten lessons per week for first two years, 
five for third and fourth, and three for fifth and sixth. 

Spelling Lists. Fourth, fifth and sixth years, four lessons per week. 

Grammar. Oral, with composition or dictation, first year to mid- 
dle of fifth year, text-book from middle of fifth year to close 
of seventh year, five lessons per week. (Composition writing 
should be included under this head. But the written exami- 
nations on the several branches should be counted under the 
head of composition work.) 

Latin or French v or German. Eighth year, five lessons per week. 

Arithmetic. Oral first and second year, text-book third to sixth 
year, five lessons per week. 

Algebra. Seventh and eighth years, five lessons per week. 

Geography. Oral lessons second year to middle of third year, 
text-book from middle of third year, five lessons weekly to 
seventh year, and three lessons to close of eighth. 

Natural Science and Hygiene. Oral lessons, 60 minutes per week, 
eight years. 

History of United States. Five hours per week seventh year and 
first half of eighth year. 

Constitution of United States. Last half of the eighth year. 

General History and Biography. Oral lessons, 60 minutes a 
week, eight years. 

Physical Culture. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 

Vocal Music. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 

Drawing. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 

Manual Training or Sewing and Cooking. One-half day each week 
in seventh and eighth years. 



32 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



[108 



GENERAL PROGRAM 



BRANCHES 


ISt 

year 


2d 
year 


3 d 

year 


4th 
year 


5th 
year 


6th 
year 


7th 
year 


8th 
year 




10 lessons a 
week 


5 lessons a week 




10 lessons a 
week 


5 lessons a 
week 


3 lessons a 
week 
















4 lessons a week 










Oral, with composition 
lessons 


5 lessons a week 
with text-book 








Latin, French, or German. 










j 




5 les- 
sons 




Oral, 60 min- 
utes a week 


5 lessons a week with 
text-book 






















5 lessons a 
week 








Oral, 60 , , 
' e. lessons a week 
minutes J •.-, . , ■, -, 
, with text-book 
a week 


3 lessons a 
week 


Natural Science-|-Hygiene 


Sixty minutes a week 


United States History .... 














5 lessons 
a week 




United States Constitution 


















5 
Is 




Oral, sixty minutes a week 






Sixty minutes a week 






Sixty minutes a week divided into 4 lessons 






Sixty minutes a week 




Manual Training or Sew- 














One-half day 
each week 








20+7 
daily 
exer. 


20+7 
daily 
exer. 


20+5 
daily 
exer. 


24+5 
daily 
exer. 


27+5 
daily 
exer. 


27+5 
daily 
exer. 


23+6 
daily 
exer. 


23+6 
daily 
exer. 


Total Hours of Recitations 


12 


12 


11 2-3 


13 


16 1-4 


16 1-4 


17 1-2 


17 1-2 


Length of Recitations.... 


15 min 


I5min 


2omin 


20 min 


25 min 


25 min 


30mm 


30 min 






IO9] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 33 

The subjects actually taught in the elementary schools — In 

the report of the National bureau of education for 1888-89 
(pp. 373-410), from a selected list of 82 of the most 
important cities of the nation, statistics are given showing 
the amount of time consumed in the entire eight years of 
the elementary course on each of the branches constituting 
the curriculum. The returns included 26 branches, one 
of which was spelling. The total number of hours of 
instruction in the entire eight years varied in the different 
cities from 3,000 to 9,000, with a general average of about 
7,000 hours, which would mean that each pupil used about 
four and a half hours per day for 200 days in actual study 
and in recitation or class exercises. The amount of time 
reported as used by pupils in studying and reciting spelling 
during the eight years varied from about 300 to 1,200 hours, 
with an average of 516. This means that from 37 to 150 
hours a year, with average of 77 hours a year for eight years, 
was devoted to spelling. The English speaking child who 
learns to read has to use an inordinate amount of time in 
memorizing the difficult combinations of letters used to rep- 
resent English words. 

This report of the bureau of education gives the time 
devoted to reading in 82 cities as ranging from about 600 to 
about 2,000 hours, and the average as 1,188 hours. Thus 
from 75 to 250 hours a year, with an average of 150, are 
spent in learning to read. 

Geography is reported as using from 200 to 1,000 hours, 
with an average of about 500, or 25 to 125 hours per year, 
the average being rather more than 60 hours a year. This, 
we see, is less than the time devoted to spelling. 

Arithmetic, as shown by the report, still receives more 
attention than any other branch. The amount of time used 
varies from 600 to 2,240 hours, with an average of about 
1,190 hours — that is to say, from 75 to 280 hours per year 
— an average of 150 hours a year. No other nation gives 
so much time to arithmetic. The question naturally arises 
whether corresponding results are obtained in the mastery 



34 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [i IO 

of this difficult branch, and whether so much arithmetic 
strengthens or weakens the national character on the whole. 

Turning from arithmetic to grammar, we find a great 
falling off in the amount of attention it receives compared 
with the time assigned to it a few years ago. The 82 cities 
report a very large substitution of " language lessons " for 
technical grammar. Grammar proper gets from 65 to 680 
hours of the course, with an average of about 300 hours. 
This would allow from 8 to 80 hours, with an average of 38 
hours per year, if distributed over the entire course. But it 
is evident that grammar proper is, as a study, not profitable 
to take up until the seventh year of the course of study. 
But the language lessons, which are practiced in all the 
grades above the lowest two, more than compensate for any 
curtailment in technical grammar and " parsing." 

Mathematics gives an insight into the nature of matter 
and motion, for their form is quantitative. But the form of 
mind on the other hand is shown in consciousness — a sub- 
ject and object. The mind is always engaged in predicating 
something of something, always modifying something by 
something, and the categories of this mental operation are 
the categories of grammar, and appear as parts of speech. 
The child by the study of grammar gets some practice in the 
use of these categories and acquires unconsciously a power 
of analysis of thoughts, motives and feelings, which is of 
the most practical character. 

History, which gives an insight into human nature as it is 
manifested in social wholes — tribes, nations and peoples — 
is a study of the elementary school, usually placed in the 
last year or two of the course, with a text-book on the his- 
tory of the United States. The returns from the 82 cities 
show that this study everywhere holds its place, and that it 
receives more than one-half as much time as grammar. Con- 
sidering the fact that grammar is begun a year earlier, this is 
better than we should expect. With history there is usually 
joined the study of the constitution of the United States for 
one-quarter of the year. Besides this, some schools have 



Ill] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 35 

taken up a special text-book devoted to civics, or the duties 
of citizens. History ranges from 78 to 460 hours, with an 
average of about 150. 

General history has not been introduced into elementary 
schools, except in a few cases by oral lessons. Oral lessons 
on physiology, morals and manners, and natural science have 
been very generally introduced. The amount of time 
assigned in 66 cities to physiology averages 169 hours ; to a 
course of lessons in morals and manners in 27 cities 167 
hours ; to natural science on an average in the 39 cities that 
give a systematic course of lessons, 1 76 hours. 

Singing is quite general in all the schools, and instruction 
in vocal music is provided for in many cities. Lessons in 
cookery are reported in New Haven (80 hours) ; and Wash- 
ington, D. C. (114 hours). It is also taught in Boston, and 
many other cities not reporting it in the list of 82. 

Physical culture is very generally taught. Of the 82 cities, 
63 report it as receiving on an average 249 hours a year. 

Manual training — Manual training is by no means a nov- 
elty in American schools. Thomas Jefferson recommended 
it for the students of the University of Virginia, and Ben- 
jamin Franklin included it in his plan for an academy in 
Philadelphia. An active propaganda was carried on in 
behalf of manual labor in educational institutions for many 
years, beginning about 1830, and some of our foremost 
institutions had their origin under its influence. But what 
is now known as " manual training " is traced to an exhibit 
of a Russian institution at the centennial exposition in 
1876. The value of the system of hand training there sug- 
gested was recognized by such men as John D. Runkle and 
C. M. Woodward, who became advocates of the new idea 
and introduced it into the institutions under their charge. 
Strong opposition was met among schoolmen for a time, but 
manual training has steadily grown in popularity, and with 
its growth it has constantly improved in matter and method, 
and consequently in usefulness. In 1898 manual training 
was an essential feature in the public school course of 149 



36 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lI2 

cities. In 359 institutions other than city schools there is 
training which partakes more or less of the nature of man- 
ual training, and which belongs in a general way to the same 
movement. These institutions embrace almost every class 
known to American education, and the manual features vary 
from the purely educational manual training of the Teach- 
ers college in New York city to the specific trade instruction 
of the apprentice schools. 

In many cases the legislatures have taken cognizance of 
the movement. Massachusetts requires every city of 20,000 
inhabitants to maintain manual training courses in both ele- 
mentary and high schools. Maine authorizes any city or 
town to provide instruction in industrial or mechanical draw- 
ing to pupils over 15 years of age; industrial training is 
authorized by general laws in Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana 
(in cities of over 100,000 population), Maryland, New Jer- 
sey, New York, Pennsylvania, Utah, Wisconsin and Wyo- 
ming. Congressional appropriations are regularly made for 
manual training in the District of Columbia ; Georgia author- 
izes county manual labor schools, and in Washington manual 
training must be taught in each school under the control of 
the State normal school. 

Kindergartens — Kindergartens are authorized by general 
law in Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, 
Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsyl- 
vania, Vermont and Wisconsin. 

Cities also establish kindergartens through powers inherent 
in their charters. In 1897-98 there were public kinder- 
gartens in 189 of the 626 cities of 8,000 population and over. 
In these 189 cities there were 1,365 separate kindergartens 
supported by public funds. The number of kindergarten 
teachers employed was 2,532, and under their care were 
95,867 children, 46,577 boys and 49,290 girls. 

Information was obtained concerning 2,998 private kinder- 
gartens in 1897-98 and it is probable that at least 500 others 
were in existence. The 2,998 private kindergartens had 
6,405 teachers and 93,737 pupils. It will be seen that the 



II3] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 37 

total number of kindergartens, public and private, was 4,363, 
with 8,937 teachers and 189,604 pupils. The actual number 
of pupils enrolled in kindergartens in the United States in 
1897-98 must have exceeded 200,000. 

PART IV THE PLACE OF POPULAR EDUCATION IN THE IDEALS 

OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 

Education in the United States is regarded as something 
organic — something belonging essentially to our political 
and social structure. Daniel Webster announced, in his 
clear and incisive manner, this necessity that appertains to 
the American form of government. He said: "On the 
diffusion of education among the people rests the preserva- 
tion and perpetuation of our free institutions. I apprehend 
no danger to our country from a foreign foe. * * * Our 
destruction, should it come at all, will be from another 
quarter. From the inattention of the people to the con- 
cerns of the government, from their carelessness and negli- 
gence, I confess I do apprehend some danger. I fear that 
they may place too implicit confidence in their public serv- 
ants, and fail properly to scrutinize their conduct ; that in 
this way they may be the dupes of designing men and 
become the instruments of their undoing. Make them intel- 
ligent and they will be vigilant ; give them the means of 
detecting the wrong and they will apply the remedy." 

We are making the experiment of self-government — a 
government of the people by the people — and it has seemed 
a logical conclusion to all nations of all times that the rulers 
of the people should have the best education attainable. 
Then, of course, it follows that the entire people of a democ- 
racy should be educated for they are the rulers. 

Quoting again from Webster's Plymouth oration in 1822 : 
" By general instruction we seek as far as possible to purify 
the whole atmosphere, to keep good sentiments uppermost, 
and to turn the strong current of feeling and opinion, as 
well as the censures of the law and the denunciations of 
religion, against immorality and crime." 



38 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [114 

This necessity for education has been felt in all parts of 
the nation, and the whole subject is reasoned out in many a 
school report published by city or state. By education we 
add to the child's experience the experience of the human 
race. His own experience is necessarily one-sided and 
shallow ; that of the race is thousands of years deep, and it 
is rounded to fullness. Such deep and rounded experience 
is what we call wisdom. To prevent the child from making 
costly mistakes we give him the benefit of seeing the lives of 
others. The successes and failures of one's fellow-men 
instruct each of us far more than our own experiments. 

The school attempts to give this wisdom in a systematic 
manner. It uses the essential means for its work in the 
shape of text-books, in which the experience of the race is 
digested and stated in a clear and summary manner, in its 
several departments, so that a child may understand it. He 
has a teacher to direct his studies and instruct him in the 
proper methods of getting out of books the wisdom recorded 
in them. He is taught first in the primary school how to 
spell out the words and how to write them himself. Above 
all, he is taught to understand the meaning of the words. 
All first use of words reaches only a few of their many sig- 
nifications ; each word has many meanings and uses, but the 
child gets at only one meaning, and that the simplest and 
vaguest, when he begins. His school work is to train him 
into accuracy and precision in the interpretation of language. 
He learns gradually to fill each word of the printed page 
with its proper meaning. He learns to criticise the state- 
ments he reads, and to test them in his own experience and 
by comparison with other records of experience. 

In other words, the child at school is set to work to enlarge 
his own puny life by the addition of the best results of 
other lives. There is no other process so well adapted to 
insure a growth in self-respect as the mastery of the thought 
of the thinkers who have stored and systematized the expe- 
rience of mankind. 

This is the clue to the hopes founded on education. The 



I I 5 J" ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 59 

patriotic citizen sees that a government managed by illiterate 
people is a government of one-sided and shallow experi- 
ence, and that a government by the educated classes insures 
the benefits of a much wider knowledge of the wise ways of 
doing things. 

The work of the school produces self-respect, because the 
pupil makes himself the measure of his fellows and grows to 
be equal to them spiritually by the mastery of their wisdom. 
Self-respect is the root of the virtues and the active cause 
of a career of growth in power to know and power to do. 
Webster called the free public school " a wise and liberal 
system of police, by which property and the peace of society 
are secured." He explained the effect of the school as excit- 
ing " a feeling of responsibility and a sense of character." 

This, he saw, is the legitimate effect ; for, as the school 
causes its pupils to put on the forms of thought given them 
by the teacher and by the books they use — causes them to 
control their personal impulses, and to act according to rules 
and regulations — causes them to behave so as to combine 
with others and get help from all while they in turn give 
help ; as the school causes the pupil to put off his selfish 
promptings, and to prefer the forms of action based on a 
consideration of the interests of others — it is seen that the 
entire discipline of the school is ethical. Each youth edu- 
cated in the school has been submitted to a training in the 
habit of self-control and of obedience to social order. He 
has become to some extent conscious of two selves ; the one 
his immediate animal impulse, and the second his moral 
sense of conformity to the order necessary for the harmoni- 
ous action of all. 

The statistics of crime confirm the anticipations of the 
public in regard to the good effects of education. The jails 
of the country show pretty generally the ratio of eight to 
one as the quotas of delinquents furnished from a given 
number of illiterates as compared with an equal number of 
those who can read and write. Out of 10,000 illiterates 
there will be eight times as many criminals as out of 10,000 



40 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ll6 

who can read and write. In a state like Michigan, for exam- 
ple, where less than five per cent of the people are illiterate, 
there are 30 per cent of the criminals in jail who are illiter- 
ate. The 95 per cent who are educated to read and write 
furnish the remaining 70 per cent. 

In comparing fractions, it is necessary to consider the 
denominators as well as the numerators. Comparing only 
the numerators, we should say education produces more 
crime than illiteracy ; for here are only 30 per cent of those 
criminals from the illiterate class, but 70 per cent are from 
those who can read and write. On the other hand, taking 
the denominators also into consideration, we say : But there 
are less than five per cent illiterates and more than 95 of 
educated persons in the entire adult population. Hence the 
true ratio is found, by combining the two fractions, to be 
one-eighth, or one to eight for the respective quotas fur- 
nished, (f : g : : 8 : 1). 

The penitentiaries, or state prisons, contain the selected 
criminals who have made more serious attacks on person 
and property and on the majesty of the law than those left 
in the jails. These, therefore, come to a larger extent from 
the 70 per cent of arrests which are from the educated class ; 
and it is found, by comparing the returns of the 20 odd states 
that keep records of illiteracy, that the illiterates furnish 
from two to four times their quota for the prisons, while 
they furnish eight times their quota for the jails and houses 
of correction. 

But it is found on investigation that the criminals who can 
read and write are mostly from the ranks bordering on illit- 
eracy. They may be described as barely able to read and 
write, but without training in the use of those arts for 
acquainting themselves with the experience and wisdom of 
their fellow-men. 1 

1 A point is made that those states which have the completest systems of educa- 
tion have the most criminals in their jails and prisons. This is true, but its sig- 
nificance is not read aright until one sees by an analysis of the causes of arrest 
that it is not a real increase of crime, but an increase of zeal on the part of the 
community to abolish the seeds of crimes, to repress the vices that lead to crime. 



117] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 41 

It is against all reason and all experience that the school 
whose two functions are to secure good behavior and an 
intelligent acquaintance with the lessons of human experi- 
ence, should not do what Webster said, namely, " Prevent 
in some measure the extension of the penal code, by inspir- 
ing a salutary and conservative principle of virtue and of 
knowledge in an early age." 

Thus the political problem, which proposes to secure the 
general welfare by intrusting the management of the gov- 
ernment to representatives chosen by all the people, finds 
its solution in the establishment of schools for the people. 

PART V HISTORICAL BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED 

STATES 

All who become interested in the system of education pre- 
vailing in the United States and see the direct bearing it has 
on the realization of the ideal of self-government, feel an 
interest in the question of its origin. Anything is best 
understood when seen in the perspective of its history. We 
see not only what is present before us but its long trend 
hitherward. 

The school is the auxiliary institution founded for the 
purpose of reinforcing the education of the four funda- 
mental institutions of civilization. These are the family, 
civil society (devoted to providing for the wants of food, 
clothing, and shelter), the state, the church. The character- 
istic of the school is that it deals with the means necessary 
for the acquirement, preservation, and communication of 
intelligence. The mastery of letters and of mathematical 
symbols ; of the technical terms used in geography and gram- 
mar and the sciences ; the conventional meaning of the lines 
used on maps to indicate water or mountains or towns or 
latitude and longitude, and the like. The school devotes 

In Massachusetts, for example, there were in 1850, 3,351 arrests for drunkenness, 
while in 1885, the number had increased to 18,701. But meanwhile the crimes 
against person and property had decreased from i860 to 1885 forty-four per cent, 
making allowance for increase of population. Life and property had become 
more safe, but drunkenness had become less safe. 



42 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ll8 

itself to instructing the pupil on these dry details of arts 
that are used to record systematic knowledge. These con- 
ventionalities once learned, the youth has acquired the art 
of self-help ; he can of his own effort open the door and 
enter the treasure-house of literature and science. What- 
ever his fellow-men have done and recorded he can now 
learn by sufficient diligence of his own. 

The difference between the part of education acquired in 
the family and that acquired in the school is immense and 
incalculable. The family arts and trades, manners and 
customs, habits and beliefs, form a sort of close-fitting 
spiritual vesture : a garment of the soul always worn, and 
expressive of the native character not so much of the indi- 
vidual as of his tribe or family or community. The indi- 
vidual has from his birth been shaped into these things as 
by a mould ; all his thinking and willing and feeling have 
been moulded into the form or type of humanity looked 
upon as the ideal by his parents and acquaintances. 

This close-fitting garment of habit gives him direction but 
not self-direction or freedom. He does what he does blindly, 
from the habit of following custom and doing as others do. 

But the school gives a different sort of training, — its 
discipline is for the freedom of the individual. The educa- 
tion of the family is in use and wont and it trains rather than 
instructs. The result is unconscious habit and ungrounded 
prejudice or inclination. Its likes and dislikes are not 
grounded in reason, being unconscious results of early train- 
ing. But the school lays all its stress on producing a con- 
sciousness of the grounds and reasons of things. I should 
not say all its stress ; for the school does in fact lay much 
stress on what is called discipline, — on habits of alert and 
critical attention, on regularity and punctuality, and self- 
control and politeness. But the mere mention of these 
elements of discipline shows that they, too, are of a higher 
order than the habits of the family, inasmuch as they all 
require the exertion of both will and intellect consciously 
in order to attain them. The discipline of the school forms 



II9] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 43 

a sort of conscious superstructure to the unconscious basis 
of habits which have been acquired in the family. 

School instruction, on the other hand, is given to the 
acquirement of techniques ; the technique of reading and 
writing, of mathematics, of grammar, of geography, history, 
literature, and science in general. 

One is astonished when he reflects upon it at first, to see 
how much is meant by this word technique. All products of 
human reflection are defined and preserved by words used in 
a technical sense. The words are taken out of their collo- 
quial sense, which is a loose one except when employed as 
slang. For slang is a spontaneous effort in popular speech 
to form technical terms. 

The technical or conventional use of signs and symbols 
enables us to write words and record mathematical calcula- 
tions ; the technical use of words enables us to express 
clearly and definitely the ideas and relations of all science. 
Outside of technique all is vague hearsay. The fancy pours 
into the words it hears such meanings as its feelings prompt. 
Instead of science there is superstition. 

The school deals with technique in this broad sense of 
the word. The mastery of the technique of reading, writ- 
ing, geography and history lifts the pupil into a plane of 
freedom hitherto not known to him. He can now by his 
own effort master for himself the wisdom of the race. 

By the aid of such instruments as the family education has 
given him he cannot master the wisdom of the race, but only 
pick up a few of its results, such as the custom of his com- 
munity preserves. By the process of hearsay and oral 
inquiry it would take the individual a lifetime to acquire 
what he can get in six months by the aid of the instruments 
which the school places in his hands. For the school gives 
the youth the tools of thought. 

Immigrants to America in the colonial period laid stress 
on the establishment of schools. The ideas of Luther 
were echoed by reformers in Holland, Sweden, Switzer- 
land and elsewhere. Education is called " the foundation 



44 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l20 

of the commonwealth," in 1583, in a school law of Holland. 
At that time there was a stringent school law passed. In 
Sweden education was common before 1650, and every peas- 
ant's child was taught to read. 

Boston, in 1635, voted a school and funds to support a 
master. Roxbury was quite active in the founding of free 
schools. Plymouth, Weymouth, Dorchester, Salem, Cam- 
bridge, and other towns had schools before 1650. A law of 
the general court of Massachusetts decreed that in every 
town the selectmen should prosecute those who refused to 
"train their children in learning and labor," and to impose a 
fine of 20 shillings on those who neglected to teach their 
children " so much learning as may enable them perfectly 
to read the English tongue." 

Schools were established in the Connecticut colonies 
immediately after their settlement. The Rhode Island col- 
onies had schools by 1650. In 1636 occurred the important 
vote of the general court of Massachusetts, setting apart 
four hundred pounds for the establishment of a college which 
was endowed two years afterward by John Harvard, receiv- 
ing 1700 pounds and named from its benefactor. The 
public Latin school of Boston dates from 1635. Meanwhile 
in New York the Dutch had brought over their zeal for 
education. The Dutch West India company, in 162 1, 
charged its colonists to maintain a clergyman and a school- 
master. It seems that in 1625 the colonial estimate included 
a clergyman at 1440 florins, and a schoolmaster at 360 
florins. In 1633 the first schoolmaster arrived — Adam 
Roelandson. His name is revered like that of Ezekiel 
Cheever and Philomon Purmont, schoolmasters of early 
Boston. 

As regards common schools in Virginia, the opinion of the 
royal governor, Berkeley, is often quoted : " I thank God 
there be no free schools nor printing-presses, and I hope we 
shall not have them these hundred years ; for learning has 
brought disobedience and heresy and sects into the world, 
and printing has divulged them and libels against the best 



I2l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 45 

of governments : God keep us from both." The governor 
of the Connecticut colony answered to a question (appar- 
ently of the commissioners of foreign plantations) : " One- 
fourth of the annual revenue of this colony is laid out in 
maintaining free schools for the education of our children." 

Apropos to this utterance of Berkeley, against whom the 
more progressive spirit of Virginia arose in rebellion in 1676, 
there should be quoted a more noteworthy sentence from the 
Virginian, Thomas Jefferson, who wrote (to J. C. Cabell) in 
181 8: "A system of general instruction which shall reach 
every description of our citizens from the richest to the 
poorest, as it was my earliest, so shall it be the latest of all 
the public concerns in which I shall permit myself to take 
an interest." 

In 1647 the Massachusetts general court passed what has 
become the most celebrated of the early school laws of the 
colonies. In it occurs the often-quoted passage : " To the 
end that learning may not be buried in the graves of our 
forefathers, * * * it is ordered that every township 
within this jurisdiction * * * of the number of fifty 
households shall appoint one within their town to teach all 
such children as shall resort to him to write and read, whose 
wages shall be paid either by the parents or masters of such 
children, or by the inhabitants in general * * * further 
ordered that any town * * * of one hundred * * * 
householders * * * shall set up a grammar school, the 
master thereof being able to instruct youths so far as they 
may be fitted for the university." This law attached a pen- 
alty to its violation. " Grammar " meant Latin grammar at 
that period. 

New Jersey established schools as early as 1683, and an 
example of a permanent school fund is found in an appro- 
priation made that year. In 1693 a law compelled citizens 
to pay their shares for the maintenance of a school. In 
1726 a clergyman from Pennsylvania established in New 
Jersey a classical school that grew in after times into Prince- 
ton college. 



46 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l22 

The original charter given William Penn required that 
the government of his colony should erect and aid public 
schools. Within 20 years after its settlement, schools were 
founded in Philadelphia, and others in towns of that colony. 

The management of the district (elementary) schools 
began in most cases with the church and gradually came 
into the hands of the smallest political subdivision, known as 
"districts." Each township was divided into districts for 
school purposes, and for minor political purposes such as 
repair of the public highways. Each district contained an 
average of four square miles, with a schoolhouse near the cen- 
ter of population, usually a little distance from some village, 
and holding a maximum of forty or fifty pupils. The school 
committee employed teachers. The schools held a three 
months' session in the winter, and sometimes this was made 
four months. The winter school was nearly always " kept " 
by a man. There might be a summer school for a brief 
session kept by a woman. Wages for the winter school, 
even as late as 1840, in the rural districts of New England, 
were six to ten dollars a month. The schoolmaster might 
be a young college student trying to earn money during his 
vacation to continue his course in college. More commonly 
he was a surveyor, or clerk, or a farmer who had a slender 
store of learning but who could " keep order." He pos- 
sessed the faculty to keep down the boisterous or rebellious 
pupils and could hear the pupils recite their lessons memor- 
ized by them from the book. 

There were in some places school societies, semi-public 
corporations, that founded and managed the schools, receiv- 
ing more or less aid from the public funds. Such associa- 
tions provided much of the education in New York, Phila- 
delphia, and in many parts of New England before the 
advent of the public school. 

When the villages began to catch the urban spirit and 
establish graded schools with a full annual session, there 
came a demand for a higher order of teacher, the profes- 
sional teacher, in short. This caused a comparison of ideals ; 



I23] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 47 

the best enlightened in the community began an agita- 
tion of the school question, and supervision was demanded. 
In Massachusetts, where the urban civilization had made 
most progress, this agitation resulted in the formation of a 
state board of education in 1837, and the employment of 
Horace Mann as its secretary (June, 1837). Boston had 
been connected with Providence, Worcester and Lowell by 
railroads before 1835, and in 1842 the first great trunk rail- 
road had been completed through Springfield to Albany, 
opening to Boston a communication with the great west by 
the Erie canal and the newly completed railroad from Albany 
to Buffalo. This was the beginning of the great urban epoch 
in America that has gone on increasing the power of the 
city to this day. 

The number of cities containing 8,000 inhabitants and 
upwards, was, in 1790, only six; between 1800 and 18 10 it 
had increased to 1 1 ; in 1820 to 13 ; in 1830, 26; in 1840, 
44; in the fifty years between 1840 and 1890 it increased 
from 44 to 443, or 10 times the former number. The urban 
population of the country in 1790 was, according to the 
superintendent of the census (see Bulletin No. 52, April 17, 
1791), only one in 30 of the population; in 1840 it had 
increased to one in 12 ; in 1890, to one in three. In fact, 
if we count the towns on the railroads that are made urban 
by their close connection with the large cities, and the subur- 
ban districts, it is safe to say that now one-half of the popu- 
lation is urban. 

Horace Mann came to the head of education in Massachu- 
setts just at the beginning of the epoch of railroads and the 
growth of cities. He attacked with unsparing severity the 
evils of the schools as they had been. The school district 
system, introduced into Connecticut in 1701, into Rhode 
Island about 1750, and into Massachusetts in 1789, was pro- 
nounced by him to be the most disastrous feature in the 
whole history of educational legislation in Massachusetts. 

Horace Mann extended his criticisms and suggestions to 
the examination of teachers and their instruction in teachers' 



48 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ I2 4 

institutes ; to the improvement of school buildings ; the 
raising of school funds by taxation ; the creating of a cor- 
rect public opinion on school questions ; the care for vicious 
youth in appropriate schools. He discarded the hide-bound 
text-book method of teaching and substituted the oral dis- 
cussion of the topic in place of the memorizing of the words 
of the book. He encouraged school libraries and school 
apparatus. 

Horace Mann's influence founded the first normal school 
in the United States at Lexington (afterwards moved to 
Framingham), and a second one founded at Bridgewater in 
the fall of the same year (1839). 

Inspired by the example in Massachusetts, Connecticut 
was aroused by Henry Barnard, who carried through the 
legislature the act organizing a state board of commissioners, 
and became himself the first secretary of it (1839). I R ^49, 
Connecticut established a normal school. In 1843, Mr. 
Barnard went to Rhode Island and assisted in drawing up 
the state school law under which he became the first com- 
missioner, and labored there six years. 

These were the chief fermenting influences in education 
that worked a wide change in the management of schools in 
the middle and western states within the past fifty years. 

Superintendents of city school systems began in 1837 
with Buffalo. Providence followed in 1839; New Orleans 
in 1841 ; Cleveland in 1844; Baltimore in 1849; Cincinnati 
in 1850; Boston in 1851 ; New York, San Francisco and 
Jersey City in 1852 ; Newark and Brooklyn in 1853 ; Chi- 
cago and St. Louis in 1854 ; and finally Philadelphia in 1883. 

State superintendents began with New York, 1813 ; New 
York was followed by 16 of the states before 1850. From 
1 85 1 to the civil war, eight states established the office 
of state superintendent ; since then, nineteen other states, 
including 10 in the south, that had no state systems of 
education previously. 

Normal schools in the United States increased from one, 
beginning in 1839 m Massachusetts, to 138 public and 46 



I25] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 49 

private normal schools in 1889, with an attendance of 
upwards of 28,000 students preparing for the work of teach- 
ing. This would give a total of some twelve thousand a 
year of new teachers to meet the demand. It may be 
assumed, therefore, that less than one-sixth of the supply of 
new teachers comes from the training schools specially 
designed to educate teachers. 

The history of education since the time of Horace Mann 
is very largely an account of the successive modifications 
introduced into elementary schools through the direct or 
indirect influence of the normal school. 



5° 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



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54 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



[l30 



APPENDIX III — Common school statistics of the United States 





1870—71 


1879-80 


1889-90 


1897-98 a 


I — General statistics 


39 S°° 5°° 
12 305 600 

7 5 Sl S82 
19.14 

61.45 

4 545 317 

60.1 

132. 1 

600 432 802 

48.7 
79-4 


5° 155 783 
15 065 767 

9 867 505 
19.67 

65.50 

6 144 143 

62.3 

J 3°-3 

800 719 970 

53-i 
81. 1 


62 622 250 
18 543 201 

12 722 581 
20.32 

68.61 

8 153 635 
64.1 

*34-7 
1 098 232 725 

59-2 
86.3 


72 737 100 
21 458 294 

15 038 636 
20.68 

70.08 

10 286 092 

68.4 

143- 1 

1 471 435 367 

68.6 


Number of different pupils enrolled on the 


Per cent of persons 5 to 18 years of age 






Aggregate number of days attended 

Average number for each person 5 to 18 


Average number for each pupil enrolled. . . . 


97.8 




90293 

129 932 


122 795 
163 7 g8 


125 525 
238 397 


131 75° 
277 443 








220 225 
41.0 


286 593 
42.8 


363 922 
34-5 


409 193 
32.2 

b $45 16 

b $38 74 

242 390 

$492 703 781 




Average monthly wages of teachers: 












132 tig 
$143 818 703 


178 222 
$20 9571 718 


224 526 

$342 53 1 79i 






II — Financial statistics 
Receipts : 






$7 744 765 
26 345 323 
97 222 426 
11 882 292 


$9 213 323 
35 600 643 
134 104 053 
20 399 578 
































$143 194 806 


$199 317 597 








Per cent of total derived from — 






5-4 
18.4 
67.9 

8-3 


4.6 
17.9 

*57-3 




























Expenditures : 

For sites, buildings, furniture, libraries, 






$26 207 041 

gi 836 484 
22 463 igo 


$32 814 533 

123 809 412 
37 39 6 526 


For salaries of teachers and superin- 


$42 580 853 


$55 942 972 












$69 107 612 
1-75 


$78 094 687 
1.56 


$140 506 715 
2.24 


$194 020^70 
2.67 




Expenditure per pupil (of average attend- 
ance) : 






$3.21 
11.26 
2.76 


$3-19 
12.04 
3-63 




$9-37 


$9.10 












$15.20 


$12.71 


$17.23 


$18.86 




Per cent of total expenditure devoted to — 






18.6 
65.4 
16.0 

8. 4 
12.8 


16.9 
63.8 
19-3 

8.4 
13.2 




61.6 


71.6 




Average expenditure per day for each pupil 
(in cents) : 


7-1 
11. 5 


7.0 

9-7 







a The figures for 1897-98 are approximate. 



b In 44 states. 



1.3 1] 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



55 



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56 



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[132 



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I33] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 57 



APPENDIX V — Corporal punishment 

In one state, New Jersey, the teacher is forbidden by law to 
inflict corporal punishment. No other state goes to this length, 
but Illinois, Kansas, Mississippi, Montana, Pennsylvania, South 
Dakota, Washington, and West Virginia specifically prescribe a 
penalty for excess amounting to cruelty. Legal punishment would 
be meted out to a brutal teacher in the other states just as surely 
as in these, but resort would be had to the common law and not to 
a statute. Only in Arizona is there formal statutory authority for 
corporal punishment, but whipping has been the common mode of 
discipline in school from time immemorial ; custom legalizes it, and 
unless forbidden in express terms the teacher does not need the 
authority of a special permissive law. Judicial decisions to this 
effect have been made in Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Indiana, 
Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wis- 
consin, and probably in other states. 

Local school boards have always the implied power to make 
regulations for the order and discipline of their respective schools, 
and three states, viz., Michigan, New York, and Pennsylvania, 
expressly grant them this power. Acting under this power, 
expressed or implied, several cities, notably New York city, 
Chicago, Albany, Baltimore, Cleveland and Syracuse, have pro- 
hibited absolutely the use of the rod. The same is true of Provi- 
dence, Rhode Island, except in the primary grades, and in them 
whipping must not be inflicted unless the written consent of the 
parent or guardian has been previously filed with the city superin- 
tendent. In St. Paul corporal punishment is prohibited except to 
repel violence. 

Corporal punishment may be used as a last resort and under 
rigid regulations as to reports, etc., in a great many cities, among 
them being Alleghany, Pa., Boston, Mass., Buffalo, N. Y.. Cincin- 
nati, O., Columbus, O., Denver, Col., Detroit, Mich., Fall River, 
Mass., Indianapolis, Ind., Kansas City, Mo., Los Angeles, Cal., 
Louisville, Ky., Memphis, Tenn., Milwaukee, Wis., Minneapolis, 
Minn., New Haven, Conn., New Orleans, La., Philadelphia, Pa., 
Pittsburg, Pa., Rochester, N. Y., St. Joseph, Mo., St. Louis, Mo., 
San Francisco, Cal., Toledo, O., Washington, D. C. 



58 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [134 



APPENDIX VI — Teachers pensions, and benefit associations 

Voluntary mutual benefit associations for temporary aid only 
exist in Baltimore, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit, Chi- 
cago, Buffalo, San Francisco, St. Paul, and one interstate. These 
have from one to two dollars initiation fee, one to five dollars 
annual dues. Special assessments of one dollar each are made in 
some cases. Benefits in sickness range from fifty cents a day to 
ten dollars a week ; at death funeral expenses only are paid in 
some instances, and in others a sum equal to one dollar from each 
member of the association. 

Associations for annuity or retirement fund only are in New 
York city, Boston, and Baltimore, and there is an annuity guild in 
Massachusetts. The initiation fees reported are three to five dol- 
lars; the annual dues one to one and a half per cent of salary up 
to eighteen or twenty dollars. The annuity is from 60 per cent of 
salary to $600 a year. Time of service required for retirement, 
from 2 to 5 years with disability, from 35 to 40 years without 
disability. 

Associations for both temporary aid and annuity exist in Ham- 
ilton county (Cincinnati), Ohio ; Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and 
District of Columbia. Initiation fees, one to ten dollars; annual 
dues, five to forty dollars ; annuity, five dollars per week to $600 
a year, and $100 for funeral expenses in case of death ; temporary 
aid during illness, five or six dollars per week ; minimum service 
for retirement — with disability, 3 to 5 years; without disability, 

Pension or retirement funds are authorized by state legislation 
for St. Louis, all cities in California, Boston, Brooklyn, New York, 
Detroit, Poughkeepsie, Chicago, all cities in New Jersey, Cincin- 
nati, Charleston, S. C, and Buffalo and for all cities in Ohio. 
Dues, one per cent of salary; annuity, $250 to one-half of salary; 
minimum, $300, to $600 maximum; minimum service — with dis- 
ability, 20 to 30 years; without disability, 25 to 35 years. In 
Maryland, the state pays pensions ($200) to retired teachers. 



I35] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 59 



APPENDIX VII — Text-books; selection and supply. 

In some states a guaranty is required from publishers to supply 
books, according to samples, at wholesale, retail, introduction, 
exchange, mail prices, part or all, for a term of years. 

In fewer states the school boards buy and sell the books on pub- 
lic account. In certain states boards continue to own the books 
used free by pupils. Indigent pupils are more frequently supplied 
at public expense. 

In most states special or general laws give cities the control of 
the details of their school administration, including text-books. 

Specific penalties are expressed in certain cases for using other 
than prescribed books, but in general such use would be only a 
violation of law, to be dealt with as it occurred. 

In the states and territories immediately following, individuals, 
except in many cases indigents, buy their books: 

Alabama. — State text-book commission fixes list for 5 years, to 
whom a sub-commission reports on merits of books. Publishers 
sell through at least 3 agencies in each county. 

Arizona. — Territorial board fixes list for 4 years. 

Arkansas. — Where voters elect county uniformity, a county 
school-book board fixes list for 6 years. 

California. — The state publishes a series for the lower grades, 
beyond which local boards fix lists for 4 years. High-school list is 
uniform throughout the state, and must be approved by state 
board. Penalty for using other than state list, forfeiture of one- 
fourth of state apportionment. Indigent pupils are furnished free. 

Florida. — County boards fix lists for 5 years. 

Georgia. — List fixed by county board, unchangeable within 5 
years except by three-fourths vote of full board. Penalty, teacher 
cannot receive pay for pupils using other books. 

Indiayia. — State board fixes list under publishers' guaranty. 
County boards may select additional books for high schools for 6 
years. Local boards regulate purchase and sale of books, which 
become private property. Districts supply indigents. 

Illinois. — District board fixes list for 4 years. 

Kentucky. — County board of examiners fixes list for 5 years, 
with publishers' guaranty. County judge furnishes indigents. 

Louisiana. — State board fixes list for 4 years, with limited local 
discretion. 

Mississippi. — A county committee adopts a series for 5 years 



60 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [136 

on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, pupils without the prescribed 
books in each branch are not to receive instruction in that 
branch. 

Missouri. — State school-book commission fixes list and contracts 
with publishers for 5 years. Penalty, $5 to $25 fine for directors 
to permit use of other books. Indigents supplied from local con- 
tingent funds. 

Nevada. — Legislature fixes list, in lower branches, upon recom- 
mendation of state board ; to be changed not oftener than 4 years, 
and by legislature ; penalty for non-use, forfeiture of apportion- 
ment. List in additional branches prescribed by state board. 
Trustees supply indigents. 

New Mexico. — Territorial board fixes list for 4 years and con- 
tracts with publishers ; sells to counties at cost plus freight and 5 
per cent. Local boards furnish indigents. 

North Carolina. — A state commission fixes list for 5 years, with 
publishers' guaranty. 

Ohio. — ■ A state commission fixes a list on publishers' guaranty, 
from which local boards fix lists for 5 years (with exception). 
Boards may buy and sell to pupils, or arrange with dealers to 
supply them. Indigents are furnished. 

Oregon. — State text-book board fixes list for 6 years on publish- 
ers' guaranty. 

South Carolina. — State board fixes a list for 5 years on publish- 
ers' guaranty, and may require publishers to have depositaries in 
each county, or county superintendent may sell books to pupils at 
cost. 

Tennessee. — A state text-book commission fixes list for 5 years. 
Penalty, $10 to $50 fine. 

Texas. — State text-book board fixes list for 5 years, on report 
of a commission upon merit of books irrespective of cost. 

Virginia. — Two books of John Esten Cooke — "Virginia, a 
History of her People;" "Stories of the Old Dominion" — are 
prescribed by law. State board fixes a list, from which local 
boards adopt books for 4 years. 

The following, regularly or through stated action, authorize pro- 
vision for free use of books by pupils : 

Colorado. — District boards fix list for 4 years, with excep- 
tions, fndigents are furnished, and, on popular vote, all pupils, 
free. 

Connecticut. — State board may fix list for 5 years. Town boards 



137] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 6 1 

may take additional action, and, on popular vote, furnish free 
text-books. 

Delaware. — State board fixes list; district board furnishes free 
text-books. 

District of Columbia. — Board of education fixes list and furnishes 
free books and supplies. 

Idaho. — Books adopted by a state text-book commission are 
furnished free by the district, under contracts with publishers for 6 
years. 

Iowa. — County uniformity may be fixed for 5 years. Local 
boards may buy and sell to pupils at cost, or, on popular vote, 
furnish books free. Indigents furnished. 

Kansas. — A school-text book commission selects books in com- 
mon-school studies, and contracts with publishers to furnish them 
to pupils through agencies at every county-seat. Upon a two- 
thirds vote of a district, local boards may purchase books and loan 
free to pupils. Penalty for using other text-books except for ref- 
erence, $25 to $100, with or without imprisonment. 

Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island (towns), 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania (local boards), and Maryland (counties), 
furnish free text-books. 

Michigan. — District boards fix list for 5 years, furnish books to 
indigents and, on popular vote, to all pupils free. 

Minnesota. — Local boards may fix a list for 3 to 5 years, with 
publishers' guaranty, and may purchase and provide for free loan 
or sale at cost to pupils. 

Montana. — State text-book commission fixes list for 4 years, to 
be handled through dealers, with publishers' guaranty. Text- 
books are furnished free on popular vote. 

Nebraska. — Local boards furnish books free ; may fix list not 
beyond 5 years, with publishers' guaranty. A local dealer may be 
designated to handle the books on agreed terms. 

New York. — List is fixed by local boards in cities, villages, and 
union free-school districts, and by a two-thirds vote of legal voters 
at an annual school meeting in common-school districts ; change 
not to be made within 5 years, except by a three-fourths vote of 
said authorities respectively. Local boards furnish free books to 
all pupils in union free-school districts, and to indigents in com- 
mon-school districts. 

North Dakota. — Local boards may furnish free text-books, and 
must do so on petition of two-thirds of the voters of the district. 
Contracts must be for 3 to 4 years without change. 



62 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [138 

South Dakota. — County board adopts a uniform series for 5 
years, to be furnished through designated depositaries under pub- 
lishers' guaranty. Free text-books must be arranged for on peti- 
tion of a majority of electors. 

Utah. — A convention of superintendents (in cities, the local 
board of education) fixes a list for 5 years. Trustees are author- 
ized to furnish text-books free to all, and must furnish indigents. 

Vermont. — County authority fixes list for 5 years, on publishers' 
guaranty. Local boards furnish free text-books. 

Washington. — In districts of the first class list is fixed by dis- 
trict text-book commission, for not less than 3 years ; in districts 
of the second class, by the county board of education, for not less 
than 5 years. Local boards furnish indigents, and, on popular 
vote, all pupils. 

West Virginia. — County school-book board fixes list for 5 years. 
District boards are authorized to purchase under contract (out of 
building fund) and sell to pupils at cost, or to arrange for free 
books. 

Wyoming. — School directors purchase books under 5-year con- 
tract, and loan to pupils free. 



139] 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



63 



APPENDIX IX — A verage total amount of schooling {expressed in 
years of 200 school days each) each individual of the population 
would receive as his equipment for life, wider the conditions exist- 
ing at the different dates given in the table, and counting in the 
work done by all grades of both public and private schools and 
colleges 





1870 


1880 


1890 


i8gi 


1892 


1893 


1894 


1895 


1896 


1897 


1898 




3 36 


3-9 6 


4.46 


4.51 


4.49 


4-5 2 


4.72 


4-75 


4-83 


4.91 


5.01 








5.06 
1.23 

I. 12 

4.OI 
3-56 


5-69 
2.22 
1.86 
4-6S 
4.17 


6.05 

2-73 
2.42 

5-36 
4-57 


6. is 

2.78 
2.62 
5-35 
4.71 


6.18 
2.74 
2.69 
5.21 
5-°7 


6.10 
2.79 
2.64 
5-38 
4-93 


6-35 
2-95 

2.89 

5-57 
5.01 


6.47 
2-95 
2.65 
5- 6 9 
5-43 


6.52 

2-93 
2.70 
5-84 
5-46 


6.64 
3-°S 
2-75 
5-8 7 
5-55 


6.76 
3- J 4 
2-95 
5-87 
5-77 







Average total amount of schooling per inhabitant, etc., considering 
only the public elementary and secondary schools, and expressed as 
before in years of 200 school days each 





1870 


1880 


1890 


1891 


1892 


1893 


1894 


1895 


1896 


1897 


1898 




2.91 


3-45 


3-85 


3-93 


3-97 


3-99 


4.17 


4-23 


4.28 


4-37 










4-43 

.80 

.80 

3-7i 

2.77 


4.84 
1.90 

i-57 
4.19 
3-57 


4.99 
2.42 
2.20 
4.67 
3-98 


5.06 
2.46 
2.31 
4-74 
4.16 


5.10 
2.46 
2.41 
4-75 
4-47 


5.10 
2.51 
2.38 
4.84 
4-39 


5-28 
2.70 

2-59 
5.00 

4-45 


5-47 
2.68 
2-59 

4.87 


5-52 
2.66 
2.44 

5-21 

4-95 


5.61 
2.78 
2.49 
5-28 
5.02 


5-7i 
2.87 
2.68 
5-25 
5-25 







Note. — The figures of this table for the years previous to the current year have been revised 
and differ slightly from those heretofore published. 



4 

SECONDARY EDUCATION 



BY 

ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN 

United States Commissioner of Education 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



One could not expect to find distinctively American insti- 
tutions among the colonists of the seventeenth century. 
There was as yet no distinctively American character. Two 
opposing influences were at work shaping the colonial life : 
the first was the spirit of protest against European institu- 
tions, which many of the colonists had brought with them 
from the Old World ; the second was the ever-present 
instinct of imitation. Real American schools might be 
expected to develop with the development of real American 
nationality. In the beginning, there could be only such 
schools as might arise under the mingled influence of a 
desire to be like the mother-country and a desire to be 
different. 

We find, as a matter of fact, the history of American sec- 
ondary education presenting three pretty well-defined types 
and stages of development. There is, first, the colonial 
period, with its Latin grammar schools ; secondly, the period 
extending from the revolutionary war to the middle of the 
nineteenth century, during which the attempt was made to 
solve the problem of American secondary education by 
means of the so-called academy ; and, thirdly, the succeeding 
period down to the present time, chiefly characterized by the 
upgrowth of public high schools. 

The specific influences which most vitally influenced the 
early development of secondary education in America were, 
on the one hand, the example of the " grammar schools " of 
old England ; and, on the other hand, the rising spirit of 
democracy, in large measure Calvinistic as to its modes 
of thought, and in touch with movements in the Calvin- 
istic portions of Europe. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION [144 



THE BEGINNINGS 

Early in the history of the colony of Virginia, funds were 
raised and lands set apart for the endowment of a Latin 
grammar school. But these promising beginnings were 
swept away by the Indian massacre of 1622, and the school 
seems never to have been opened. The town of Boston, in 
the Massachusetts Bay colony, set up a Latin school in 1635, 
which has had a continuous existence down to the present 
time. This school was established by vote of the citizens in 
a town meeting. It was supported in part by private dona- 
tions, and in part by the rent of certain islands in the harbor, 
designated by the town for that purpose. A town rate seems 
also to have been levied when necessary to make up a salary 
of ^50 a year for the master. 

Other Massachusetts towns soon followed the example of 
Boston. The money for the support of these schools was 
obtained in a variety of ways. School fees were commonly 
but not universally collected. A town rate, which was 
depended upon at first only to supplement other sources of 
revenue, gradually came to be the main reliance ; and by the 
middle of the eighteenth century the most of the grammar 
schools of Massachusetts charged no fee for tuition. 

Latin schools were early established in the colonies 
included in the territory of the present state of Connecti- 
cut : one at New Haven in 1641, and one at Hartford not 
later than 1642. A notable bequest left by Edward Hop- 
kins, sometime governor of Connecticut colony, whose later 
years were passed in England, became available soon after 
the middle of the seventeenth century. The greater part of 
it was devoted to the maintenance of Latin grammar schools 
in Hartford and New Haven, and also in the towns of Had- 
ley and Cambridge in Massachusetts. 

The Dutch at New Amsterdam — now New York — 
opened a Latin school in 1659. This school was continued 
for some years after the colony passed under English rule. 
Secondary schools were established in the colony of Penn- 



145] SECONDARY EDUCATION 5 

sylvania in the latter part of the seventeenth century. One 
of these, the William Penn Charter School, at Philadelphia, 
has continued down to the present day. King William's 
school, at Annapolis, was erected by the legislature of Mary- 
land in 1696. Similar schools were from time to time estab- 
lished in different sections of the same colony. The 
eighteenth century saw schools of like character opened, 
partly by legislative enactment, partly by private initiative, 
in these and in the remaining colonies. Some of the num- 
ber, like the University Grammar School in Rhode Island 
and the Free School at New York, were either the fore- 
runners or the accompaniments of colonial colleges. 

Not only were these several schools opened during the 
colonial period : important beginnings were made also in 
the organization of colonial systems of secondary educa- 
tion. The Puritan colony of Massachusetts took the lead 
in this movement. In 1647 the colonial legislature decreed 
that an elementary school should be maintained in every 
town having a population of fifty families ; and that in 
every town having one hundred families there should be 
a grammar school, in which the students might be fitted 
for admission to the university. 

This liberal provision was soon copied by the neigh- 
boring colonies of Connecticut and New Hampshire. In 
Connecticut the provision was afterwards changed to a 
requirement of a grammar school in each county ' town. 
These New England colonies maintained and enforced 
such provisions regarding grammar schools, with varying 
degrees of strictness, to be sure, down to and even after 
the revolutionary war. Maryland established by law a 
system of county grammar schools, thus keeping pace 
with the more northern colony of Connecticut. 

The interest in secondary education declined and many 
schools fell into decay as the revolutionary period 
approached. When the colonies were transformed into 
states, after the declaration of independence, the four sys- 
tems of schools mentioned above were continued with little 



6 SECONDARY EDUCATION [146 

change. No other of the thirteen states had anything that 
could be called a system of public instruction. 



COLONIAL SCHOOLS 



The chief emphasis in these schools was laid on the 
preparation of future collegians to pass the college entrance 
examination. The most of the schools were in this sense 
"preparatory " or " fitting" schools. The requirements for 
admission to college determined their course of study. In 
the middle of the seventeenth century, the requirements of 
Harvard college, which fixed the scholastic standard for 
New England, are stated as follows : " When scholars had 
so far profited at the grammar schools that they could read 
any classical author into English, and readily make and 
speak true Latin, and write it in verse as well as prose ; and 
perfectly decline the paradigms of nouns and verbs in the 
Greek tongue, they were judged capable of admission in 
Harvard college." A century later, the requirements of 
Princeton college, which profoundly influenced the second- 
ary schools of the middle states, were described in these 
words : " Candidates for admission into the lowest or fresh- 
man class must be capable of composing grammatical Latin, 
translating Virgil, Cicero's Orations, and the four Evangelists 
in Greek ; and by a late order * * * must understand 
the principal rules of vulgar arithmetic." 

The colonial grammar schools taught accordingly Latin, 
and a little Greek. They gave instruction in religion ; but 
little else was added to the classical languages. 

Social grades were pretty sharply distinguished in the 
colonies. The grammar schools and colleges were intended 
especially for the directive and professional classes. They 
had little if any connection with such elementary schools as 
there were. In Massachusetts, towns which maintained 
grammar schools were not required to maintain reading 
schools. Sometimes pupils were taught to read in grammar 
schools. But the grammar school teachers objected to this 
burden ; and the mixing of the two grades of instruction in 



147] SECONDARY EDUCATION 7 

one school was recognized as an evil. There seems to have 
been no middle grade of school, answering to the needs of a 
middle class in society. And for girls there was no provision 
whatever beyond occasional instruction in the merest rudi- 
ments of learning. 

In the colleges, the ecclesiastical spirit and purpose was 
paramount. The students were for the most part preparing 
for the clerical vocation in some one of the Protestant 
denominations. But naturally only a part of the students in 
the grammar schools showed the disposition and the aptitude 
to pursue classical studies and enter the profession to which 
they led. The grammar schools exercised a kind of selective 
function, discovering latent capacity for the higher studies 
and starting talented youth on the way to college. Those 
who showed capacity of a lower grade or of a different sort 
seem to have received but little attention or encouragement 
in the schools of that day. 

A TIME OF TRANSITION 

As we approach the revolutionary period, we find new 
social conditions giving rise to a new order of schools. In 
the earlier days there had been, in most of the colonies, a 
close connection between ecclesiastical and political func- 
tions. With the growth of sectarian differences, there 
appeared a decided tendency toward the separation of gov- 
ernmental from ecclesiastical affairs. The grammar schools 
and colleges had been established for the public good as 
represented in both church and commonwealth. They had 
been founded and maintained by a remarkable combination 
of governmental, ecclesiastical, and private agency. Some 
of the colonies must be reckoned among the foremost of 
modern societies to exemplify direct governmental participa- 
tion in educational affairs. But as governmental and eccle- 
siastical interests drew apart, the position of educational 
institutions was disturbed. This change tended to lessen 
the prestige of colonial systems of education among the 
more zealous adherents of the several religious denomina- 



8 SECONDARY EDUCATION [mS 

tions. At the same time, a growing distrust of the colleges 
appeared among those who were most in accord with the 
secularizing tendency of the time. These influences com- 
bined with many others to weaken the old grammar schools. 
In their stead there grew up a new type of secondary school, 
commonly known as the academy. For two or three genera- 
tions following the revolutionary period this type was in 
the ascendancy. The effort to solve the problem of sec- 
ondary education by this means ultimately failed. But the 
academy nevertheless occupies a place of great significance 
in the history of our educational institutions. 

THE ACADEMIES 

Both the name and the character of the new institu- 
tion were suggested by English precedents. In England, 
dissenters from the established religion were excluded from 
both grammar schools and universities. In the latter part of 
the seventeenth century, following a suggestion of Milton, 
the non-conformist bodies proceeded to establish so-called 
academies. These schools were in the main of second- 
ary grade. Yet they undertook to prepare candidates for 
the clerical office in non-conformist congregations ; and 
they offered a wide range of literary and scientific studies, 
in free imitation of the universities. They even afforded 
instruction in some studies, chiefly of a technical and prac- 
tical character, not commonly taught in the universities. 

The American colonists were, many of them, in close rela- 
tions with various bodies of English dissenters ; and the 
fame of the English academies would seem to have influ- 
enced their thought in the matter of public education. At 
one time, the strong theological bent of their English proto- 
types reappeared in the new American schools ; at another 
time, the resemblance was more obvious in the range and 
character of the studies offered. But the American acade- 
mies soon came to have a well-defined character of their 
own, apart from any conscious imitation of English models. 

As early as the year 1726, a school for classical and theo- 



I49] SECONDARY EDUCATION 9 

logical studies was established by the pastor of a Presby- 
terian congregation at Neshaminy, in Pennsylvania. It was 
described by a visitor as an " academy " ; but was more com- 
monly known as the " Log College," in allusion to the fact 
that it was conducted in a small building made of logs. 
This school in the wilderness was the center of deep and 
widespread interest in classical studies as well as in the 
religious life. It sent out large numbers of zealous pastors 
and teachers, who established " log colleges " all over the 
highlands of the middle and southern colonies. 

Through the efforts of Benjamin Franklin, a school was 
established at Philadelphia, legally incorporated as an acad- 
emy in 1753, which was probably the first institution in 
America to be formally designated by that title. It was 
under the control of a self-perpetuating board of trustees. 
A fund was raised by private subscription for its establish- 
ment and maintenance. This was supplemented by a grant 
from the city treasury and by tuition fees. But fees were 
remitted in the case of those who were unable to pay. This 
academy was organized in three departments or schools ; 
viz., the Latin, the English, and the mathematical. The 
theological element was not prominent here. Much stress 
was laid on the teaching of the English language and litera- 
ture, and the mathematical sciences. The school ultimately 
developed into the University of Pennsylvania. 

Within two or three decades from the founding of this 
school at Philadelphia, a number of schools somewhat simi- 
lar in character, and some of them bearing the name 
academy, were established in the middle and southern colo- 
nies. The new movement received fresh incentive and 
definiteness of direction from the establishment of the two 
Phillips academies, one at Andover in Massachusetts and 
the other at Exeter in New Hampshire, incorporated, the 
former in 1780 and the latter in 1781. These schools, well 
endowed, and conducted under self-perpetuating boards of 
trustees, were the pioneers of a long line of similar estab- 
lishments in New England. Their influence extended to 



IO SECONDARY EDUCATION [ l 5° 

remote states, especially in the growing west ; and they rank 
to-day among the strongest and most influential of our sec- 
ondary schools. 

STATE SYSTEMS 

Soon after the close of the revolutionary war, new state 
systems of education began to be established, in which 
special provision was made for secondary schools. The 
earliest and most remarkable of these was the University of 
the State of New York, erected in 1784 and remodeled in 
1787. This institution is a notable example of the strong 
and increasing influence which French thought then exer- 
cised in American affairs. The conception of a university 
put forth by Diderot and others of the great French writers 
of the latter half of the eighteenth century, was first realized 
in the state of New York. The New York university 
embraced the whole provision for secondary and higher 
education within the state, with the exception of schools of 
a purely private character. It seems to have been intended 
at the outset to embrace elementary schools as well, but 
these were organized later under a separate administrative 
system. The university was placed under the control of a 
board of regents, consisting of the governor and the lieuten- 
ant-governor of the state, ex officio, together with nineteen 
others, elected by the state legislature. At first this board 
of regents had been identical with the board of trustees of 
Columbia college. But this arrangement was unsatisfactory 
for many reasons : because of the ecclesiastical character of 
the college, for one thing ; and also because of the growing 
belief that the interests of the college were distinct from, 
if not opposed to, those of the new academies. The reor- 
ganization of 1787 accordingly made the board of regents 
a body distinct from the trustees of any institution included 
in the university. The trustees were to exercise control 
over their several institutions. But this control was made 
subject to the general and not at all rigorous supervision 
of the regents. 



I5l] SECONDARY EDUCATION II 

In 1813 the legislature of the state established a perma- 
nent fund known as the literature fund, the income of 
which was to be applied wholly to the support of secondary 
schools. The distribution of this fund was made subject to 
the control of the regents of the university. 

This university set up by the state of New York appealed 
to the imagination of men by its comprehensiveness and 
novelty. It exercised great influence on later systems ; but 
only one state and one territory seem to have modeled their 
scheme of public instruction after the New York pattern. 
An act of the legislature of Georgia, passed in 1785, pro- 
vided that " All public schools instituted, or to be supported 
by funds or public moneys in this state, shall be considered 
as parts or members of the university." But the university 
of Georgia never realized the large and liberal plan pro- 
posed for it. 

In the territory of Michigan, an act was passed in 181 7 
instituting a university of imposing character. The presi- 
dent and professors of this institution were empowered " to 
establish colleges, academies, schools, libraries, museums, 
athenaeums, botanical gardens, laboratories and other useful 
literary and scientific institutions * * * throughout the 
various counties, cities, towns, townships, and other geo- 
graphical divisions of Michigan." As may be supposed, 
this establishment existed mainly on paper. Yet it should 
be noted that before the act was repealed, in 1821, there had 
been opened under its provisions a college, a classical school, 
and several primary schools. 

But although the comprehensive type of university 
organization was not widely adopted, there was a general 
desire in the early part of the nineteenth century to establish 
complete and well-rounded systems of public instruction. 
Primary education was still all too largely neglected. In 
the state systems which were from time to time devised, 
emphasis was laid at one time upon secondary schools, at 
another upon institutions of higher learning. Some of the 
best thought of our political leaders was devoted to the 



12 SECONDARY EDUCATION [152 

problem of devising systems which should meet the needs 
of our rapidly growing states in all of the several grades of 
instruction. 

The legislature of Tennessee declared, in 1817, that, 
" Institutions of learning, both academies and colleges, 
should ever be under the fostering care of this legislature, 
and in their connection with each other form a complete 
system of education." 

Even more significant is the provision of the constitution 
of Indiana, adopted in 1816, that, " It shall be the duty of 
the general assembly, as soon as circumstances will permit, 
to provide by law for a general system of education, ascend- 
ing in regular gradation from township schools to a state 
university wherein tuition shall be gratis and equally open 
to all." 

For the most part, however, actual state agency in sec- 
ondary education was as yet limited to the subsidising of 
privately managed academies. In Massachusetts, the pro- 
vision for grammar schools under town control was continued 
after the colony became a state. But the law was so changed 
that only the larger towns were left subject to this require- 
ment. At the same time academies established by private 
initiative were endowed by the legislature with grants of 
public lands. The state assumed no control whatever over 
the academies which it thus subsidised. 

In Kentucky, the state legislature granted six thousand 
acres of public lands to an academy in each county. In 
Pennsylvania, colleges and academies received financial aid 
from the state for many years, culminating in 1838 in a 
general state system of educational subsidies. Five years 
later, such aid was discontinued. In others of the states, 
the granting of state subsidies, in money or in lands, to sec- 
ondary and higher schools, was customary for many years. 
For the most part, there is but little of system or consistency 
observable in the distribution of such aid ; and the state- 
aided institutions were not subjected to any sort of state 
control. 



153] SECONDARY EDUCATION 1 3 

CHARACTER OF THE ACADEMIES 

The type of secondary school which grew up under these 
conditions demands closer consideration. The old acade- 
mies were generally endowed institutions, organized under 
the control of self-perpetuating boards of trustees or of 
religious bodies. They were established for the most part 
to serve the need of a wide constituency and not merely of 
a single community. They were often located in small 
country places. Many of them made provision for boarders 
as well as for day pupils. 

They were not intended in any especial or exclusive sense 
for the training of future members of the learned pro- 
fessions. Many of them, to be sure, as time went on, drew 
near to the colleges and became known primarily as prepara- 
tory schools. In the western states, colleges were often 
organized with preparatory schools attached to them, and 
these preparatory schools were commonly called " acade- 
mies." But such was not the earlier purpose of the acade- 
mies. They were largely schools for the middle classes of 
society, and sought to give a good middle grade of instruc- 
tion, with only occasional or subordinate reference to college 
preparation. They answered to a growing desire after 
learning for its own sake, or for the increased efficiency it 
would give in other than professional pursuits. 

The training which they offered was regarded as more 
" practical " than that of the colleges. Their course of 
instruction presented a wider range of studies than that of 
the grammar schools ; not infrequently wider than that of the 
colleges themselves. They laid new stress on the study of 
the English language, together with its grammar, rhetoric, 
and the art of public speaking. They gave instruction in 
various branches of mathematics, often including surveying 
and navigation. They made important beginnings in the 
pursuit of the natural sciences. Natural philosophy (phys- 
ics) was a favorite subject, of which astronomy constituted 
an important division. Geography was also taught ; and his- 



14 SECONDARY EDUCATION [i 54 

tory, especially the history of Greece and Rome, and of the 
United States. French was sometimes taught; more rarely 
German. In the better academies, the Latin and Greek 
languages still constituted the substantial core of the instruc- 
tion offered. 

In the earlier days, the course of study in these schools 
was not well defined. In some subjects, especially English, 
Latin, and mathematics, a good degree of continuity of 
work was apparently maintained. In others, classes were 
formed at irregular periods. Many young men who were 
obliged to labor on the farms during the rest of the year, 
would attend an academy during the winter term, and the 
order of instruction would to some extent be arranged with 
reference to their needs. There was necessarily great 
diversity among the different institutions, those in the same 
state or even in the same county presenting great differences. 
When finally definite courses of study were laid out, they 
varied in length from three to four or five years. 

Parallel courses were offered. That including classical 
studies and covering the required preparation for admission 
to some college was commonly regarded as the standard 
course of the school. Along with this might be found an 
English course. At a later date, a scientific course was 
often provided in place of or in addition to the English 
course. 

The religious character of these schools should be noted. 
Many of them were established by religious bodies. It 
was during the period which we have under consideration 
that Catholic secondary schools began to appear in consid- 
erable numbers. These were for the most part established by 
the several teaching orders. The Society of Jesus founded 
institutions of secondary and higher education in the United 
States after the revolutionary war. The Brothers of the 
Christian Schools opened their first school in America at 
Montreal in 1838; and soon after set up establishments 
within the United States, at Baltimore and New York. 
These were doubtless of elementary grade at the start ; but 



155] SECONDARY EDUCATION 1 5 

the brethren extended their courses after a time to include 
secondary studies. Many conventual schools for girls were 
also established, and it became no uncommon thing for them 
to draw a large clientage from other than Catholic families. 

The academies established by Protestant bodies were in 
some instances under direct ecclesiastical control ; but more 
frequently their formal connection with ecclesiastical societies 
terminated with their legal incorporation. They were, how- 
ever, generally characterized by great moral earnestness, on 
the part of both teachers and pupils ; and many of them 
were remarkable for the intensity of religious life which 
they fostered. The religious instruction which they carried 
on concerned itself for the most part with the broad under- 
lying principles of Christianity, avoiding in large measure 
the discussion of doctrines upon which the sects of Chris- 
tendom are divided. It consisted mainly of lessons from the 
King James version of the Bible — both the Old and the 
New Testament. This was often supplemented by instruc- 
tion in moral philosophy. Thus, the non-Catholic academies, 
even such as had arisen from the initiative of religious socie- 
ties, tended toward the non-sectarian character which has 
been more fully exemplified in the public schools of later 
times. 

The grammar schools had been exclusively for boys. 
Such was the case with many of the academies. Others of 
these schools were co-educational. With the increasing 
interest in education for women, there grew up a large num- 
ber of academies for girls, which were all too often weighed 
down with the title of " female seminary." These two types 
of secondary education for girls prepared the way for two 
types of institution of higher education, both of which 
appeared in the fourth decade of the nineteenth century, 
viz., the co-educational college and the college for women 
exclusively. 

The academies aroused and ministered to a strong and 
widespread desire for education. They greatly broadened 
the intellectual horizon of families and communities. They 



1 6 SECONDARY EDUCATION [156 

reinforced the protest which was arising against the too 
narrow curriculum of the American colleges. In many other 
ways they rendered a timely and most efficient service in the 
betterment of American thought and life. 

One specific service must receive separate mention. In 
the absence of special schools for the training of teachers, 
the better elementary schools were for a long time in the 
hands of teachers who had studied in the academies. In 
New York and Pennsylvania, this service of the academies 
received recognition at the hands of the state legislature. 
Special classes were organized in these schools for instruc- 
tion in the art of teaching. A seminary for teachers was 
opened in connection with the Phillips academy at Andover. 
When state normal schools began to be established, in Mas- 
sachusetts in the year 1839, suggestions for their organiza- 
tion and management were drawn from this seminary and 
from the current practice of the academies. 

THE HIGH SCHOOL MOVEMENT 

In the early part of the nineteenth century, there appeared 
in the several American states a strong demand for schools 
under the exclusive control of the state government. Various 
influences contributed to this sentiment. The Calvinistic 
view of the civil power had apparently prepared the way 
for state agency in education. The spirit which drove the 
Jesuits from France and during the French revolution made 
education a part of the program of democracy, roused an 
answering spirit in America. The steadily advancing sepa- 
ration between church and state kept alive the question as to 
the relation of the schools to both. So far as the higher 
education was concerned, it seemed to be the well-estab- 
lished theory that the state should grant charters to col- 
leges, authorizing them to manage their own affairs under 
close corporations, with incidental aid from the state in the 
shape of gifts of land or money. And this had come to be 
the prevalent method of meeting the demand for secondary 
education. But the notion of higher institutions chiefly 



157] SECONDARY EDUCATION 1 7 

supported and directly controlled by the state now began 
to get abroad. 

The University of Virginia, under the guidance of Thomas 
Jefferson, led the way to the realization of this idea. In New 
Hampshire, the legislature undertook to transform Dartmouth 
college into Dartmouth university, without the consent of the 
college corporation. The attempt was frustrated by a decis- 
ion of the United States supreme court. This decision was 
of the utmost importance in the history of American educa- 
tion as well as of American jurisprudence. It declared, in 
effect, that an institution founded and administered as was 
Dartmouth college was a private corporation ; that the char- 
ter granted it by the state was in the nature of a con- 
tract, and accordingly could not, under the constitution of 
the United States, be altered by the legislature without the 
consent of the board of trustees. This decision established 
the inviolability of chartered rights. It thus gave security 
and stability to all incorporated institutions ; it drew also a 
sharp distinction between " public " and " private " institu- 
tions, and placed the most of the then existing higher and 
secondary schools in the latter class. These schools served 
a public purpose and were open to public resort. They were 
in all but the legal sense public schools. But the clear defi- 
nition of their legal status served to strengthen the rising 
demand for schools which should be public in every sense 
of the word. The growth of cities and many other causes 
combined to reinforce this demand. 

The first step in the establishment of public secondary 
schools to supplement or fill the place of the academies 
was taken by the larger towns and municipalities, under 
the lead of Boston. The new institutions were a direct out- 
growth of the system of elementary schools. The course 
of study in these schools was becoming better defined and 
was slowly extending. In Boston, it was extended down- 
ward in the year 1818 to include primary schools in which 
the first steps in reading were taken. The same system was 
extended upward in 1821 by the establishment of an " Eng- 



1 8 SECONDARY EDUCATION [ : 5^ 

lish classical school," which soon took the name of " English 
high school." The name seems to have been adopted in 
imitation of the high school of Edinburgh. There had been 
for many years close intellectual sympathy between the Mas- 
sachusetts town and the Scotch capital. The new Boston 
school differed, however, in important particulars from its 
namesake in Edinburgh. The ancient languages were not 
included in its curriculum. It did not employ the moni- 
torial method of instruction, then in vogue in Edinburgh. 
But the two schools were alike in this : that each was sup- 
ported and controlled by the municipality and was an object 
of municipal interest and pride. 

The English high school was established to meet the needs 
of the middle, and especially the commercial, classes. Its 
course of study was three years in length, embracing the 
English language and literature, mathematics, navigation 
and surveying, geography, natural philosophy (including 
astronomy), history, logic, moral and political philosophy. 
Latin and modern languages were added later, and the 
course extended to four years. Students were received into 
the high school from the elementary schools of the city, but 
were not at the first prepared in the high school for admis- 
sion to college. That was still the function of the Latin 
school. But with the addition of foreign languages to its 
course of study, the English high school has fitted its stu- 
dents for admission to certain higher institutions, and particu- 
larly to the Institute of Technology. 

Boston was still a town when she set up her English 
classical school, but became a city in the following year. 
The new school was proposed by the school committee, and 
was approved by the people, assembled in town meeting. 
Other Massachusetts towns soon followed the lead of Boston 
in this matter. Philadelphia, in 1838, established the Cen- 
tral high school, under special authorization from the Penn- 
sylvania legislature. Baltimore followed, with the establish- 
ment of a " city college." Providence opened a public high 
school in 1843. Hartford, in 1847, transformed her old 



159] SECONDARY EDUCATION 1 9 

grammar school into a school of the newer type. New York 
opened a "free academy" in 1848, the name of which was 
afterwards changed to " the College of the City of New York." 
This school was established in accordance with a special act 
of the state legislature, ratified by vote of the people of the 
city. Other high schools sprang up in various parts of the 
country before the year 1850 — in Connecticut, in New York, 
in Ohio. Since that time the movement has steadily con- 
tinued, until now these schools are found in every state in 
the union, in cities, in smaller towns, and even occasion- 
ally in thickly populated country districts. 

The zeal of communities in the establishment of these 
schools not infrequently outran the express provision of state 
school laws. But the movement encountered hostility from 
various sources, notably from those who regarded the 
academy as the final or best solution of the problem of pub- 
lic secondary education, and from those who were opposed 
on principle to the recognition of secondary education as a 
proper field for governmental agency. The legal questions 
involved in this latter contention were brought to a settle- 
ment in the supreme court of Michigan, in what is com- 
monly known as the " Kalamazoo case." The decision of 
the court in this case was prepared by one of the most emi- 
nent of American jurists. It was summed up in the words, 
" Neither in our state policy, in our constitution, nor in our 
laws do we find the primary school districts restricted in the 
branches of knowledge which their officers may cause to be 
taught, or the grade of instruction that may be given, if their 
voters consent, in regular form, to bear the expense and raise 
the taxes for the purpose." 

This case not only settled the question which it raised 
within the territorial limits of the state of Michigan. It 
settled also the general policy of the American common- 
wealths in this matter. The opinion of the court, in its 
ample setting-forth, made clear the fact that American 
thought and purpose were moving steadily toward a com- 
plete system of education, under full public control, its 



20 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l6o 

several parts well knit together so as to form an organic 
whole. 

But in several of the states the people were not left to 
work out the problem of secondary education in the isola- 
tion of scattered communities. In these states, well ordered 
systems of secondary schools were established by statute. 
As early as 1 798, Connecticut authorized the opening of 
higher schools by the local authorities (" school societies "). 
In Massachusetts, the law requiring grammar schools in the 
towns was so far weakened, in 1824, that towns having a 
population of less than 5,000 were allowed to substitute 
therefor an elementary school, if the people should so 
determine by vote at a public election. This marks the low- 
est ebb of public school sentiment in the Bay state — at 
least so far as secondary education was concerned. The 
academies were then at the height of their prosperity. But 
two years later the return movement set in. It was enacted 
that every town having five hundred families should provide 
a master to give instruction in history of the United States, 
bookkeeping, geometry, surveying and algebra ; and every 
town having four thousand inhabitants, a master capable of 
giving instruction in Latin and Greek, history, rhetoric, and 
logic. The young state of Iowa adopted a provision in 
1849 expressly permitting the adding of higher grades to 
the public schools; and in 1858 authorized the establish- 
ment of county high schools. In New York, the systematic 
grading of the schools went steadily forward ; and the 
" academic departments " of these schools, corresponding to 
the high schools of other states, formed a part of the uni- 
versity of the state of New York and received financial aid 
from the literature fund. In Maryland, the county acade- 
mies, which had displaced the grammar schools of colonial 
days, continued for many years to receive financial aid from 
the state, and only in comparatively recent times were 
merged into a state system of high schools. 

Other important state establishments have taken shape at 
so recent a date that they will be described later under the 
account of present-day systems of schools. 



l6l] SECONDARY EDUCATION 21 

THE OLD AND THE NEW 

We have seen that by the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
tury a great change had come over secondary education in 
the United States. Two aspects of the new order of things 
are worthy of note : First, the position in which it placed 
the old academies ; secondly, the tendency which it marked 
toward a closing up of gaps in the system of public 
instruction. 

The academies had long been the ordinary and accepted 
agency for secondary education. They had provided a 
general training for the great body of students. They had 
also drawn near to the colleges, and now prepared a large 
proportion of the candidates for admission to the fresh- 
man class. Private schools had grown up which paid 
especial attention to fitting boys for college ; and from the 
earliest times many had received such preparation at the 
hands of private tutors, and particularly under the personal 
direction of clergymen. But the academies were now par 
excellence the preparatory schools of the country. The 
growth of high schools had taken away from them the char- 
acter of the ordinary provision for secondary education. 
Many of them declined as the high schools advanced ; many 
were given over to the communities in which they were con- 
ducted and became high schools, under public management. 
Those that survived laid more and more stress on their func- 
tion of preparing for college. A goodly number of these 
are stronger now than ever before ; and new schools- of this 
type are founded from time to time. In recent years the 
increase of wealth, the rise of new social distinctions, dis- 
satisfaction with the colorless religious character of the 
high schools, and many other causes, have caused a new 
demand for such schools to arise. They prepare for col- 
lege, but do not in general look upon this as their sole 
function. They are recognized as constituting a highly 
important part of American provision for public education. 
While the high schools are for day pupils only, the acade- 



2 2 SECONDARY EDUCATION [162 

mies are generally boarding schools. They afford favorable 
ground for the deep rooting and vigorous growth of tradi- 
tions of culture and scholarship. The more famous of them 
draw students from long distances, and accordingly exercise 
a widespead influence upon American educational standards. 
The high schools, on the other hand, are an evidence of 
the widespread desire in America for complete systems of 
education under public management. The impulse which 
resulted in their establishment is closely related to that 
which, especially in the southern and western states, led to 
the founding of state universities. The organic connection 
between the high schools and schools of elementary grade 
has already been noted. At the first there was a recognized 
gap between the high schools and institutions of higher 
learning. The earliest high schools were intended specifi- 
cally for those who were not preparing for college. But 
there soon appeared a disposition on the part of the public 
school authorities to close up this gap. Studies regarded as 
distinctively preparatory to college were from time to time 
introduced into high school courses. Of these, Greek 
had and still has the most precarious hold upon public 
favor. Yet there were and still are even small communi- 
ties remote from the great centers of wealth and learning, 
where Greek has an assured and honored place in the 
high school curriculum. 

A CONTINUOUS SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 

It should be stated here that well-established American 
usage now recognizes three consecutive stages of instruction, 
commonly distributed as follows : Eight years are assigned 
to the elementary school ; four years to the high school or 
academy, following directly upon the elementary course ; 
and the four years next following to the college, which offers 
finally the bachelor's degree. The whole course from the 
primary school to the first degree is accordingly sixteen 
years in length. It should be noted, however, that there is 
a growing disposition to recognize the first two years of the 



163] SECONDARY EDUCATION 23 

college course as offering instruction which is essentially of 
secondary grade. And there is also a growing demand for 
the introduction of secondary studies and secondary methods 
into the upper grades of the elementary school course. 

The tendency of public high schools to assume the func- 
tion of preparation for college met with strong opposition. 
It was claimed that this service could best be rendered by 
special schools conducted for that express purpose. The 
discussion of this question has brought out two contrasting 
ideals of American life, and has shown more clearly the 
nature of the movement which called the high school into 
being. 

The colonial period was a time in which distinctions of 
rank were still fairly well defined in American society. 
The higher schools of that time, intended especially for the 
ruling class, had no organic connection with the lower 
schools. The secondary schools were a part of the higher 
system, and had little or nothing to do with the lower. 

The first fifty years or more of independence was a time 
of readjustment. The earlier system of social levels was 
gradually transformed into a continuous series of grada- 
tions. Society became an inclined plane, as it were, with 
free and open passage up and down the scale. Every school 
child was taught to consider himself as started on a way 
which might lead to the highest places. 

It seems inevitable that public education should in turn 
have been influenced by the sentiments which it had helped 
to form. An unlimited system of public schools was neces- 
sary to the realization of the unlimited aspiration of the 
people. The prevalent instinct slowly rose to a conscious 
determination that there should be no cul-de-sac in the edu- 
cational systems of the republic. 

THE SCHOOLS AND THE COLLEGES 

Even when the high schools had begun to prepare their 
more favored students for college, the connection between 
the secondary and the higher institutions was not so close as 



24 SECONDARY EDUCATION [164 

was desired. In some of the leading states of the east, the 
chief, or indeed the only, provision for higher education was 
in institutions managed by private corporations. In many 
of the newer states, there were growing up universities under 
full state control. But these universities were supported out 
of funds separate from those devoted to the common schools, 
and were controlled by separate administrative boards. The 
requirements for admission to college were determined by 
the college faculties, with only incidental reference to the 
purely educational problems confronting the secondary 
schools. The fitness of candidates for admission was deter- 
mined by an examination, conducted at the college, by col- 
lege instructors, and covering the requirements which the 
college had prescribed. 

This system, to be sure, possessed great advantages. It 
compelled all schools which undertook preparation for a 
given college to come up to a definite scholastic standard 
imposed from without. It exercised no authority over the 
schools, but exerted an influence which a preparatory school 
could not escape. Besides, the standard set for classes pre- 
paring for college had an indirect influence on classes in the 
same school which were pursuing other lines of study. So 
the most powerful single agency affecting the course and the 
methods of instruction in the better hio-h schools, as in the 
academies, was for many years the entrance examinations of 
the several colleges. 

But there were evils attendant upon this system. When 
the excellence of a four-year course of school instruction was 
to be tested by a single examination at the end of the course 
• — this examination being conducted by the instructors in 
another, and often a remote institution, with sole reference 
to the plans and purposes of that institution, — it was inevi- 
table that the lower school should become merely tributary 
in all essential particulars to the higher. The college exam- 
ination became the chief end and aim of much of the work 
in our secondary schools. There appeared a marked ten- 
dency to substitute a cramming process for real educational 



165] SECONDARY EDUCATION 25 

procedure. Teachers in secondary schools were too largely 
turned aside from independent investigation of the essen- 
tial problems of secondary education, to the more petty 
inquiry into the exact nature of the entrance examinations 
at certain colleges. It was clear that such a state of things 
did not answer to the organic continuity of instruction which 
American social conditions seemed to demand. 

The attempt to correct this evil has taken several different 
directions. Some of the most interesting movements affect- 
ing our secondary education within the past three decades 
have had this origin. How may a more vital relation be 
established between secondary schools and colleges, which 
shall conserve the highest educational interests of both ? 
Such is the general question for which a solution has been 
sought. 

THE " ACCREDITING SYSTEM " 

One of the earliest and most noteworthy attempts at its 
solution is the so-called accrediting system, introduced by the 
University of Michigan in 1871. Under this system, the 
university admits to its freshman class, without examination, 
such graduates of approved secondary schools as are espe- 
cially recommended for that purpose by the principals of 
those schools. This system has met with great favor and 
has had widespread application. The United States com- 
missioner of education reported in 1896, that there were 
then 42 state universities and agricultural and mechanical 
colleges, and about 150 other institutions in which it had 
been adopted. It depends upon a purely voluntary agree- 
ment between the secondary schools and the higher institu- 
tions. The college or university satisfies itself that the 
secondary school applying for such recognition is properly 
taught. Usually a committee of the faculty is sent to 
inspect the school, and the school agrees to submit itself to 
such inspection. It is the school rather than the individual 
that is examined ; and the inquiry relates chiefly to the vital- 
ity, intelligence, and general effectiveness of the instruction. 



26 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l66 

Hardly any two institutions follow exactly the same 
method in the practice of accrediting schools. The Michi- 
gan system provides for inspection of each school by a com- 
mittee of the faculty, consisting of one or two members. 
On a favorable report from this committee the school is 
accredited for one, two, or three years, according to the 
degree of established excellence which it presents. With 
the spread of the system to other institutions, it has differ- 
entiated on the one hand in the direction of a more frequent 
and thorough-going inspection of the schools, and on the 
other hand in the direction of less thorough inspection or 
none at all. Perhaps the lowest outcome of this differentia- 
tion is represented by the announcement of the authorities 
of one college that " Students bearing the personal certifi- 
cates of a former teacher, concerning studies satisactorily 
completed, will be given credit for the work they have 
done." 

On the other hand, the highest grade of efficiency in 
university inspection is found in such a system as that main- 
tained by the University of California. Here the accred- 
iting of schools is in the charge of a committee of the 
academic senate, representing the chief departments of 
instruction. All secondary schools within the state which 
apply for accrediting — public high schools, private schools, 
and institutions under corporate or ecclesiastical manage- 
ment — are visited each year under the direction of this 
committee by several members of the teaching force of the 
university. A given school is commonly so visited and 
inspected in the course of each year by instructors from 
each of the university departments of English, Latin, his- 
tory, mathematics, and physics. In some instances, the 
departments of Greek, modern languages, chemistry, and the 
biological sciences, or any one or more of them, may be 
added to the list. In other cases, the visitor from the 
department of English, for example, may, by special arrange- 
ment, examine the school for the Latin department ; and 
other economical combinations are made from time to time. 



167] SECONDARY EDUCATION 2 J 

The heads of departments visit many schools in person ; 
university instructors of various subordinate grades share in 
this labor ; but so far as possible the assignment to such 
duty is limited to persons of considerable scholastic experi- 
ence, and experience as a teacher in secondary schools is 
regarded as a qualification of no small importance. The 
men who go out for the purpose of such visitation are at 
the time engaged in ordinary university instruction. The 
loss to their classes from the interruptions to continuous 
work which their occasional absence must cause, is mini- 
mized by various devices. The expense of the visitation is 
borne by the university. A school may be "accredited" 
without a favorable report in all subjects, but the report 
must be favorable in a sufficient number of lines to indicate 
that the school is a real educational institution. Superior 
excellence in a single isolated department is not regarded 
as constituting a claim to a place on the university list. 

The purpose of a well-considered accrediting system is not 
primarily to provide a means whereby applicants for admis- 
sion to college may escape a dreaded examination. It is 
rather to encourage and build up strong and efficient 
schools of secondary grade. This result the system has 
undoubtedly tended to bring about. It has drawn our sec- 
ondary and higher grades of instruction into closer articu- 
lation and sympathy one with the other. It has tended to 
release the teachers in secondary schools from the domina- 
tion of merely formal examination requirements, and has 
turned their attention to vital matters in the domain of 
education. 

On the other hand, the system has had and still has 
serious disadvantages. It tends to foster a too prevalent 
disposition to dispense with or evade all tests of accurate 
scholarship in the shape of definite examinations. It 
entails a heavy burden upon the higher institution ; it 
demands large expenditures of money and of the time of 
university instructors. In the University of California, the 
actual cost in money for the traveling expenses of the inspec- 



28 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l68 

tors is about equal to the salary of an assistant professor. 
The aggregate of the time required each year by all depart- 
ments for the purposes of the examination of schools is not 
far from three full academic years. Counting the average 
salary of the inspectors as that of an associate professor, we 
have here an approximate total cost for services and travel- 
ing expenses of between $8,000 and $9,000 annually. It is, 
moreover, impossible so to conduct the inspection that all 
departments of all schools shall be tried by uniform or even 
consistent standards of excellence. Nor does the accrediting 
system wholly obviate the evil of subjecting the secondary 
schools to tests and influences somewhat foreign to the real 
purposes of secondary education. It cannot be regarded 
and is not generally regarded as a final solution of the prob- 
lem with which it deals. But it marks a very great advance 
toward that end ; and it is safe to say that its present advan- 
tages greatly outweigh its obvious disadvantages. 

SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ASSOCIATIONS 

Parallel with the later development of the accrediting sys- 
tem, there have grown up important voluntary associations 
of instructors, in which representatives of the colleges meet 
with representatives of the secondary schools for the discus- 
sion of topics of common interest. The parent society of 
this sort is the New England association of colleges and 
preparatory schools, organized at Boston in 1885. The 
object of this association was declared to be, " The estab- 
lishment of mutually sympathetic and helpful relations 
between the faculties of the colleges represented and the 
teachers of the preparatory schools, and the suggestion to 
that end of practical measures and methods of work which 
shall strengthen both classes of institutious by bringing 
them into effective harmony." 

This organization grew out of a previously existing state 
association of secondary school teachers in Massachusetts.* 
It in turn prompted the establishment of the commission of 
colleges in New England on admission examinations. This 



169] SECONDARY EDUCATION 29 

commission, formed by agreement among the several New 
England colleges, and possessing no authority, has by its 
recommendations done much to unify the requirements for 
college matriculation. Its most notable achievement has 
been the mapping out of requirements in the English lan- 
guage and literature. It has made important recommenda- 
tions also with reference to courses in the ancient classics 
and the modern languages. 

The example of New England has been followed by other 
sections of the country. The association of colleges and 
preparatory schools in the middle states and Maryland came 
into existence in 1892, growing out of the college association 
of Pennsylvania, established five years earlier. The north 
central association of colleges and secondary schools was 
formed at Evanston, Illinois, in 1895 ; and the association of 
colleges and preparatory schools of the southern states, at 
Atlanta, Georgia, later in the same year. State organiza- 
tions somewhat similar in character are found in a number 
of the states, as in New York, Ohio, Tennessee, Colorado, 
Michigan, and both Dakotas. 

These various societies, through their discussions and rec- 
ommendations, have exercised a vast influence upon the 
development of our secondary education. 

THE COMMITTEE OF TEN ON SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDIES 

But the chief landmark in the recent history of this grade 
of school is the work of the committee on secondary school 
studies, appointed by the National educational association 
in 1892, and commonly known as the "committee of ten." 
This committee was the outcome of a movement within the 
national association in the direction of uniformity of col- 
lege entrance requirements. Its chairman was the president 
of Harvard university. In its membership were included 
the United States commissioner of education and some of 
the foremost representatives of both secondary and higher 
education in America. Not limiting itself to the mechanical 
adjustment of relations between the high school and the col- 



30 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l70 

lege, this committee proceeded to consider the problem of sec- 
ondary education from an educational point of view. Nine 
sub-committees of ten members each, were appointed to pre- 
pare reports on the several ordinary departments of sec- 
ondary school instruction, viz., Latin, Greek, English, other 
modern languages, mathematics, physics (with astronomy 
and chemistry), natural history (biology, including botany, 
zoology, and physiology), history (with civil government and 
political economy), and geography (physical geography, 
geology, and meteorology). 

The committee of ten, having secured carefully prepared 
reports from its sub-committees, and having examined a large 
number of the courses in actual use in secondary schools, 
drew up a report which was published by the United States 
government in December, 1893, together with the reports of 
the several sub-committees. The contents of this document 
may be briefly summarized as follows : 

In all of these discussions, the distribution of the years of 
school life now generally followed in the educational admin- 
istration of the American states is assumed as a datum. The 
demand for an earlier introduction of secondary school studies 
is, however, reiterated by several of the sub-committees. They 
call attention to the disadvantage to students pursuing, for 
instance, the study of Latin, which results from postponing 
the beginnings of that study to the ninth year of the school 
course, when the student has already passed the most favor- 
able time for memorizing paradigms and a strange vocabu- 
lary. The committee of ten, while approving strongly of 
these recommendations, confine their proposals to improve- 
ments in the ordinary four-year secondary course. 

After discussing the principles which should guide in the 
framing of courses of study, the committee present four 
sample courses, which may be taken as illustrations of the 
application of those principles. These sample courses are, 
however, generally regarded as the least successful and sig- 
nificant outcome of the committee's labors. The portions 
of the report which represent the most mature deliberation 



I7l] SECONDARY EDUCATION 31 

are those which propose general principles for guidance in 
the making of such courses. 

The committee lay great stress on the correlation of 
studies in secondary schools : the unifying of many subjects 
into a well-knit course of instruction, through the recognition 
of their numerous inter-relations. They endorse the unani- 
mous recommendation of the sub-committees that the instruc- 
tion in any given subject shall not be different for a student 
preparing to enter a higher institution from that for students 
who go no further than the high school. They make an 
urgent plea for more highly trained teachers. They declare 
against a multiplicity of " short information courses," such as 
have been given in many high schools in times past : a dip 
into one science followed by a dip into another, and no deep 
draught from any. Instead, they recommend that such sub- 
jects as are studied be pursued consecutively enough and 
extensively enough to yield that training which each is best 
fitted to yield. They would have continuous instruction 
in the four main lines of language, mathematics, history, and 
natural science. In particular, they recommend that in the 
first two years of a four-year course, each student should 
enter all of the principal fields of knowledge, in order that 
he may fairly " exhibit his quality and discover his tastes." 
They recommend the postponement of the beginning of 
Greek to the third year, in order that the student may not 
find himself at the bifurcation of the course into classical and 
Latin-scientific courses, before he is ready, or his advisers suffi- 
ciently informed as to his capabilities, to make an intelligent 
choice. The committee would require in each course a 
maximum of twenty recitation periods a week ; but they 
would have five of these periods devoted to unprepared 
work ; and would reserve double periods for laboratory exer- 
cises whenever possible. 

Within the limitations indicated above, as to continuity 
and extensiveness of studies in each of the broad divisions 
of knowledge, the committee would leave to the individual 
student and his advisers the largest possible freedom in the 



32 



SECONDARY EDUCATION V l 7 2 



choice of studies. With reference to requirements for admis- 
sion to college, the committee recommend " that the colleges 
and scientific schools of the country should accept for admis- 
sion to appropriate courses of their instruction the attain- 
ments of any youth who has passed creditably through a 
good secondary school course, no matter to what group of 
subjects he may have mainly devoted himself in the second- 
ary school." Describing more exactly what might be con- 
sidered " a good secondary school course " for this purpose, 
they propose that it shall consist of any group of studies 
from those considered by the sub-committees, " provided 
that. the sum of the studies in each of the four years amounts 
to sixteen, or eighteen, or twenty periods a week, — as may 
be thought best, — and provided, further, that in each year 
at least four of the subjects presented shall have been pur- 
sued at least three periods a week, and that at least three of 
the subjects shall have been pursued three years or more." 

This report called forth a very active discussion, which has 
not yet come to an end. The definite courses of study 
which it suggested have not been widely adopted ; nor have 
college admission requirements been made uniform in the 
manner which it proposed. But its influence has been far- 
reaching and, in the main, highly beneficial. 

THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM 

Since the early days of the academies, it has been cus- 
tomary in many schools to offer alternative courses ; one of 
them classical, the other "modern." Other options have 
been added from time to time, so that now a large school 
commonly offers several parallel courses. But especially 
within the last twenty years, there has appeared a strong 
demand that instead of a choice of courses the students be 
offered a wide range of choice in particular subjects. 

Several influences have combined to bring about this 
demand. The general adoption of an elective system in 
the colleges may be mentioned. Teachers have objected to 
close prescription in high schools when freedom is increasing 



173] SECONDARY EDUCATION 33 

in the higher institutions. The conviction that the secondary 
schools should not be merely tributary to the colleges is gain- 
ing ground. What is good education in the high school, it is 
maintained, is good preparation for the higher schools. The 
independence of the secondary school carries with it inde- 
pendent responsibility for the supply of the actual educa- 
tional needs of the youth attending such a school. And the 
students in the high schools are thought to have reached the 
stage of differentiation of educational needs. The need of 
the state, moreover, which education must satisfy, is the 
need of full spiritual unity underlying the utmost diversity 
of talent and culture. The elementary schools, with their 
single course of study, are conservators of spiritual unity. 
The secondary schools can and ought to serve a different 
purpose. Their instruction should be adapted to the culti- 
vation of the diverse talents of the youth enrolled in them. 
No two students have exactly the same aptitudes ; so far as 
possible, every student should pursue a different course of 
instruction from every other student. 

It will be seen that one tendency of this doctrine is to 
substitute a quantitative for a qualitative consideration of 
the curriculum. The most diverse subjects are held to be 
equivalent for the purposes of general culture, if pursued for 
equal periods of time under equally favorable conditions. A 
high school curriculum, under this system, would consist of a 
fixed number of units of study, to be chosen at will from the 
whole number of studies taught in the school. Certain utter- 
ances of the committee of ten have tended to strengthen 
this quantitative view of the curriculum. It has received 
reinforcement, also, from some prominent institutions of 
higher instruction, as the Indiana and the Leland Stan- 
ford Junior universities, which have stated their admission 
requirements for the most part in quantitative terms. 

In the attempt to reduce this doctrine to practice, cer- 
tain modifications necessarily enter. The choice of studies 
cannot be left simply to the immature pupil. He must have 
the advice of parents or guardians, and particularly the 



34 SECONDARY EDUCATION [174 

advice of the principal of the school. Even if other sub- 
jects may be given over to absolute freedom of election, 
studies in English are found to be indispensable in every 
course. Little by little, other subjects are acknowledged to 
be essential ; until it appears that there is little difference in 
practical working between a system of parallel courses ren- 
dered flexible by the allowing of occasional substitutions, and 
an adequately supervised elective system. The committee 
of ten enunciated an important regulative principle in pro- 
posing that each secondary school curriculum should provide 
an outlook into the several domains of language, mathematics, 
history, and natural science. From whichever side the prob- 
lem of the course of study is approached, the discussions seem 
to tend toward a requirement in each of several broad fields 
of knowledge, together with large freedom in the choice of 
particular subjects within those fields. 

COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS 

The latest attempt at an adjustment of the relations of 
secondary schools and colleges, to the educational advantage 
of both, is contained in the report of the committee on col- 
lege entrance requirements. It seems not unlikely that this 
report may be more fruitful of tangible results than any of the 
papers relating to the same subject which have preceded it. 

In 1 895, the National educational association, through its 
departments of secondary education and higher education, 
appointed a committee to consider the specific question of 
the unification of college entrance requirements. This com- 
mittee, as finally constituted, consisted of fourteen members, 
representing the high schools and universities of different 
sections of the country, under the chairmanship of the 
superintendent of high schools of the city of Chicago. The 
first important service rendered by the committee was the 
preparation and publication of a table showing the actual 
entrance requirements of sixty-seven representative colleges, 
universities, and higher technical schools in the United 
States. 



1/5] SECONDARY EDUCATION 35 

The committee's final report was presented at the meet- 
ing of the National educational association in July, 1899. 
This report is mainly devoted to the attempt to establish 
" national units, or norms," in the several subjects taught in 
the secondary schools as preparatory to the college course. 
The fundamental problem, in the language of the committee, 
" is to formulate courses of study in each of the several sub- 
jects of the curriculum which shall be substantially equal in 
value, the measure of value being both quantity and quality 
of work done. It is not to be expected, nor is it desired, that 
all colleges should make the same entrance requirements, 
nor is it to be expected that all schools will have the same 
program of studies. What is to be desired, and what the 
committee hopes may become true, is that the colleges will 
state their entrance requirements in terms of national units, 
or norms, and that the schools will build up their program of 
studies out of the units furnished by these separate courses 
of study." This hope is reinforced by experience with col- 
lege entrance requirements in English, which have within 
the past few years become nearly uniform throughout 
the country, on the basis of the recommendations of the 
commission of colleges in New England on admission 
examinations. 

In the determination of these norms, the committee 
received assistance from several bodies of expert scholars 
in the several branches of instruction. The American 
philological association proposed courses of study in Latin 
and Greek. The modern language association of America 
rendered a like service with reference to the French and 
German languages. The American historical association and 
the Chicago section of the American mathematical society 
reported on courses in history and mathematics. And the 
department of natural-science instruction of the national edu- 
cational association presented recommendations relating to 
physical geography, chemistry, botany, zoology, and physics. 
These several supplemental papers are published in connec- 
tion with the committee's report. The committee express 



36 SECONDARY EDUCATION [176 

general approval of the courses recommended in these 
papers, suggest some slight modifications, and offer an 
independent report on the subject of English. Their 
further recommendations are summed up in fourteen reso- 
lutions, of which the following seem to be of the greatest 
general significance : 

I. That the principle of election be recognized in second- 
ary schools. 

IV. That we favor a unified six-year high school course 
of study beginning with the seventh grade. 

VI. That while the committee recognizes as suitable for 
recommendation by the colleges for admission the several 
studies enumerated in this report, and while it also recog- 
nizes the principle of large liberty to the students in second- 
ary schools, it does not believe in unlimited election, but 
especially emphasizes the importance of a certain number of 
constants in all secondary schools and in all requirements 
for admission to college. 

That the committee recommends that the number of con- 
stants be recognized in the following proportion, namely : 
four units in foreign languages (no language accepted in less 
than two units), two units in mathematics, two in English, 
one in history, and one in science. 

XII. That we recommend that any piece of work com- 
prehended within the studies included in this report that has 
covered at least one year of four periods a week in a well- 
equipped secondary school, under competent instruction, 
should be considered worthy to count toward admission to 
college. 

The committee disclaim any implication that different 
subjects may be regarded as educationally equivalent. " This 
proposition" [resolution XII], they say, "does not involve 
of itself, necessarily, the idea that all subjects are of equal 
cultural or disciplinary value, * * * yet the advantages 
to our educational system of the adoption of this principle 
will be so great as far to outweigh any incidental disadvan- 
tage which may accrue from accepting as of equal value for 



177] SECONDARY EDUCATION 37 

college purposes the more or less unequal values represented 
by these studies." 

COURSES OF STUDY 

The actual courses of study in our secondary schools show 
great diversity. There is here, as in other portions of the 
American educational system, no semblance of national con- 
trol. There are but few states if any where the course of 
study is prescribed by state authority. This matter is gen- 
erally left to the discretion of municipal or district boards of 
education. Yet the differences between neighboring schools, 
or between the schools of different sections of the country, are 
not so great as one might suppose. Owing to the extensive 
circulation of all sorts of educational publications, and the 
frequent meeting of teachers one with another in educa- 
tional conventions, there is a surprising approach toward 
uniformity in the educational provisions found in all parts of 
the country. Even the poorer and more backward sections 
are often found striving consciously and earnestly after the 
ideals proposed by more favored districts. High schools 
may be found having courses ranging all the way from one 
to six years in length ; but the four-year course is the gen- 
erally recognized standard. Twenty years ago, it was com- 
mon to find courses weighed down with a large number of 
subjects, many of them pursued for only a fraction of a year. 
This was notably true of subjects in natural science ; but it 
is true to a much less extent at the present day. In spite of 
all assaults made upon the classical studies, they are appa- 
rently growing in favor. It would perhaps be fair to say 
that in many of the better schools, public as well as private, 
the classical course is commonly regarded as the standard, 
from which the other courses pursued in the same school are 
looked upon as variants. But the classical course now com- 
monly includes one or two years of natural science. 

The courses given below represent three different types 
of school : 

i. Courses in Phillips academy, Andover, Massachusetts. 
— an incorporated and endowed boarding school for boys. 



38 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



[l 7 8 



[The figures in the columns indicate the number of recitation periods a week 
devoted to the several subjects. Figures in parentheses indicate that the subjects 
for which they stand are alternative with others in the same column.] 





CLASSICAL COURSE 


SCIENTIFIC COURSE 




> 
in 

rA 

ej 

U 


IA 
IA 

OS 

O 


1— 1 

ia 

IA 

cj 

u 


<A 




P 

IA 
IA 
Cj 

O 




tA 
tA 
Cj 

U 


M 

'■A 
Cj 

u 


< 

tA 
tA 
CJ 

u 


English 

Latin 


4 
6 


2 

5 

4 

(4) 

(4) 

2 


2 

5 

5 

(0 

(0 
2 

3 


Eighteen hours selected from the 
foregoing subjects, with the addi- 
tion of physics, trigonometry, 
mechanical drawing and zoology. 


4 
6 


2 

4 


2 
(2) 


■n the 

addi- 

anical 

tical 


French 


«J- 
t.j= 0— • 


2 

2 

2 


(4) 

(4) 

3 

3 


(2) 
(2) 

3 

3 
4 


<- •" u 


German 




l*rka 


Algebra 

Geometry 

History 


2 
2 


hours se! 
j subjects 
rigonome 
z 1 g 
and phys 


Natural Science 


2 








2 


(4) 
(2) 


■S L 2 § * § 










g«;a.-o;ii 











2. Courses recommended for the high schools of Minne- 
sota by the state high school board. 



English 

Latin 

Mathematics . . , 

History , 

Natural science, 



LATIN SCIENTIFIC COURSE 



First 
year 



Second 


Third 


year 


year 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 




5 


5 




.5 



Fourth 
year 



In Latin, first year, grammar; second year, Csesar ; third 
year, Cicero ; fourth year, Virgil. In mathematics, first 
year, algebra ; second year, plane geometry ; fourth year, 
solid geometry and higher algebra. In natural science, first 
year, zoology or botany ; third year, physics ; fourth year, 
chemistry. 



^79] 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



39 



Literary Course : as above, substituting four years of 
German for Latin. 

Classical Course : as above, substituting Greek grammar 
and Anabasis for equivalents. 

English Course : as above, substituting for Latin four 
credits chosen from botany, physiography, bookkeeping, 
civics, history, political economy, and senior common 
branches. 

3. Course for Public Latin school, Boston, Massachusetts : 





Class VI 


Class V 


Class IV 


Class III 


Class II 


Class I 


English 


3 

5 


3 

5 


3 

7 [4] 
[4] 
[3] 


3 
4 
5 
3 


3 
5 
5 
2 


3 
4 

5 


Latin 


Greek 


French 




German 






5 


Algebra 


4 [5] 


4 


4 [3] 

2 

1 


3 

2 


3 
2 


History 


3 
3 


3 
3 


4 


Geography 

Physics 


4 

2 


Gymnastics.. 
Military Drill. . . . 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 











The brackets indicate an assignment of hours for the 
spring term which differs from that in the same subjects 
for the remainder of the year. Botany, physiology and 
hygiene are studied during the spring term in the hours 
assigned to geography in the table. Objective geometry is 
studied in connection with arithmetic in classes VI and V. 
Plane geometry is begun in the hours assigned to algebra in 
class II. 

DIFFERENTIATION OF SCHOOLS 

The differentiation which appears everywhere in our sec- 
ondary education is not limited to the diversifying of studies 
within the several schools ; it appears also in the erection of 
special schools for special classes of students. In the first 
place, we may note the provision for separate schooling of 



4-0 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l8o 

boys and girls. The grammar schools of the seventeenth 
and eighteenth centuries were for boys alone. A number of 
the old academies were co-educational. Early in the nine- 
teenth century, academies for girls exclusively were estab- 
lished, and large numbers of such schools have flourished 
down to the present day. A public high school for girls was 
established at Boston in 1826, but it was short-lived, owing 
to the large expense which it entailed. At Providence, 
Rhode Island, in 1843, a co-educational high school was 
opened ; and the most of the high schools established since 
that time have been for both sexes. 

The report of the United States commissioner of educa- 
tion for 1896-97 showed a total of 5,109 public high schools 
in the whole country, of which 35 were for boys only, 26 for 
girls only,, and the remainder co-educational. The same 
report showed a total of 2,100 private high schools, acade- 
mies, etc., of which 351 were for boys only, 537 for girls 
only, and 1,212 co-educational. 

Another special type of school, the evening high school, 
has been established in a number of our larger cities. These 
schools have offered very elastic courses of study, suited to 
the varied needs of their clientage ; and have been a great 
boon to many who have been obliged to work by day after 
the completion of an elementary school course. 

In the northern and western states, white and colored 
students, where there are colored students of secondary 
grade, commonly attend the same schools. In the southern 
states, separate schools are provided for those of African 
race. The report of the commissioner of education for 
1896-97 showed 169 schools in the United States for the 
secondary and higher education of colored youth exclusively. 
In many of these schools both grades of instruction were 
provided in the same institution. About 20 of the number 
were public high schools. The remainder were private or 
denominational institutions. In these 169 schools, 15,203 
colored students were receiving instruction of secondary 
grade. 



l8l] SECONDARY EDUCATION 4 1 

The European manual training exhibits at the centennial 
exhibition in Philadelphia, in 1876, gave a strong impetus 
to a movement already begun toward the establishment of 
manual training schools in American cities. St. Louis took 
a step forward, in 1879, m tne establishment of such a school 
in connection with Washington university. Within a few 
years, similar schools were established, some under private 
and some under public control, in Baltimore, Chicago, 
Toledo, New York, Philadelphia, and other cities. In these 
schools, the idea of manual training for the purposes of 
general culture was usually uppermost, their projectors dis- 
claiming any intention of establishing schools for the teach- 
ing of trades. More recently trade schools have been 
established in the largest cities, but for the most part under 
private initiative and control. 

The commercial spirit of this country finds expression in 
the frequent appearance of such subjects as bookkeeping 
and commercial arithmetic in general courses of study. 
Special schools for distinctively commercial training are 
usually private ventures. These are found in great numbers 
in all parts of the country, generally going by the name of 
"commercial college" or "business college." In 1896-97, 
the commissioner of education presented reports from 341 
such schools, with 77,746 students in attendance. Within 
the past decade there has been a growing demand for public 
commercial high schools in the larger cities. Thus far, com- 
paratively slight provision has been made to meet this 
demand, but there is reason to expect that there will in the 
near future be a considerable expansion of our public educa- 
tion on this side. The business high school in Washington, 
D. C, may be mentioned as one illustration of the serious 
interest which has begun to appear in this side of secondary 
instruction. 

The recognition of the importance and need of purely 
vocational schools of secondary grade puts a new aspect on 
the problem of the school curriculum. As has been shown, 
Americans are loath to recognize any necessity of a bifur- 



42 SECONDARY EDUCATION [182 

cation of courses, such that the student taking one road 
finds the way open to indefinite advancement in higher 
studies, while one taking the other alternative finds a defi- 
nite limit a little way before him. We have commonly failed 
to recognize the need of turning aside at some point, early or 
late, to master a distinct occupation in life. We have been 
willing to sacrifice expertness in one's calling to the hope 
of unlimited progress in higher culture. With the growing 
interest in technical training of a commercial or mechanical 
sort, there appears a set of difficult problems. A purely 
vocational course in a trade school presents no educational 
outlook beyond the mastery of the trade. If a final choice 
must be made between the highway of learning and the 
cul-de-sac, how shall it be so far postponed as to give to 
each pupil his full share of general culture, without reduc- 
ing unduly his chance of full preparation for his life work ? 
Still more difficult are the questions relating to certain semi- 
vocational courses, such as those of the manual training high 
school. The tendency is to regard these as primarily courses 
for general culture, with an outlook into the college or the 
higher scientific school. It is possible that at times their 
service as preparatory to the mastery of certain trades has 
been somewhat obscured in this view. But questions such 
as these are still before us for settlement. 

THE STUDY OF ADOLESCENCE 

One movement should be mentioned which is part cause 
and part result of the increased attention which is now paid 
to problems of secondary education, in themselves consid- 
ered. Reference is made to the study of the several aspects 
of adolescence, as a stage in the mental development of indi- 
viduals. Secondary education being essentially the educa- 
tion of adolescents, whatever throws light upon the peculiar 
psychology and natural history of this period of youth is of 
value to the educator. Many studies of particular phases 
of adolescent development have been made within the past 
few years, under the stimulus of investigations begun at 



183] SECONDARY EDUCATION 43 

Clark university. These studies are as yet fragmentary ; 
and they cannot be said to have led to well-defined reforms. 
Yet their influence has been manifest in the general tone 
and spirit of secondary education. They have prompted to 
a more sympathetic treatment of our youth in their time of 
spiritual reconstruction ; to a better appreciation of the diffi- 
culties attending the passage from the intellectual depend- 
ence of childhood to the individual convictions of manhood 
and womanhood. They have led to a more careful obser- 
vation of individual differences of development, and have 
strengthened the demand for greater freedom in both 
courses and methods of instruction. Such results warrant 
the hope that further researches in this field may lead to 
generalized knowledge of the needs and aptitudes of youth, 
which will be of the highest significance in educational 
practice. 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

Methods of instruction in all secondary school subjects 
have been profoundly influenced of late from the side of 
the natural sciences. Laboratories have become common 
in high schools and academies. College entrance require- 
ments have been extended to include laboratory work in 
physics, and, in some instances, in chemistry or in the biologi- 
cal sciences. In Massachusetts, in 1897, it was reported that 
66 high. schools were provided with good laboratory facili- 
ties, 80 had fair or limited facilities, and 98 had poor facilities 
or none. 

In these laboratories, students perform representative 
experiments in the science they are pursuing, under the guid- 
ance and subject to the criticism of the instructor. These 
experiments are commonly regarded as illustrative of or pre- 
paratory to the statement of principles in a text-book. The 
"method of re-discovery" has influenced the practice of the 
schools ; yet there are probably few school laboratories in 
which the students are expected to re-discover on their own 
account the laws of physics or chemistry, or of any other 
of the sciences. A fine blending of discovery, verification, 



44 SECONDARY EDUCATION [184 

and correction seems to be the ideal of our best teachers of 
natural science. Much stress is laid on the accurate record- 
ing of observations and experiments. The students' note- 
books serve as one of the chief tests of the excellence of 
their work. 

This is different from the prevailing method of a genera- 
tion ago : the text-book was then the main reliance in school 
instruction, even for classes in the natural sciences. 

The lecture system has never occupied a large place in 
our secondary schools. Clearness of exposition has always 
been, and will doubtless always be an important element in a 
teacher's equipment for teaching. Skillful instructors have at 
all times exercised themselves to help their pupils over diffi- 
culties in such manner as would prepare them to surmount 
future difficulties for themselves. And we read of old-time 
masters who were famous for their ability to ask searching 
and stimulating questions. But set lectures have not found 
favor here. Oral and written recitations by students, on the 
other hand, fill a large place in the work of our schools. 

The recent extension of laboratory exercises, together 
with the proportionate reduction of text-book study, repre- 
sents a notable change of view as to the function of instruc- 
tion in general. We find accordingly that a like change 
appears in the treatment of other branches than the natural 
sciences. The attempt is now made to put the student in 
touch with first-hand materials of knowledge ; and to guide 
and stimulate him to the end of making over these crude 
facts into real knowledge for himself. This procedure seeks 
to give full recognition to both the ideal and the sensuous ele- 
ments in knowledge ; and it indicates some appreciation of 
the fact that the ideal element to be truly ideal must be sup- 
plied by the active agency of the student's own thought, 
exercised upon the products of his own experience. 

In the practice of the schools, we find these principles 
applied, for example, to the teaching of history. While text- 
books are not dispensed with, the effort is made to give the 
student some acquaintance with the sources of our historical 



185] SECONDARY EDUCATION 45 

knowledge. In the study of literature, less attention is paid 
to historical summaries than was formerly the case, and more 
time is devoted to the study of literary masterpieces. In 
grammar and rhetoric, the study of principles is closely con- 
nected with the study of passages from literature which 
embody those principles in living forms ; and with composi- 
tion exercises upon topics which invite free expression. In 
the study of modern languages, facility in conversation is 
not commonly sought ; though there are schools here and 
there which lay great stress upon this acquisition. The 
ability to read the languages readily and with understanding, 
and to enter into an appreciation of their literatures, are the 
ends chiefly striven for. To these ends, grammatical study 
is of course necessary. But the grammar is studied, on the 
whole, less abstractly than formerly, and more in its actual 
embodiment in literature. Greater effort is made now than a 
generation ago to secure a reading knowledge of the ancient 
classics. More hope is held out to classes in Latin and Greek, 
that they may, with attentive effort, attain to such mastery. 
There is much difference of opinion among leading teachers 
as to the proportionate attention to be paid to " sight read- 
ing ; " and as to the value of the inductive method in the 
mastery of grammatical principles : but actual practice seems 
to be tending slowly toward a middle course, which retains 
much of the old-time thorough discipline in Latin and Greek 
grammar, but brings this training into more vital connection 
with the study of classic literature. The writing of Latin 
verse is generally discarded. Prose composition is receiving 
increased attention, and is now more imitative in its charac- 
ter than formerly, being commonly based on the Latin or 
Greek masterpiece which the class is studying at the same 
time. The question of approaching Attic through modern 
Greek has been warmly discussed, but the proposed change 
finds little, if any, acceptance in actual practice. In mathe- 
matics, much stress is laid upon the original demonstration 
of theorems, particularly in plane and solid geometry. It 
appears from time to time that instruction in mathematics is 



46 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l86 

weakened by a failure to insist upon the use of accurate lan- 
guage in demonstrations ; and from time to time fresh efforts 
are put forth to strengthen the work on this side. At the 
present day, especial stress is laid in some quarters upon 
the need of more careful and accurate English expression in 
all school exercises. The attempt to teach English expres- 
sion, oral and written, wholly through the medium of instruc- 
tion in other branches does not promise well ; but there is, 
fortunately, a growing recognition of the fact that all teachers 
must have at least some share in the responsibility for such 
instruction. 

MORAL VALUES 

The moral influence of secondary schools is undoubtedly 
the most important topic to be considered in this paper, but 
it is at the same time the most difficult to reduce to accurate 
statement. The religious background of moral instruction 
has already been referred to. It should be added that even 
in public high schools, from which all instruction in sectarian 
dogmas is strictly excluded, there is not uncommonly found 
a pervasive religious atmosphere, an influence emanating 
from the personal character of the instructors. In many 
of these schools, it is still customary to open the daily 
session with the reading of a passage from the Bible or 
the repetition of the Lord's prayer ; or with the singing of 
a devotional or patriotic hymn. But whatever there may 
be of religious tone and spirit in these schools is of a very 
general and unobtrusive sort, and far removed from ecclesi- 
asticism. Teachers wholly indifferent to dogmatic religion 
or in known opposition thereto are freely employed in the 
schools ; but would probably be found to constitute only a 
small minority of the teaching force of the country. In some 
schools, elementary ethics is taught, along with elementary- 
psychology, or perhaps economics. But this is unusual. 
The moral force of the high schools depends, then, mainly 
on the personal influence of the teachers in their instruction 
in the ordinary school subjects ; on the government of the 
school : and on the relations of the students one with another. 



187] SECONDARY EDUCATION 47 

Some subjects of instruction offer especial advantages as 
regards the formation of high ideals of conduct. The teach- 
ing of literature, and particularly the literature of the mother 
tongue, is found to be of great value in this respect — the 
more so, doubtless, when untimely moralizing is dispensed 
with, and noble sentiments are permitted to make their 
appeal through the charm of their artistic presentation. 
Choice works of plastic and pictorial art are rapidly finding 
their way into our school rooms. There is no systematic 
study of aesthetics in the school programs. These works of 
art are expected to accomplish their mission by their mere 
presence, sometimes supplemented by an informal discussion 
of their merits ; or they serve to reinforce the aesthetic side 
of instruction in literature and in drawing. In some schools 
music is steadily cultivated, and holds an honored place. 

History is probably, on the whole, the most neglected of the 
main lines of study in secondary schools ; and the moral loss 
resulting from such neglect is serious. Greek and Roman 
history is commonly taught, at least in classical courses ; but 
too often in a scrappy and inadequate fashion. Later Euro- 
pean history receives some attention. The history of the 
United States is, perhaps, the most seriously slighted of all. 
The reason for this seems to be that the history of our own 
country is studied in the grammar schools ; and it is not 
emphasized by the colleges as an admission subject. But a 
change for the better is slowly coming over the historical side 
of our school programs. 

Skillful teachers, however, make instruction in all subjects 
moral — by arousing a pure desire for truth, a spirit of intel- 
lectual honesty, a will to work and to overcome difficulties, 
and a long line of modest and every-day virtues. 

The government of our best secondary schools, and even 
of many of the smaller schools, which are comparatively 
unknown, presents much which may be regarded with genu- 
ine satisfaction. The relations of teachers and students are 
comparatively informal. There is little consciousness of 
official or artificial barriers between them. While strict dis- 



48 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l88 

ciplinary measures are often found necessary and are often 
enforced with vigor, the prevalent type of high school and 
academy government is that which treats the students as if 
they were already ladies and gentlemen, and throws them as 
far as possible on their own responsibility. Some interesting 
and successful experiments have been made in the organiza- 
tion of regular systems of self-government among students. 
It would seem, however, that only a principal who has the 
strength and skill to govern well is capable of making a 
school into a truly self-governing body. 

Under any system of government, the social life of the 
school is the chief teacher of morals. It is one of the glories 
of American high schools that the children of rich and 
poor, of high and low, meet there on common ground. 
The fact that tuition in these schools is free to all, helps to 
bring about this result. It is unnecessary to point out the 
numberless bearings of this democratic spirit in the schools 
upon the pupils who are subject to its influence. 

There is undoubtedly a growing disposition among fami- 
lies of wealth and high social position, to send their children 
to private schools ; and this fact has tended of late to the 
increase of such schools. This disposition is, however, by 
no means universal. And while the atmosphere of a private 
boarding school is necessarily different from that of a pub- 
lic high school, it may be questioned whether in the great 
endowed schools of the country there is any marked encour- 
agement given to purely aristocratic tastes and tendencies. 
The principals of boarding schools find it necessary at times 
to protest against providing students with too lavish a sup- 
ply of spending money. And the fact that such protests are 
heard seems to indicate that there is a serious effort on the 
part of school authorities to minimize distinctions based on 
wealth. 

STUDENTS 

The social organization of the students in these schools 
calls for further notice. High schools and academies are 
much alike in this respect. The instinct of association is 



189] SECONDARY EDUCATION 49 

strong in our youth, and it finds expression in all sorts of 
clubs, leagues, societies, and fraternities. The example of 
the colleges has been influential in the schools in this par- 
ticular. The several classes are commonly organized, with 
class officers, and have occasional gatherings of a social 
character. The offices of the highest class in school are 
sought for with keen competition. Athletic associations, 
foot-ball and base-ball clubs, and the like, are usually main- 
tained. Match games are played with neighboring schools, 
which call forth unbounded enthusiasm. Several schools 
are often joined in an athletic league; and the annual field 
days of these leagues are great occasions in the school year. 
The athletic records and trophies of a school are very highly 
prized. Well-equipped gymnasiums are now common in the 
larger schools, and provision for military drill is sometimes 
found ; but formal exercises do not take the place of free com- 
petitive games. Debating clubs and other literary societies 
are maintained with much interest. Contests in debate with 
neighboring schools call forth a spirit of emulation like that 
displayed in athletic struggles. Musical organizations are 
perhaps less common, but are among the most pleasing of 
school societies. Annual publications by successive classes 
present a record of the varied interests of the larger schools, 
and afford a field for budding literary and artistic genius to 
show its quality. Secret, Greek-letter societies are sometimes 
formed after the fashion of the colleges. Not unfrequently, 
too, voluntary associations for religious culture and observ- 
ance are maintained by the students. All of these organ- 
izations are commonly under the immediate control of the 
students themselves ; teachers frequently attend the various 
meetings, but more as friendly advisers than as governors. 

The completion of the course of study in a secondary school 
is celebrated in public with " graduation " exercises and the 
conferring of diplomas upon the members of the class. The 
graduates of a flourishing school will usually be found organ- 
ized in an alumni association. The monthly or annual meet- 
ings of such an association become of increasing significance 
as the years pass and its numbers and influence are enlarged. 



50 SECONDARY EDUCATION [ J 90 



TEACHERS 

A committee of the National educational association — 
the so-called committee of fifteen on elementary education 
— reported in 1895, among other topics, on the training of 
teachers for secondary schools. This committee declared 
that, " The degree of scholarship required for secondary 
teachers is by common consent fixed at a collegiate educa- 
tion." They proposed a course of special training for such 
teachers,^ consisting of instruction during the senior year of 
the college course in psychology, methodology, school sys- 
tems, and the history, philosophy, and art of education ; and a 
graduate year of practice in teaching, under close supervision, 
supplemented by advanced studies in educational theory. 

This proposal is far in advance of common practice or 
requirement. Very few of the American states make any 
specific requirement for the high school teacher's certifi- 
cate beyond that for a license to teach in the elementary 
schools. There are, on the other hand, many secondary 
schools in which teachers rarely obtain employment, if at 
all, unless they are college graduates ; and there are large 
sections of the country in which common usage is rapidly 
tending in this direction. 

The most of the leading universities and some of the 
higher normal schools are devoting especial attention to the 
professional training of teachers for schools of this grade. 
A committee of university professors, appointed for this 
purpose, has recently published a report, setting forth the 
existing legal provisions for the certification of high school 
teachers in the several states, and recommending practicable 
reforms. 

A Massachusetts report for the year 1897 shows that one 
per cent of the high school teachers then employed in that 
state were graduates of scientific schools, 13 per cent of 
normal schools, 66 per cent of colleges, and the remaining 
20 per cent unclassified. 

In the state of New York, in 1898, 32 per cent of the 



I91] SECONDARY EDUCATION 5 1 

teachers in secondary schools (not including principals) were 
college graduates, 39 per cent were normal school graduates, 
19 per cent were high school graduates, and 10 per cent had 
had other training. Of the principals, 51 per cent were col- 
lege graduates, 35 per cent normal school graduates, 8 per 
cent high school graduates, and 6 per cent had had other 
training. These figures include private academies as well 
as public high schools. They include also one-year, two- 
year, and three-year schools, as well as fully-developed high 
schools and academies. 

An inquiry into the preparation of teachers in the second- 
ary schools of California, in October, 1897, showed that of 
522 teachers then employed in the public high schools of the 
state, 308, or 59 per cent, were college graduates. 

These figures may be taken as representing the conditions 
which obtain in some of the more favored sections of the 
country. 

STATE SYSTEMS 

The several states have been slow to organize general sys- 
tems of secondary schools. In this respect secondary edu- 
cation stands in marked contrast with that of elementary 
grade. But a few of the states have made considerable 
progress in this particular. 

The early history of secondary schools in Massachusetts 
has already been told. This state is the foremost in the 
union in the universality of its provision for secondary 
education. Every " town " (township) in the state is required 
by law to provide free high school tuition for all students 
who are prepared for that grade of instruction. Inasmuch 
as the whole state is divided into towns, this means that free 
secondary education is offered to every child in the common- 
wealth. Of the 353 towns in the state, 185 are required by 
law to maintain high schools ; 70 others maintain high 
schools, though not required to do so ; and those not main- 
taining such high schools are required to pay the tuition fees 
of qualified students within their limits who go elsewhere 
for high school instruction — and may pay for their trans- 



52 SECONDARY EDUCATION [192 

portation also. The poorer towns receive help from the 
state in paying for tuition in outside schools. The high 
schools must offer a four-year course, of forty weeks to the 
year. They must prepare pupils for the state normal schools, 
and for higher scientific schools and colleges. There are 
262 of these high schools in the state, employing 1,312 
teachers. In 1897 Massachusetts paid $12,390,638 for pub- 
lic schools, of which $2,400,000, or 19 per cent, was for high 
schools. In 1896, the total municipal tax in the state was 
$15.23 on $1,000. Of this, $4.72 was for public schools, 
$0.91 of which was for high schools. These figures include 
the cost of school buildings along with the current expense 
of schools. 

The organization of the university of the state of New 
York has been mentioned. Only so much of the varied 
activity of this great institution calls for notice here, as has 
to do with secondary schools. This, however, presents the 
most thoroughly organized state system of secondary educa- 
tion which has yet been developed on American soil. All 
incorporated secondary schools in the state and all other 
secondary schools which may, after official inspection, be 
admitted to membership by the regents, are institutions of 
the university. One of the six departments into which the 
work of the regents is divided is the high school depart- 
ment, which has to do with high schools, academies, and all 
interests of secondary education. Both the college and the 
high school department are under one department director. 
He is assisted by nine inspectors of schools, one of whom is 
employed as an inspector of apparatus, and by a large staff 
of examiners. 

On the basis of reports made by this department, the 
regents distributed in 1898 a total of $209,250.48 in state 
funds to the secondary schools of the state. The method 
of distribution is as follows: (a) $100 is allotted to each 
school approved by the regents, without regard to its size or 
special attainments, (b) One cent is allowed for each day's 
attendance of each student in such schools ; provided that 



I93] SECONDARY EDUCATION 53 

each student so counted must hold a "regents' preliminary 
certificate " for admission to the school, Or the school must 
be approved by two university inspectors, as having a higher 
entrance requirement than the minimum prescribed for the 
preliminary certificate, (c) The state duplicates the amount 
raised by the schools for the purchase of approved books and 
apparatus up to the sum of $500 a year for any one school, 
(d) Grants are made on the basis of credentials obtained by 
pupils in the school who pass the regents' examinations — a 
method of "payment by results". In 1898, of the money 
distributed by the regents to secondary schools, about 25 per 
cent came under item (a) ; 22 per cent under item (b) ; 19 
per cent under item (c) ; and 34 per cent under item (d). 
The regents' examinations are held three times a year. 
They were taken in 1898 by 608 of the 645 secondary schools 
in the university. The diplomas issued by the regents to 
graduates of secondary schools are accepted by Cornell 
university and by other institutions of higher education 
in the state, in lieu of entrance examinations in the subjects 
which they cover. The report of the director of the high 
school department for 1898 says of the examinations: "In 
June 1898 the secretary stated to the regents that 10 years' 
experience had confirmed his views, given to the board in 
1889, that examinations have the highest educational value 
and that the small minority which would abolish them are 
extremists. It is believed, however, that these tests would 
be more valuable if they were used for their educational 
value and not at all as a guide in distributing public money. 
Inspection will enable us in most cases to determine satisfac- 
torily without regents examinations whether a school is 
maintaining a standard deserving aid from state funds." 

A syllabus is issued by the regents for the guidance of 
instruction in university institutions. There is free consul- 
tation between the officers of the university and the instruc- 
tors in the schools with reference to the contents of this 
syllabus. An annual university convocation, in which the 
representatives of all divisions of the university meet for 



54 



SECONDARY EDUCATION [194 



public discussion, forms one of the notable educational gath- 
erings of the country. 

In Maryland, a law of the year 1865 swept away the old 
academy system, and substituted for it a system of county 
high schools. This radical change was followed by a reac- 
tion. Later legislation took a middle course. A law enacted 
in 1872 provided for the establishment of high schools in 
the several counties, to be under the control of the boards 
of county school commissioners, or of district boards 
appointed by them. Each of these high schools must be 
" visited and examined annually by the principal of the State 
normal school, or a professor thereof," and must also be vis- 
ited once in each term by the county examiner. The sup- 
port of these high schools is provided for by the county 
school commissioners, who set apart for that purpose a por- 
tion of the ordinary school funds received from the state 
and the county. At the same time, a number of academies, 
about twenty in all, continue to receive direct donations, 
in various fixed amounts, from the treasury of the state. 

We find in Indiana what is virtually a system of university 
accrediting of high schools, the administration of which has 
been turned over to the state board of education. In July, 
1873, the board of trustees of Indiana university adopted a 
resolution to the effect that a certificate " from certain high 
schools " should entitle the bearer to admission to the fresh- 
man class. In August of the same year, the state board of 
education adopted plans under which the high schools which 
were worthy of such recognition should be designated and 
commissioned. In 1888 the following order was passed: 
" That hereafter no high school commission be granted 
except on a favorable report in writing, to be made to the 
state board of education, by some member of the state 
board, who shall visit the high school in question as a com- 
mittee of the state board for that purpose. 

" That all the high schools now in commission be visited 
by committees of the board as soon as may be, and that the 
present list be modified by the reports from such visitation. 



ig^l SECONDARY EDUCATION 55 

" That in case of change of superintendent in any com- 
missioned high school, the commission then existing shall 
be in force until a visitation shall be made by a committee 
of the state board." 

The territory of the state was divided up among the mem- 
bers of the board for the purposes of such visitation. 

By such simple means and without specific legal enact- 
ment, an important system of high schools has been built 
up. These schools rest upon a statutory provision authoriz- 
ing local school authorities to provide for the teaching, not 
only of the elementary branches, in English, but also of 
" such other branches of learning and other languages as 
the advancement of the pupils may require." They are 
supported in the same manner as the elementary schools. 

The supervisory power of the state board of education is 
secured by the broad provision that, " said board shall take 
cognizance of such questions as may arise in the practical 
administration of the school system not otherwise provided 
for, and duly consider, discuss, and determine the same." 

This board consists of the governor of the state, the state 
superintendent of public instruction, the respective presi- 
dents of the State university, Purdue university, and the 
State normal school, the school superintendents of the three 
largest cities in the state, ex officio, and "three citizens of 
prominence actively engaged in educational work in the 
state, appointed by the governor." A four-year course of 
study for high schools, prepared by this board, is recom- 
mended for adoption by all schools which seek to be placed 
on the " commissioned high schools " list. The board 
announces that commissions will be Granted to those hip-h 
schools only which meet the following requirements : 

i. The character of the work must be satisfactory. 

2. The high school course must be not less than thirty 
months in length, counting from the end of the eighth year. 

3. The whole time of at least two teachers must be given 
to the high school work. 

4. The course of study must be at least a fair equivalent 
of that recommended by the state board. 



56 SECONDARY EDUCATION \_ l 9*> 

It will be seen that this system provides for inspection of 
the schools only at long and irregular intervals. In practice, 
this defect is partially overcome by the close oversight which 
the universities exercise over those members of their fresh- 
man classes who enter on certificates from the schools. 
Such students are understood to be admitted to the uni- 
versity for a probationary period, in which they may show 
whether or not they have been properly prepared for the 
work they have undertaken. 

The interest in secondary education which has grown up 
under this system has extended to all sections of the state. 
There are now 151 high schools on the "commissioned" list, 
including those of the more populous centers. There is 
growing up, also, a large number of "township high schools " 
in the more sparsely settled portions of the state. In 1891, 
there were 125 such schools with an enrollment of 920 pupils. 
In 1898, the number had grown to 389, with an enrollment 
of 8,459 pupils. Seven of these schools have been placed 
on the " commissioned " list. 

The Wisconsin state system of free high schools was 
established in 1875. ^ provides for the maintenance of 
high schools by towns, incorporated villages, cities, or school 
districts or sub-districts containing incorporated villages or 
two-department graded schools within their limits. Two or 
more adjoining towns, or one or more towns and an incorpo- 
rated village, may unite in establishing and maintaining a 
high school. These schools are managed by local high 
school boards, which are commonly, but not always, identical 
with the boards for elementary schools. They are supported 
primarily by local taxation ; but a district is entitled to 
receive from the general fund of the state a sum not exceed- 
ing one-half the amount actually expended for instruction in 
the high school of such district, and not exceeding five 
hundred dollars in any one year ; provided the school has 
been kept in accordance with certain requirements prescribed 
by law, and provided further that the total amount paid from 
the state treasury for this purpose in any one year shall not 



I97] SECONDARY EDUCATION 57 

exceed fifty thousand dollars. Such a school is under the 
direct inspection and oversight of the state superintendent. 
To receive state aid, a school must establish and maintain a 
course of study prescribed, or at least approved, by that 
official ; and must be taught by teachers whose certificates 
he has approved. The state superintendent issues a manual 
for the guidance of these schools, containing general sug- 
gestions, courses of study, an outline of subjects and methods 
of instruction, and the text of the high school law. He is 
assisted in the visitation and supervision which the law 
prescribes by an inspector of free high schools, whom he 
appoints. 

An effort has been made in Wisconsin to encourage the 
building up of high schools in the less thickly settled por- 
tions of the state. This undertaking has met with only a 
moderate degree of success. Here as elsewhere it has been 
found difficult to promote the general establishment of such 
schools by other units of civil administration than those 
which establish and maintain elementary schools. In Wis- 
consin the elementary schools are governed and supported 
by district school authorities, and not by township boards. 

In the cities and towns of Wisconsin, the high schools are 
making marked progress, under the system of state super- 
vision. Within the past few years, many of them have been 
housed in fine, new buildings, provided with excellent labora- 
tories for instruction in the natural sciences. Important 
beginnings have been made also in the equipment of some 
of the schools for courses in manual training. State aid, to 
the amount of $250 a year for any one school, is extended 
to such courses by special provisions of the high school law. 
In the spring of 1899 SIX schools were receiving such special 
aid. At the same time there were in all 211 state-aided hieh 
schools in Wisconsin. Of these 56 had a three-year course 
and 155 a course four years in length. Of the four-year 
schools, no were accredited to the University of Wisconsin. 
The accrediting system was introduced by the university in 
1878, and is carried on independently of the state system of 



58 SECONDARY EDUCATION [198 

inspection. About a dozen of the largest and strongest high 
schools in the state are not included among those receiving 
state aid. 

The courses of study are commonly designated as the 
English, the general science, the modern classical, and the 
ancient classical course. A given school will ordinarily 
establish the English course first, and will from time to time 
add the others in the order named. There were in 1899 ten 
schools in the state which carried the full classical course. 

Minnesota has maintained a state system of high schools 
since 1881. At the head of this system stands the state high 
school board, consisting of the governor, the superintendent 
of public instruction, and the president of the University of 
Minnesota, ex officio. This board appoints a high school 
inspector and a graded school inspector. Any public high 
school in the state may become a state high school, and is 
then entitled to receive from the state the sum of eight hun- 
dred dollars annually. To be a state high school, it must 
admit students of either sex from any part of the state with- 
out charge for tuition, must provide a course of study cover- 
ing the requirements for admission to the University of 
Minnesota, and must be subject to the rules and open to the 
inspection of the state high school board. This board deter- 
mines, on the basis of the reports of its inspector, what 
schools are entitled to the bounty of the state ; but not 
more than five schools may receive such aid in any one 
county in any one year. Provision is also made for state 
graded schools, of lower rank than the state high schools ; 
and for the promotion of such schools to the rank of state 
high schools when they have attained such a degree of 
advancement as to entitle them to that designation. 

The state high school board conducts a written examina- 
tion of classes in the schools twice a year. Students who 
successfully pass such examinations, in any of the high 
school subjects, receive certificates for the subjects so 
covered ; and these certificates are accepted by the university 
and the normal schools of the state in lieu of entrance exam- 



199] SECONDARY EDUCATION 59 

inations in the subjects specified. The taking of this state 
examination is ordinarily optional with the school ; and no 
grants of money are based on examination results. The 
state board may, however, require a school to take an exam- 
ination as a part of the annual inspection. " The main pur- 
pose of state examinations", as stated by the inspector of 
high schools in his report for 1898, "is not to test the stu- 
dents, but to promote the general efficiency of the schools." 

Perhaps the most significant thing about the Minnesota 
system is the encouragement it gives to high schools in the 
smaller towns. Communities all over the state tax them- 
selves freely to supplement the bounty distributed by the 
state board. 

Laboratory apparatus for the high schools is made at the 
state prison and sold to the schools at cost. For the year 
1898-99, there were 1 10 graded schools and 97 high schools, 
under the supervision of the state high school board. 

Several other states have made marked advance within the 
past few years in the direction of improved systems of sec- 
ondary schools. These improvements have been gained 
through the untiring efforts of devoted friends of education, 
and should receive notice in such a place as this. But lack 
of space forbids. There is reason to regret, along with this 
omission, the unavoidable passing over of influential move- 
ments and important institutions which are in every way 
deserving of mention along with those which have been 
noticed ; but the time has been wanting to consider fully the 
proportionate importance of these things, as well as the 
space for a full exposition of them all. 



6o 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



[200 



STATISTICS 

Through the courtesy of the United States commissioner 
of education, the following statistics for the whole country 
for the year 1897-98 are presented in advance of their pub- 
lication by the bureau of education : 



TABLE I 

STATISTICS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR 1 897-98 





Public 
high schools 


Private 
high schools 


Public and 

private 
high schools 


Number of schools reporting. . . 

Teachers of secondary students. 

Male 


5315 
17 941 

8 542 

9 399 
449 600 
189 187 
260413 

51 066 
27 935 
13 575 
14360 

23 131 
12 056 

11 075 
53 022 
19247 

33 775 

14552 

6 699 

7 853 


1 99O 

9357 
4075 

5 282 
105 225 

52 172 

53 053 

26 693 
16 361 

11 128 

5233 
10332 

7 429 

2 903 

12 148 

6 302 
5846 

5 388 
3628 
1 760 


7 305 
27 298 

12 617 
14 68l 

554 825 

241 359 
313466 

77 759 
44 296 

24703 
19 593 
33 463 
19485 

13 978 
65 170 

25 549 
39621 

19940 

10 327 

9613 


Female 


Male 


Female 


Secondary students preparing 
for college 


Classical course 


Male 


Female 


Scientific courses 


Male 


Female 


Graduates in the class of 1898. . 
Male.. 


Female 


College preparatory students in 

the graduating class 

Male 


Female 





20l] 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



61 



TABLE II 



STUDENTS IN CERTAIN COURSES AND STUDIES IN PUBLIC HIGH 

SCHOOLS IN 1897-98 



COURSES, STUDIES, 
ETC. 


Number 
students 


Per cent 
to total 
number 
secondary 
students 


Male 
students 


Per cent 
to total 
number 

male 
students 


Female 
students 


Per cent 
to total 

number 
female 

students 


Students preparing for 
college : 

Scientific courses... 


27 935 
23 131 


6.21 

5-i5 


13 575 
12 056 


7.18 
6.37 

13-55 


14 360 
II 075 


5-52 
4-25 


Total preparing for 


51 066 


11.36 


25 631 


25 435 


9-77 




Graduating in 1898. . . . 

College preparatory 

students in graduat- 


53 022 

14 552 

223 307 
14 021 
33 9*7 
59 577 

252 358 

121 813 
10 200 
17 170 
93 038 
37 329 

112 133 
19 646 

134 785 

12 325 

161 724 

180 156 

169 478 
102 242 


11.79 

27-45 

49.67 

3.12 

7-54 

13-25 

56.13 

27.09 

2.27 

3-82 

20.69 

8.30 

24.94 

4-37 
29. 9S 

2.74 

35-97 
40.07 

37-7° 
22.74 


19247 

6 6gg 

87 52g 

7656 

12 006 

23 336 

106 676 

49 787 
4 966 

6 351 
39 493 
16 450 

47074 

7 725 
57 392 

4 355 
66 949 

74014 

69 636 
43 997 


10.17 

34.81 

46.27 
4-05 
6-35 

12.34 

56.39 

26.32 

2.63 

3-36 

20.88 
8.70 

24.88 
4.08 

30.34 
2.30 

35-39 
39.12 

36.81 
23.26 


33 775 

7 853 

135 778 

6365 

21 gn 

36 241 

145 682 

72 026 

5 234 

10 819 

53 545 
20 879 

65 059 

11 921 

77 393 

7 97o 

94 775 

106 142 

99 842 
58245 


12.97 

23-25 
52.14 


Students in 




2.44 




8.41 




13.92 

55-94 
27.66 




Geometry 




2.01 
4.15 




20.56 


Physical geography . 


8.02 
24.98 

4.58 
29.72 

3.06 




36.39 
40.76 

38.34 
22.37 


English literature. . . 

History (other than 

United States). . . . 







1 Per cent to number of graduates. 



62 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



[202 



TABLE III 

STUDENTS IN CERTAIN COURSES AND STUDIES IN PRIVATE HIGH 
SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES IN 1 897-98 



COURSES, STUDIES, 
ETC. 


Number 
students 


Per cent 
to total 
number 
secondary 
students 


Male 
students 


Per cent 
to total 
number 

male 
students 


Female 
students 


Per cent 
to total 

number 
female 

students 


Students preparing for 
college: 

Classical course 

Scientific courses.. . . 


16 361 
IO 332 


15.54 
9.82 


II 128 

7 429 


21.33 
I4.23 


5 233 
2 903 


9.86 

5-47 


Total preparing for 
college 


26 693 


25-36 


18 557 


35-56 


8 136 


15-33 




Graduating in 1898. . . . 

College preparatory 

students in graduat- 

Students in 


12 I48 

5 388 

50 986 
10973 

24 248 

19 417 
54 397 

25 702 

5 519 
7 263 

20 612 
10 119 
22 849 

6 205 
28 205 

7 873 

34 124 

35 654 
39 556 
16 565 


H-54 

44-35 

48.45 
10.43 
23.04 
18.45 
5I.7& 
24-43 
5-25 
6.91 

19-59 

9.62 

21.79 

5-9° 
26.80 

7.48 

32.43 

33-88 

37-59 
15-74 


6 302 

3628 

27 908 

8983 

8 682 

9 719 
29 47o 

14 791 

3 447 

2 188 
10 230 

4991 
10 555 

2 506 
12 561 

2 814 

15 164 
15 709 
18 346 

7 975 


I2.o8 

57-57 

53-49 
17.21 
16.64 
18.63 
56.49 
28-35 
6.61 
4.19 
19.61 

9-57 
20.23 

4.80 
24.08 

5-39 
29.07 
30.11 
35-i6 
15.29 


5 846 

1 760 

23 078 

1 990 
15 566 

9 698 

24 927 
10 911 

2 072 

5075 
10 382 

5 128 
12 294 

3 699 
15 644 

5059 

18 960 

19 945 
21 210 

8 590 


11.02 

30.11 

43-50 

3-75 

29-34 

18.28 




French 




Algebra 


46.99 
20.57 

3-9 1 

9-57. 
19-57 

9.67 
23.17 

6.97 
29.49 

9-54 
35-74 
37-59 
39-98 
16.19 


Geometry 






Physical geography. 

Psychology 

TSnglish literature... 







1 Per cent to number of graduates. 



203] 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



63 



TABLE IV 1 

STUDENTS IN CERTAIN COURSES AND STUDIES IN PUBLIC AND PRI- 
VATE HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES IN 1 897-98 



COURSES, STUDIES, 
ETC. 


Number 
students 


Per cent 

to total 

number 

secondary 

students 


Male 
students 


Per cent 

to total 

number 

male 

students 


Female 
students 


Per cent 
to total 
number 
female 

students 


Students preparing for 
college: 

Scientific courses . . . 


44 296 
33 463 

77 759 


7-99 
6.03 

14.02 


24 703 
19 485 

44 188 


IO.24 
8.07 

18.31 


19 593 
13 978 

33 571 


6.25 
4.46 


Total preparing for 


IO.7I 






Graduating in 1898. . . . 

College preparatory 

students in graduat- 


65 170 

19 940 

274 293 
24 994 
58 165 
78 994 
306 755 
147 515 
15 719 

24 433 
113 650 

47 448 
134 982 

25 851 
162 990 

20 198 
195 848 
215 810 

209 034 

118 807 


n-75 

30.60 

49-44 

4- 50 

10.48 

14.24 

55.29 

26.59 

2.83 

4.40 

20.48 

8-55 

24-33 

4.66 

29.38 

3-64 

35-30 

38.90 

37.68 
21.41 


25 549" 

10 327 

115 437 
16 639 

20 688 
33 055 

136 146 

64 578 

8 413 

8 539 

49 723 

21 441 
57 629 
10 231 
69 953 

7 169 
82 113 
89 723 

87 982 
5i 972 


IO.59 

40.42 

47.83 
6.89 

8-57 
13.70 
56.41 
26.76 

3-49 

3-54 
20.60 

8.88 
23.88 

4.24 
28.98 

2.97 
34.02 
37.18 

36.45 
21-53 


39 621 

9613 

158 856 

8 355 

37 477 

45 939 

170 609 

82 937 
7 306 
15 894 
63 927 
26 007 

77 353 
15 620 

93 037 
13 029 

"3 735 
126 087 

121 052 
66835 


I2.64 
24.26 


Students in 


50.68 




2.67 


French 


II.96 




I4.66 




54-43 




26.46 




2-33 
5.07 




20. 39 




8.30 


Physical geography.. 
Geology 


24.68 
4.98 




29.68 




4.16 


Rhetoric 


36.28 


English literature. . . 

History (other than 

United States). . . . 


40.22 

38.62 
21.32 







1 Result of combining tables II and III. 

2 Per cent to number of graduates. 



6 4 



SECONDARY EDUCATIOxM 



[204 



TABLE V 

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF STUDENTS PURSUING CERTAIN STUDIES 
IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 189O TO 1 898, 
IN FOUR-YEAR PERIODS. 





1889-90 


1893-94 


1897-98 




Number 

of 
students 


Per cent 

to 

total 


Number 

of 
students 


Per cent 

to 

total 


Number 

of 
students 


Per cent 

to 

total 


Total number of sec- 
ondary students. . . 
Number studying 


297 894 

IOO I44 
12 869 
28 032 

34 208 

127 397 

59 789 

63 644 

28 665 


33-62 
4-32 

9.41 
11.48 

42.77 

20.07 

21.36 
9.62 


407 919 

177 898 

20 353 
42 072 
52 152 
215 023 
103 054 
15 500 
97 974 
42 060 


43-59 

4-99 

10.31 

12.78 

52.71 
25-25 
3-8o 
24.02 
10.31 


554 814 

274 293 
24 994 
58 165 
78 994 

306 755 

147 515 
15 719 

113 650 

47 448 


49-44 

4-5o 

10.45 

14.24 

55-29 
26.59 

2.83 
20.48 

8-55 















SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Reports of the commissioner of education. Washington, annual 
publication. 

These reports include a great deal of statistical information relating to sec- 
ondary education. Since 1871 they have presented statistics of private high 
schools, academies, etc.; since 1876, of city high schools; since 1886-87, of 
students pursuing each of the more common secondary school studies; since 
1889-90, of public high schools not included in city school systems. 

Adams, Herbert B. (Editor). Contributions to American educa- 
tional history. Washington, 1887-. 

Published as circulars of information of the United States bureau of educa- 
tion. Nineteen monographs have already appeared in this series, the most 
of which contain matter relating to the history of secondary schools. 

Boone, Richard G. Education in the United States, its history 
from the earliest settlements. New York, D. Appleton and 
Company, 1893. 

Contains several chapters on the history of secondary education. 



205] SECONDARY EDUCATION 65 

Report of the committee on secondary school studies appointed 
at the meeting- of the National educational association, July 
9, 1892, with the reports of the conferences arranged by this 
committee and held December 28-30, 1892. Washington, 1893. 

Better known as the report of the committee of ten. It has been repub- 
lished by the American Book Company (New York) for the National educa- 
tional association. 

Report of committee on college entrance requirements, July, 1899. 

Published by the National educational association, 1899. 

The American journal of education. [Barnard's] Vols. 1-3 1. 
Hartford, Conn., 1856-1881. 

These volumes contain a great amount of matter relating to the history of 
American secondary schools. 

The Academy, a journal of secondary education. Issued monthly 
under the auspices of the associated academic principals of the 
state of New York. Vols. 1-8. Syracuse and Boston, 1886-1892. 

School and college, devoted to secondary and higher education. 
One volume only, Boston, 1892. 

The school review, a journal of secondary education. Vols. 1- 
(current publication). Chicago, 1893-. 

The educational review. Vols. i-(current publication). New 
York, 1891-. 

To these should be added the annual reports of the sev- 
eral school systems mentioned in this monograph, the vol- 
umes of proceedings of the various associations of teachers 
to which reference has been made, and the annual catalogs 
and occasional anniversary publications of the more impor- 
tant schools. 



THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 



BY 

ANDREW FLEMING WEST 

Professor of Latin in Princeton University 



THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 



I ITS PLACE AND IMPORTANCE 

The American college has no exact counterpart in the 
educational system of any other country. The elements 
which compose it are derived, it is true, from European sys- 
tems, and in particular from Great Britain. But the form 
under which these elements have been finally compounded is 
a form suggested and almost compelled by the needs of our 
national life. Of course it is far from true to say that Ameri- 
can colleges have been uninfluenced in their organization 
by European tradition. On the contrary, the primary form 
of organization found in our earliest colleges, such as Har- 
vard, Yale and Princeton, is inherited from the collegiate life 
of the University of Cambridge. But it was subjected to 
modification at the very beginning, in order to adapt the 
infant college to its community, and progressively modified 
from time to time in order to keep in close sympathy with 
the civil, ecclesiastical and social character of the growing 
American nation. The outcome of all this has been an 
institution which, while deriving by inheritance the elements 
of its composition, and in some sense its form, has managed 
to develop for itself a form of organization which notably 
differs from the old-world schools. 

Moreover the college, as might be expected from the fore- 
going considerations, occupies the place of central importance 
in the historic outworking of American higher education, 
and remains to-day the one repository and shelter of liberal 
education as distinguished from technical or commercial 
training, the only available foundation for the erection of 
universities containing faculties devoted to the maintenance 
of pure learning, and the only institution which can furnish 
the preparation which is always desired, even though it is not 



4 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [2IO 

yet generally exacted, by the better professional schools. 
Singularly enough, but not unnaturally, the relation of direc- 
tive influence sustained to-day by our colleges to the univer- 
sity problem is not unlike the relation held in the middle 
ages by the inferior faculty of arts at the University of Paris 
to the affairs of the university as a whole. 1 The points of 
resemblance are marked and are of a generic character. In 
both cases the college, or faculty of arts, appears as the 
preliminary instructor in the essentials of liberal education. 
In both cases this earlier education is recognized as the 
proper prerequisite for later study in the professional facul- 
ties. In both cases the inferior faculty, even if still undevel- 
oped or but partially developed, contains the germ of the 
higher university faculty of pure learning, the faculty of 
arts, sciences and philosophy. In this there is much that is 
remarkable, but nothing novel. For the American college 
in this respect merely perpetuates and develops a funda- 
mental tradition of liberal learning, which found its way 
from Paris through Oxford to Cambridge, and then from 
Cambridge to our shores. The parallel of our college his- 
tory with the old-world history holds good in other impor- 
tant respects, and would be most interesting to trace. Still, 
in order to understand the precise nature and unique influ- 
ence of the college in American education, it is not neces- 
sary here to trace step by step the story of its development, 
for in its various forms of present organization it reveals not 
only the normal type which has been evolved, but also sur- 
vivals of past stages of development, instances of variation 
and even of degeneration from the type, and interesting 
present experiments which may to some extent foreshadow 
the future. 

II THE OLD FASHIONED COLLEGE 

The three commonly accepted divisions of education into 
the primary, secondary and higher stages, while fully recog- 
nized in America, are not followed rigorously in our organi- 

1 Rashdall : Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. Chap. I, p. 318. 



2Il] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 5 

nation. The primary education is more clearly separable 
from the secondary than is the secondary from the higher 
or university stage. The chief cause for this partial blend- 
ing, or perhaps confusion, of the secondary and higher 
stages is the college. However illogical and even practi- 
cally indefensible such a mixture may appear in the eyes of 
some very able critics, it is still true that the historical out- 
working of this partial blending of two different things, 
commonly and wisely separated in other systems, has been 
compelled by the exigencies of our history and has at the 
same time been fruitful in good results. 

Let us then take as the starting point of our inquiry the 
fact that the American college, as contrasted with European 
schools, is a composite thing — partly secondary and partly 
higher in its organization. It consists regularly of a four- 
year course of study leading to the bachelor's degree. Up 
to the close of the civil war (i 861-1865) it was mainly an 
institution of secondary education, with some anticipations 
of university studies toward the end of the course. But 
even these embryonic university studies were usually taught 
as rounding out the course of disciplinary education, rather 
than as subjects of free investigation. Boys entered college 
when they were fifteen or sixteen years of age. The average 
age of graduation did not exceed twenty years. The usual 
course of preparation in the best secondary schools occupied 
four years, but many students took only three or even two 
years. In the better schools they studied Latin and Greek 
grammar, four books of Caesar, six books of Virgil's y£neid, 
six orations of Cicero, three books of Xenophon's Anabasis 
and two of Homer's Iliad, together with arithmetic, plane 
geometry (not always complete) and algebra to, or at most 
through, quadratic equations. There were variations from 
this standard, but in general it may be safely asserted that 
the Latin, Greek and mathematics specified above consti- 
tuted as much as the stronger colleges required for entrance ; 
while many weaker ones with younger students and lower 
standards were compelled to teach some of these prepara- 



6 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [2 12 

tory studies in the first year or the first two years of the 
college course. With but few and unimportant exceptions 
the four-year course consisted of prescribed studies. They 
were English literature and rhetoric, Latin, Greek, mathe- 
matics, natural philosophy, chemistry, the elements of deduc- 
tive logic, moral philosopy, and political economy, and often 
a little psychology and metaphysics. Perhaps some ancient 
or general history was added. French and German were 
sometimes taught, but not to an important degree. At grad- 
uation the student received the degree of bachelor of arts, 
and then entered on the study of law, medicine or theology at 
some professional school, or went into business or into teach- 
ing in the primary or secondary schools. Such was, in barest 
outline, the scheme of college education a generation ago. 

Ill THE COLLEGE OF TO-DAY; PROPOSALS TO SHORTEN THE 

COURSE 

At the present time things are very different. With the 
vast growth of the country in wealth and population since 
the civil war there has come a manifold development. The 
old four-year course, consisting entirely of a single set of 
prescribed studies leading to the one degree of bachelor 
of arts, has grown and branched in many ways. It has 
been modified from below, from above and from within. 
The better preparation now given in thousands of schools 
has enabled colleges to ask for somewhat higher entrance 
requirements and, what is more important, to exact them with 
greater firmness. The age of entrance has increased, until 
at the older and stronger colleges the average is now about 
eighteen and a half years. A four-year course leading to a 
bachelor's degree remains, although in some quarters the 
increasing age of the students is creating a tendency to 
shorten the course to three years, in order that young men 
may not be kept back too long from entering upon their 
professional studies. It was an easy thing a generation 
ago for young men to graduate at twenty, and a bright 
man could do it earlier without difficulty. After two or 



213] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 7 

three years spent in studying law or medicine he was ready 
to practice his profession, and then began to earn his living 
at the age of twenty-two or twenty-three. This was within 
his reach. But to-day a college student is twenty-two 
years old at graduation — as old as his father or grand- 
father were when they had finished their professional studies. 
If he follows in their steps, he must wait until he is twenty- 
five to begin earning his living. Accordingly boys are now 
passing in considerable numbers directly from secondary 
schools, which do not really complete their secondary educa- 
tion, to the professional schools, thus omitting college alto- 
gether. If this continues the effect both on colleges and pro- 
fessional schools will be discouraging. The problem is an eco- 
nomic one, and it is affecting college courses of study. One 
solution, as suggested above, is to shorten the course to three 
years. This has been advocated by President Eliot of Har- 
vard. Three years is the length of the course in the under- 
graduate college established in connection with the Johns 
Hopkins university. Another proposal is to keep the four- 
year course and allow professional in place of liberal studies 
in the last year, thus enabling the student to save one year 
in the professional school. This experiment is being tried 
at Columbia. A third proposal is to keep the college course 
absolutely free from professional studies, but to give abun- 
dant opportunities in the last year or even the last two years 
to pursue the liberal courses which most clearly underlie 
professional training, thus saving a year of professional 
study. That is, teach jurisprudence and history, but not 
technical law, or teach chemistry and biology, but not techni- 
cal medicine, or teach Greek, oriental languages, history and 
philosophy, but not technical theology. This seems to be 
the trend of recent experiments in Yale and Princeton. 
The one common consideration in favor of all these pro- 
posals is that a year is saved. Against the three-year course, 
however, it is argued that there is no need to abolish the 
four-year course in order to save a year. Against the 
admission of professional studies it is argued that work done 



8 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [ 2I 4 

in a professional school ought not to count at the same time 
toward two degrees representing two radically different 
things. Against the proposal to allow the liberal studies 
which most closely underlie the professions, it is argued that 
this is a half-way measure, after all. Nevertheless for the 
present, and probably for a long time in most colleges, the 
four-year course is assured. 

IV ALTERATIONS IN THE CONTENT OF THE COURSE AND IN THE 
MEANING OF THE BACHELOR'S DEGREE 

The four-year course, however, no longer leads solely to 
the degree of bachelor of arts, nor has this old degree itself 
remained unmodified. With the founding of schools of 
science, aiming to give a modern form of liberal education 
based mainly on the physical and natural sciences, and yet 
only too often giving under this name a technological course, 
or a somewhat incongruous mixture of technical and liberal 
studies, the degree of bachelor of science came into use as a 
college degree. Then intermediate courses were consti- 
tuted, resting on Latin, the modern languages, history, 
philosophy, mathematics and science, and thus the degree of 
bachelor of letters or bachelor of philosophy came into use. 
Sometimes the various courses in civil, mechanical, mining 
or electrical engineering were made four-year undergradu- 
ate courses with their corresponding engineering degrees 
virtually rated as bachelor's degrees. Still other degrees 
of lesser importance came into vogue and obtained a foot- 
ing here and there as proper degrees to mark the comple- 
tion of a four-year college course. The dispersing pressure 
of the newer studies and the imperious practical demands 
of American life proved too strong either to be held in form 
or to be kept out by the barriers of the old course of purely 
liberal studies with its single and definite bachelor of arts 
degree. New degrees were accordingly added to represent 
the attempted organization of the newer tendencies in courses 
of study according to their various types. The organiza- 
tion of such courses was naturally embarrassed by grave 



215] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 9 

difficulties which are as yet only partially overcome. Com- 
pared with the old course they lacked and still lack defi- 
niteness of structure. They aimed to realize new and 
imperfectly understood conceptions of education, and were 
composed of studies whose inner content was changing rap- 
idly, as in the case of the sciences, or else were " half-and- 
half " forms of education, difficult to arrange in a system 
that promised stability, as in the case of studies leading to 
the bachelor of letters or bachelor of philosophy. A graver 
source of trouble, in view of the too fierce practicality of 
American life, was the admission of various engineering and 
other technical studies as parallel undergraduate courses, 
thus tending to confuse in the minds of young students the 
radical distinction between liberal and utilitarian ideals in 
education, and tending furthermore, by reason of the attrac- 
tiveness of the " bread-and-butter " courses, to diminish the 
strength of the liberal studies. When in addition it is 
remembered that the newer courses, whether liberal, semi- 
liberal or technical, which found a footing of presumed 
equality alongside of the old bachelor of arts course, exacted 
less from preparatory schools in actual quantity of school 
work necessary for entrance into college, it will be seen that 
the level of preparation for college was really lowered. 

The present drift of opinion and action in colleges which 
offer more than one bachelor's degree is more reassuring 
than it was some twenty years ago. There is a noticeable 
tendency, growing stronger each year, to draw a sharp line 
between liberal and technical education and to retain under- 
graduate college education in liberal studies as the best 
foundation for technical studies, thus elevating the latter to 
a professsional dignity comparable with law, medicine and 
divinity. The more this conception prevails, the more will 
college courses in engineering be converted into graduate, 
or at least partially graduate courses. No doubt most inde- 
pendent schools will continue to offer their courses to young 
students of college age, but where such schools have been 
associated as parts of colleges or universities the tendency 



IO 



THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [2 1 6 



to a clearer separation of technical from liberal studies in 
the manner indicated above seems likely to prevail. If this 
happy result can be considered assured, then the under- 
graduate college course, the sole guarantee of American 
liberal culture, will have a good chance to organize itself in 
accordance with its own high ideals, however imperfectly it 
may have realized these ideals in the past. 

Another hopeful tendency which is gradually gathering 
strength is to give the various bachelor's degrees more defi- 
nite significance by making them stand for distinct types of 
liberal or semi-liberal education. Three such types or forms 
are now slowly evolving out of the mass of studies with 
increasing logical consistency. First comes the historical 
academic course, attempting to realize the idea of a general 
liberal education, and consisting of the classical and modern 
literatures, mathematics and science, with historical, polit- 
ical and philosophical studies added, and leading to the 
bachelor of arts degree. The second is the course which 
aims to represent a strictly modern culture predominantly 
scientific in character, and culminating in the degree of 
bachelor of science. As this course originated in the 
demand for knowledge of the applied sciences in the arts and 
industries of modern life, the ideal of a purely modern lib- 
eral culture, predominantly scientific in spirit, was not easy 
to maintain. On the contrary, the technical aspects of the 
sciences taught tended more and more to create a demand 
for strictly technological instruction to the exclusion of the 
theoretical and non-technical aspects. It is this cause more 
than any other which has tended to restrict the energies of 
schools of science to the production of experts in the various 
mechanical and chemical arts and industries and has caused 
them to do so little for the advancement of pure science. 
Conscious of this difficulty, many schools of science have 
been giving larger place in the curriculum to some of the 
more available humanistic studies. Fuller courses in French 
and German have been provided for and the study of Eng- 
lish has been insisted upon with sharper emphasis. Eco- 



2 17] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE II 

nomics, modern history and even the elements of philosophy 
have found place. Some improvement has also been effected 
by increasing the entrance requirements in quantity of school 
work. But in spite of all these efforts the course still suffers 
from an inner antagonism between technical and liberal 
impulses, and until the bachelor of science course finally set- 
tles into a strictly technical form, or else comes to represent 
a strictly modern liberal culture, its stability cannot be 
regarded as assured. In the independent scientific schools, 
unassociated with colleges, it seems probable the course will 
keep or assume a highly technical form, but wherever it exists 
side by side with other bachelor's courses as a proposed rep- 
resentative of some form of liberal education, it does seem 
inevitable that the bachelor of science course will tend to 
conform to the ideal of a modern culture mainly scientific 
in character. But even if this result be achieved, the pro- 
cess of achievement promises to be slow and difficult. Few 
American colleges are strong enough financially to make the 
experiment, which it must be admitted involves considerable 
financial risk, and even where the risk may be safely assumed 
there still remains a serious theoretical difficulty in realizing 
this form of liberal education. The antagonism between 
the technical and liberal impulses in the course seems very 
difficult to eliminate completely. For if the question be 
asked, Why should an American college student seek as his 
liberal education the studies which represent a purely mod- 
ern culture rather than pursue the bachelor of arts course, 
which professes to stand for a more general culture ? the 
preference of most students will be found to rest upon their 
instinct for something useful and immediately available, 
rather than on a desire for things intellectual. This con- 
stantly militates against devotion to the intellectual value 
of their modern studies and tends more and more to drag 
them toward technical standards. 

The third aspirant to be considered a type of liberal col- 
lege education is the course intermediate in character 
between the two already discussed. It is labeled with the 



12 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [2 1 8 

degree of bachelor of letters or bachelor of philosophy. It 
differs from the other two courses mainly in its treatment of 
the classical languages. In its desire to placate the practical 
spirit it drops Greek, but retains Latin both as an aid to 
general culture and as a strong practical help in learning the 
modern languages. Notwithstanding its indeterminate and 
intermediate character, it is serving a valuable end by pro- 
viding thousands of students, who do not care for the clas- 
sical languages in their entirety, with a sufficiently liberal 
form of education to be of great service to them'. It is by 
no means technical in spirit. Judged from the standpoint 
of the historical bachelor of arts course, it is a less gen- 
eral but still valuable culture. Judged from the standpoint 
of the bachelor of science course, it appears to escape the 
unhappy conflict between the technical and liberal impulses 
and anchors the student somewhat more firmly to funda- 
mental conceptions of general culture. 

These three are the principal forms of undergraduate col- 
lege education which in any degree profess to stand as types 
of liberal culture in this country at the present time, and 
they are usually labeled with three different degrees, as 
already indicated. 

But some colleges, following the example of Harvard, 
have dealt with the bachelor's degree very differently. The 
degree has been retained as the sole symbol of liberal col- 
lege education, but the meaning of the degree has been 
radically altered in order to make it sufficiently elastic to 
represent the free selections and combinations made by 
the students themselves out of the whole range of liberal 
studies. In these colleges it therefore no longer stands 
for the completion of a definite curriculum composed of a 
few clearly-related central studies constituting a positive 
type. What it does stand for is not quite so easy to 
define, because of the variation of practice in different col- 
leges and the wide diversity in the choice of studies exer- 
cised by individual students in any one college. But, gen- 
erally speaking, it means that the student is free to choose 



219] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 1 3 

his own studies. In the undergraduate college connected 
with the Johns Hopkins university at Baltimore choice is 
regulated by prescribing moderately elastic groups of cog- 
nate studies, the student being required to say which group 
he will choose. In Harvard college the range of choice is 
restricted in no such way. The student is allowed to choose 
what he prefers, subject to such limitations as the priority 
of elementary to advanced courses in any subject, and the 
necessary exclusions compelled by the physical necessity of 
placing many exercises at the same time, in order to accom- 
modate the hundreds of courses offered within the limits of 
the weekly schedule. In Columbia college the degree is 
still different in respect to the mode of the student's freedom 
of choice, and especially in the admission of professional 
studies in the last year of the course. A Columbia student 
in his senior year may be pursuing his first year's course in 
law or medicine, and at the same time receiving double 
credit for this work, both toward the degree of bachelor of 
arts and toward the professional degree of doctor of medi- 
cine or bachelor of laws. These examples are sufficient to 
indicate the variety of meaning found in colleges which 
have changed the historical significance of the bachelor of 
arts degree. 

V OTHER PHASES OF CHANGE 

Up to this point we have looked at the American college 
mainly from the outside. We observed in the college of a 
generation ago an institution of liberal education providing 
a single four-year course, consisting entirely of prescribed 
studies for young men from sixteen to twenty years of age, 
and culminating in one bachelor's degree of fairly uniform 
intentional meaning. We observe in the college of to-day 
the developed successor of the earlier college, providing a 
four-year course consisting generally of a mixture of pre- 
scribed and elective studies in widely varying proportions. 
The average age of the students has increased at least two 
years, and at the end of the course there is a multiform 
instead of a uniform bachelor's degree, or in some instances 



14 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [220 

a single bachelor's degree of multiform meaning. To some 
extent the undergraduate collegian has become a university 
student. To what extent ? is the real question around which 
a controversy of vital importance is raging. 

The profound change indicated by these external symp- 
toms, a change so full of peril in the directions of disintegra- 
tion and confusion, and yet so full of promise if rationally 
organized, has been in progress since the civil war, and is 
still steadily and somewhat blindly working along towards 
its consummation. An exact estimate of such a state of 
affairs, a diagnosis which shall at the same time have the 
value of a prognosis for all colleges, is manifestly impossible 
at the present time. The difficult thing in any such attempt 
is not merely to understand the change from a uniform to a 
multiform mode of life and organization, but to understand 
what it really is that is changing. This something that is 
changing is the old-fashioned American college. It seems 
simple enough to understand what this was, but at the same 
time it needs to be remembered that the old-fashioned col- 
leges, while aiming to follow out a single course of study 
ending in a single degree of single meaning, nevertheless 
did not succeed in exhibiting such close individual resem- 
blance to each other as is to be found, let us say, among the 
lycees of France, the public schools of England or the gym- 
nasia of Germany. Many so-called colleges really served as 
preparatory schools for larger and stronger colleges, and 
many so-called .universities did not attain and in fact do not 
yet attain to the real, though less pretentious dignity of the 
better colleges. In fact "university," as President Oilman 
observes, is only too often a "majestic synonym" for "col- 
lege." To aid in giving as much simplicity and consequent 
clearness to our view as is necessary to disclose the leading- 
features of the situation, neglecting all the others, we may 
therefore at once discard from our consideration all except 
the better colleges which, when taken together, exhibit the 
dominant tendency. 

How, then, have these better colleges changed? Speak- 



22 i] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE I 5 

ing generally, they have changed in a way which reflects the 
diversified progress of the country, and yet in some sense 
they have had an important influence in leading and organ- 
izing the national progress itself. Then, too, the change is 
not merely a change of form, but of spirit. In the older 
days scarcely any college had as many as four or five hundred 
students, and the range of studies, even if important, was 
limited. The faculty of the college exercised a strong 
paternal anxiety and oversight on behalf of the morals and 
religion, as well as over the studies of the students. The 
authority of the president was almost patriarchal in charac- 
ter. Not highly developed insight into the problems of edu- 
cation, but plain common sense in governing students was 
the condition of a successful presidency. The life of the 
students was mildly democratic, being tempered by the gen- 
erally beneficent absolutism of the president and the faculty, 
which in turn was itself tempered by occasional student 
outbreaks. According to the last report of the United 
States commissioner of education (1896-97) there are now 
472 colleges, 1 excluding those for women only. Seventy- 
seven of these enroll more than 200 undergraduate stu- 
dents, and of these seventy-seven colleges twenty-four 
enroll over 500, and eight over 1,000. The range of 
studies, as already mentioned, has increased. With the 
strengthening of preparatory courses, the school preparation 
of students has improved, and at the same time their average 
age at entrance has risen. The number of professors has 
multiplied. The old-fashioned college professor, the man of 
moderate general scholarship and of austere yet kindly 
interest in the personal welfare of those he taught, still 
remains ; but at his side has appeared more and more fre- 
quently the newer type of American college professor, the 
man of high special learning in some one subject or branch 
of that subject, who considers it his primary duty to investi- 
gate, his next duty to teach, and his least duty to exercise a 

1 That is, 472 " colleges and universities." As almost every university, real or 
nominal, contains a college, the total of 472 colleges is approximately correct. 



16 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [222 

personal care for the individual students. Perhaps the old 
type will be replaced by the new. Such a result, however, 
would not be an unmixed gain, and it is indeed fortunate that 
our finest college professors to-day endeavor to combine 
high special attainments as scholars with deep interest in 
the personal well-being of their students. The authority of 
the faculty is still sufficient, but is exercised differently. Stu- 
dent self-government is the order of the day, and the more 
this prevails the less is exercise of faculty authority found to 
be necessary. With student self-government there has 
naturally come an increase of intensity in the democratic 
character of student life. The presidents of our larger col- 
leges, and even of many of the smaller, are becoming more 
and more administrative officers and less and less teachers. 
It is no doubt something of a loss that the students should 
not have the intimate personal acquaintance with the presi- 
dent enjoyed by students a generation ago, but this can- 
not be avoided in places where a thousand undergrade 
ates are enrolled. Out-door sports have also entered to 
modify and improve the spirit of our academic life. They 
have developed their own evils, but at the same time have 
done wonders for the physical health of the students, the 
diminution of student disorders and the fostering of an 
intense esprit de corps. In the reaction from the asceticism 
of our early college life there is little doubt our athletics 
have gone too far ; so far as to divert in a noticeable degree 
the student's attention from his studies. But it is gratifying 
to notice that the abuses of college athletics can be corrected, 
and that they are to some extent self-correcting. It must 
not be forgotten that unlike his father or grandfather, whose 
college life was so largely spent indoors, the American stu- 
dent of to-day lives outdoors as much as possible. The 
moral and religious spirit of the college of to-day is inher- 
ited from the old college. 

Nearly all our colleges are avowedly or impliedly Chris- 
tian. A respectable minority of them are Roman Catholic. 
The large majority are under Protestant influences, some- 



223] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 1 7 

times denominational, but generally of an unsectarian char- 
acter even in the church colleges. In most of them the stu- 
dent is expected to attend certain religious exercises, such 
as morning prayers ; in many, however, all such attendance 
is voluntary. The voluntary religious life of the under- 
graduates finds its expression in various societies, which 
endeavor to promote the Christian fellowship and life of 
their members. While moral and religious convictions are 
freer and sometimes laxer than of old the Christian life in 
our colleges is real and pervasive. 

As a rule the student is so absorbed by the scholastic, 
athletic and miscellaneous activities of his college that he 
sees little outside social life. This is particularly true in 
colleges which enjoy truly academic seclusion amid rural 
surroundings, for here more than anywhere else is to be seen 
the natural unperturbed outworking of the undergraduate 
spirit. It is the old spirit enlarged and liberalized, — the 
spirit which finds its delight in a free, democratic, self-respect- 
ing enjoyment of the four years which are so often looked 
back upon as the happiest four years of life. 

VI INCREASED FREEDOM IN STUDIES. DEVELOPMENT OF 
ELECTIVE COURSES 

Such are some of the non-scholastic aspects of our present 
college life. They are important in that they give tone to the 
whole picture, but they do not account for what, after all, is 
the great transformation which has been wrought, for that 
transformation is distinctly scholastic. It is caused by the 
increase of students, their better preparation and their 
greater age. The studies which by common consent made 
up the curriculum leading to the old bachelor of arts degree 
are now being completed before the end, sometimes by the 
middle of the college course. There is to-day no reason why 
a young man of twenty should not know as much as his 
father knew at twenty. But at twenty his father had gradu- 
ated with the bachelor of arts degree, whereas at twenty the 
son is only half way through his college course. In other 



l8 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [ 22 4 

words, he has passed the time of prescription and entered 
upon the time of his freedom. As this fact forced itself 
more and more upon the older and stronger colleges, experi- 
ments were made in granting a limited amount of elective 
freedom to students in the latter part of their course ; first 
in the senior year and then in the junior year, until in some 
instances the whole four-year course is now elective. The 
solid block of four years' prescribed study has been cleft 
downward, part of the way at least, by the " elective " 
wedge, thin at its entering edge, but widening above the 
more it enters and descends. To-day the problem of the 
relation of prescribed to elective studies is a question of con- 
stant interest and perpetual readjustment. On the whole, 
the area of elective opportunity is extending downward, but 
whether this downward extension is being accomplished by 
injuring the foundations of liberal education, is to-day as 
grave a question as any we have to meet. In some colleges 
a student may obtain the bachelor of arts degree without 
studying any science, or he may omit his classics, or he may 
know nothing of philosophy. The solutions offered for this 
perplexing problem are many. 

The first proposal, which has now scarcely an advocate, 
except possibly some laudatores temporis acti, is plainly an 
impossible one. It is to insist on the old-fashioned four-year 
prescribed course. But the old-fashioned course is gone. 
It cannot be restored, because it no longer suits our age. 
Young men will not go to college and remain there until the 
age of twenty-two years without some opportunity to exercise 
freedom of choice in their studies. 

The second proposal is to constitute the undergraduate 
course entirely, or almost entirely, of elective studies. It 
is argued that when a young man is eighteen or nineteen 
years of age, he is old enough to choose his liberal studies, 
and that his own choice will be better for him individually 
than any prescription the wisest college faculty may make. 
The advocates of this view admit its dangers. They see 
the perils of incoherency and discontinuity in the choice of 



225] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 19 

studies. They see that many students are influenced, not 
by the intrinsic value of the studies, but by their liking for 
this or that instructor, or the companionship of certain stu- 
dents, or for the easiness of those crowded courses which in 
college slang are called " softs " or " snaps " or " cinches." Yet 
they argue that the college student must be free at some time, 
that his sense of responsibility will be developed the sooner 
he is compelled to choose for himself, and that he will have 
the stimulating and sobering consciousness that what he does 
is his own act and not the prescription of others for him. 
Those who oppose this view argue that the academic free- 
dom here proposed belongs to university rather than to col- 
lege students ; that the American freshman is not a university 
student in the sense in which that term has been commonly 
understood in the educated world. He has not spent eight, 
nine or ten years in secondary studies, as is the case in 
France, England or Germany. On the contrary, he has 
usually spent not more than four years in such secondary 
studies — occasionally a year or so more. At eighteen or 
nineteen years of age, he, therefore, comes to college with 
less training and mental maturity than the French, English 
or German youth possesses on entering his university. 
If, therefore, he is to be as well educated as they are, 
some of his time in college, the first two years at least, 
should be spent in perfecting his properly secondary edu- 
cation before entering upon that elective freedom which, as 
is generally conceded, has a place and a large place in our 
present undergraduate courses. The arguing on this ques- 
tion has been interminable, and almost every intellectual 
interest of our colleges is bound up in its proper solution. 

A third proposal is a conservative modification of the one 
just mentioned. It is to prescribe groups of cognate studies 
with the object of concentrating attention on related subjects 
in that field which the student may prefer, as, for example, 
physical science or ancient literature or philosophy. Of 
course the advantage claimed for this mode is that it allows 
the student to choose the field of study he likes, and then 



20 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [226 

safeguards him against incoherency by requiring him to pur- 
sue a group of well-related courses in that field. Or he may 
elect the "old-fashioned college course," if he likes. The 
advocates of wider freedom object to this as fettering spon- 
taneity of choice, as not recognizing the fact that there are 
many students for whom it is advantageous to choose a study 
here and there at will, as a piece of side work outside the 
chosen field of their activity. The objectors to this plan of 
restricted groups and also to the plan of practically unre- 
stricted freedom, assert that the fundamental difficulty in 
basing any college course on a single group of cognate 
studies within some one field is that it offers temptations to 
premature specialization at the expense of liberal education. 
Still another proposal remains to be considered. It is the 
proposal of those who believe that the best type of liberal 
education is to be found in the historic bachelor of arts 
course, which has been the center and strength of Ameri- 
can college life. They concede, however, that the other 
bachelor's courses which have been established will give a 
valuable education to many, provided these courses are 
consistently organized according to their own ideals. 
They hold that it is possible to ascertain with sufficient 
exactness just what studies ought to be prescribed as integral 
parts of these courses, and that it is the preliminary training 
given in these prescribed studies which develops maturity in 
the young student and enables him to choose intelligently 
his later elective studies. At the present time, in their view, 
it is not wise to introduce elective studies until about the 
middle of the college course. These studies, once intro- 
duced, should themselves be organized and related in a sys- 
tem, and connected with the underlying system of prescribed 
studies. The principle of freedom should be introduced 
gradually, not suddenly. A form of this view which finds a 
good deal of support is that elective studies should be 
introduced first of all in the form of extensions of subjects 
already studied by the student, in order that he may make 
his first experiment of choice in an area where he is most 



22 7] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 21 

familiar. According to this view the second stage of elec- 
tive studies should be the introduction of large general 
courses in leading subjects, accompanied or flanked by special 
courses for students of exceptional ability in special direc- 
tions, and finally leading to as high a degree of specializa- 
tion as the resources of the college will allow. 

But in this region the American college merges itself into 
the university, and it may be fairly asserted that in the last 
year and in some colleges in the last two years the student 
is really a university student. In these various ways we are 
to-day experimenting in order to find a form under which to 
organize the rapidly-increasing mass of elective studies. 

VII MODES OF INSTRUCTION. ACADEMIC HONORS 

Instruction is still mainly conducted by recitation and lec- 
ture, the recitation finding its chief place in the earlier and 
the lecture in the later part of the course. For purposes of 
recitation the classes are divided into sections of twenty-five 
or thirty students, and the exercise is usually based on a 
definitely allotted portion of some standard text-book. 
Much has been done to improve the character of this exer- 
cise. The attempt is made to make it something more vital 
than the mere listening to students as they recite what they 
have learned. The correction of mistakes, the attempt to 
lead the student along so as to discover for himself the 
cause of his mistakes, the endeavor to teach the entire class 
through the performance of each individual, to carry the 
whole group along as one man and thus conduct them 
through a stimulating and pleasant hour, is the aim of the 
more skilful instructors. Variety and consequent freshen- 
ing of attention and effort are added by setting collateral 
topics of special interest to this or that student, for him to 
look up somewhat independently. And it must be confessed 
that the professors most skilled in the art of conducting 
recitations, rather than those who depend wholly on lectures, 
leave the most abiding impression. The old-fashioned reci- 
tation too often put the student into a laborious treadmill, 



22 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [228 

and monotony was the result. But the best recitations in 
our colleges to-day are fine examples of dialectic play 
between instructor and student, and the best moments of 
such exercises are remembered with enthusiasm. While 
instruction by recitation continues with effectiveness in the 
latter part of the course, especially with smaller groups of 
students, yet instruction by lecture is the rule. The lec- 
turer may have to face a class which enrolls as many students 
as the whole college contained a generation ago. Two or 
three hundred may assemble to hear him. He delivers his 
lecture, while those before him take notes or sometimes, as 
they listen, read the outline of his discourse in a printed 
syllabus prepared for the use of the class, and add such 
jottings as may seem desirable. In many lecture courses 
the recitation is employed as an effective auxiliary. 

But other forms of instruction find place. In all except 
the elementary courses in science the laboratory plays a most 
important part, and even in the lectures in the introductory 
courses in physics, chemistry or biology full experimental 
illustration is the rule. Then, too, the library serves as a 
sort of laboratory for the humanistic studies. Students are 
encouraged to learn the use of the college library as auxiliary 
to the regular exercises of the curriculum. Certain books 
are appointed as collateral reading, and the written exami- 
nation at the end of the term often takes account of this 
outside reading. But American students read too little. 
That prolonged reading, which gives such wide and assur- 
ing acquaintance with the important literature of any sub- 
ject, is as yet unattempted in a really adequate degree. 

The academic year is divided into two, and sometimes 
into three terms. At the end of each term the student is 
required to pass a fairly rigorous set of written examina- 
tions. Oral examinations have largely disappeared. Some- 
times a high record of attainment in recitations during the 
term entitles a student to exemption from examination, but 
this is not common. In awarding honors for scholarly pro- 
ficiency the old academic college confined itself almost 



229] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 23 

entirely to general honors for eminence in the whole round 
of studies. The " first honor-man " in older days was the 
hero and pride of his class. At graduation he usually deliv- 
ered the valedictory or else the Latin salutatory. Honors 
for general eminence still remain in most colleges. The 
rank list of the class at graduation either arranges the stu- 
dents in ordinal position (in which case the first honor-man 
still appears) or else divides the class into a series of groups 
arranged in order of general scholarly merit. In such cases 
the old first honor-man is one of the select few who consti- 
tute the highest group in the class. But special honors in 
particular studies, while not unknown in the past, are really 
a development of our time. Undoubtedly they have tended 
to increase the interest of abler students in their favorite 
studies. A student trying for special honors is, of course, 
specializing in some sense, though he is not ordinarily pur- 
suing original research. He is rather enlarging and deepen- 
ing his acquaintance with some one important subject, such 
as history or mathematics. But sometimes he is beginning 
independent investigation, and thus passes beyond the col- 
legiate sphere of study. 

VIII STUDENT LIFE 

Let us try to picture the career of a young American of 
the usual type at one of our older eastern colleges to-day. 
At eighteen years of age he has completed a four-year course 
in some secondary school, let us say at a private academy in 
the middle states, or some flourishing western high school. 
He does not need to make the long journey to his future 
college in order to be examined for entrance, but finds in 
the distant town where he lives, or at least in some neighbor- 
ing city, a local entrance examination conducted by a repre- 
sentative of his intended college. The days and exact hours 
of examination and the examination papers are the same as 
for the examination held at the college. His answers are 
sent on to be marked and estimated. In a week or two he 
receives notice of his admission to the freshman class. 



24 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [ 2 30 

When the long summer vacation is over he sets out for his 
college. Having passed his entrance examinations, he is now 
entitled to secure rooms in one of the dormitories, or else to 
find quarters outside the college campus in town. His name 
is duly enrolled in the matriculation book and his student 
career begins. He usually comes with an earnest purpose 
to study, or at least to be regular in all his attendance.. 
His newness and strangeness naturally pick him out for a 
good deal of notice on the part of the older students, especi- 
ally those of the sophomore class. He is subjected to some 
good-natured chaffing and guying, and perhaps to little 
indignities. If he takes it good-naturedly, the annoyance 
soon ceases. If, however, he shows himself bumptious or 
opinionated or vain or " very fresh," his troubles are apt to 
continue. Unfortunately it is not impossible they will cul- 
minate in some act of mean bullying, known in college par- 
lance as " hazing." The entering freshman is too often like 
the newly-arrived slave mentioned in Tacitus, — conservis 
ludibrio est ; and it would be little comfort for him to know 
that in this respect he is also a lineal successor of the 
bejaunus, the freshman " fledgeling " among the students of 
medieval Paris. But the daily round of college exercises 
demands his attention, and in the class room he begins to 
pass through a process of attrition more beneficent in its 
spirit. Under the steady measuring gaze of the instructor, 
and the unuttered but very real judgment of his classmates 
who sit about him, he begins to measure himself and to be 
measured by college standards. Probably for the first time 
in his life he is compelled to recognize that he must stand 
solely on his merits. The helps and consolations of home 
and of the limited circle in which his boyhood was fostered 
and sheltered are far away. He is learning something not 
down in the books ! and what he is thus discovering is well 
pictured in the words of Professor Hibben : "There is a 
fair field to all and no favor. Wealth does not make for a 
man nor the lack of it against him. The students live their 
lives upon one social level. There is a deep-seated intoler- 



231] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 25 

ance of all snobbishness and pretension. The dictum of 
the 'varsity field, ' No grand-stand playing ! ' obtains in all 
quarters of the undergraduate life. It signifies no cant in 
religion ; no pedantry in scholarship ; no affectation in 
manners ; no pretence in friendship. This is the first and 
enduring lesson which the freshman must learn. He learns 
and he forgets many other lessons, but this must be held in 
lively remembrance until it has become a second nature." 
But he has many encouragements. He is passing out of 
callow youth toward manhood, and his classmates are in the 
same situation with him. Here is the impulse which sud- 
denly sweeps the whole entering class together in intimate 
comradeship. And so he starts out with his companions on 
the ups and downs of his four-year journey. No wonder so 
many college graduates say freshman year was the most 
valuable of all; — it was surely the hardest. His college 
comradeship continues and constitutes his social world. 
Day after day, term after term, they are thrown together in 
all the relationships of student life. In the classroom, at the 
" eating clubs," at the athletic games, in the musical, literary 
and religious societies, in scenes of exuberant jollification 
and careless disorder, and in endless criticism of the faculty 
or of the various courses of study, how their frank and 
unconventional ways constantly surprise and bewilder the 
common-place American philistine ! You may pass across 
the lawns of many a campus at any hour of the day and 
almost any hour of the night in term-time, and rarely is 
there a time when some student life is not astir. Some are 
thronging toward the lecture hall to the punctual ringing of 
the college bell, meeting returning throngs whose exercises 
are just finished. They are walking by twos or threes, 
smoking or chatting or mildly " playing horse " in some very 
pleasant way, unmindful and probably unaware of Lord 
Chesterfield's horrified injunction to his son : " No horse- 
play, I beseech of you." Or they are thronging to fill the 
" bleachers " at a baseball or football rame that is about to 
be played on the college grounds. The different varieties 



26 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [232 

of the college cheer startle the air, and afford some color of 
excuse to the ingenious hypothesis that our student cheers 
are derived from Indian war whoops. Or else when they 
are assembled in Sunday chapel, a decorous but not always 
solemn audience, their capacity for " simultaneous emotion " 
appears in their spirited singing of a favorite hymn, or per- 
haps shows itself in the sudden sensation that sweeps across 
the chapel like a lightly rustling breeze in response to an 
inopportune remark of some inexperienced visiting clergy- 
man. Or in the moonlit evenings of October, the time when 
the trees are turning red and yellow, their long processions 
pass to and fro, singing college songs. Truly the American 
collegian is brimful of the "gregarious instinct." 

In addition to this ever-present gregarious comradeship 
which environs and inspires him, our entering freshman 
finds the deeper intimacies of close individual friendship. 
As a matter of course he has some one most intimate friend, 
generally his room-mate or "chum." Side by side they 
mingle with their fellows. They stand together and, it may 
be, they fall together, and then rise together. And thus the 
class is paired off, and yet not to the lessening of the deep 
class fellowship. Here indeed is a form of communism, 
temporary and local, but most intense. They freely use things 
in common, not excepting the property of the college. 
The distinction between nieiim and tuum does not hold 
rigorously. To. r<bv <plkiov xotvd said the ancient poet, and so say 
they. Accordingly a desirable hat or scarf or some article 
of athletic costume changes ownership again and again, with 
nothing sought in return. They are welcome to enter each 
others' rooms at pleasure and use their friends' tobacco and 
stationery, or to borrow such articles of furniture and bric-a- 
brac as will brighten their own rooms for some special 
occasion. The doors of their apartments are commonly left 
open ; sometimes a latch-string is ingeniously arranged so 
the door can be opened from the outside. Money, however, 
stands on a different basis from other valuables. It is freely 
loaned for an indefinite time, but is strictly repaid. A 



233] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 2j 

student who lends his fellow money at interest cannot live 
in a college community. 

Our student, unless he is an unusual recluse, takes some 
part in athletics, If he is not able to win a place on the 
football team or baseball nine or crew, which represents his 
alma mater in intercollegiate contests, he is very likely to be 
found playing ball in some organization improvised for the 
day, or trying his hand at tennis or golf. The bicycle is a 
necessity of his life, and on it he rides to recitations and 
lectures, to his meals and to the athletic field. 

He has still other interests outside the curriculum. He 
may be a member of the voluntary religious society of the 
students. Perhaps he gets a place on the glee club or 
dramatic club. He may become one of the editors of the 
daily college paper or of the monthly literary magazine. 
Perhaps he is manager or assistant business manager for 
one or another undergraduate organization. Then there 
are the whist clubs and time-consuming chess clubs. There 
are also circles for outside reading and discussion springing 
up around the course of study, as well as the societies which 
train in speaking and debating. Perhaps he may win the 
distinction of representing his college in an intercollegiate 
debate, and success in intercollegiate debating is highly 
coveted. The contestants are greatly honored, for debat- 
ing and athletics form the principal bond of union between 
the different colleges and give to their participants intercol- 
legiate distinction. 

Until the student passes out of freshman year, he is not 
always free to choose what kind of clothes he will wear. 
A freshman wearing a tall hat and carrying a walking-stick 
is an offense to the other classes. In some colleges fresh- 
men are not allowed to wear the colors, except on rare occa- 
sions. But as soon as he becomes a sophomore he is free to 
do as he likes. Then he and his classmates may suddenly 
appear wearing various hats, picturesque and often grotesque 
in appearance, and revel particularly in golfing suits. Toward 
the close of the course their daily dress becomes more con- 



28 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [ 2 34 

ventional, though the universal interest in athletics continues 
to affect the student mode all the way to the end. He has 
other amusements besides athletics, and these again are 
found in the student circle. His briarwood pipe goes with 
him almost everywhere. He smokes as he studies ; he 
smokes at the games. Seated side by side with thousands 
of other students and alumni at the great intercollegiate 
matches, he helps form the fragrant cloud of blue incense 
that rises from the " bleachers " and drifts over the field. In 
the evening, when the work of the scholastic day is done, he 
sits with his comrades at an unconventional " smoker," or else 
they may gather round the table of some restaurant with 
pipe and " stein ; " for the American student who drinks at 
all prefers beer to either wine or whisky. At such evening 
sessions the different phases of student politics are discussed 
again and again. College songs are sung, the air being 
carried in that sonorous baritone which is the dominant sound 
in all our student music. Tales and jests fill out the hour. 
At the end the college cheer is given as the men start stroll- 
ing homeward, singing as they go. Arrived on the campus 
they disperse, and their good-night calls echo from the doors 
and windows of the different dormitories. And so the day 
ends where it began ; within that closed circle where every 
student lives in " shouting distance " of the others. 

Our former freshman is getting on bravely toward the end 
of his course. He is now a free, familiar, established deni- 
zen of his college. He "owns " it New freshmen, unpleas- 
antly raw and needing to be taught their place, — new fresh- 
men so different from what he is and yet so like what he once 
was, are crowding in at the bottom of the course. They 
look up to him and his compeers in the senior class with no 
little awe and hope. What he is, they may become. In 
him they "see their finish." In them he reluctantly recalls 
his beginnings. The closing months of senior year pass 
swiftly. His class procession is preparing to march out into 
the world, and there take its place as a higher order of fresh- 
men in the long file of the classes of alumni advancing with 



235] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 20. 

their thinning ranks toward middle manhood and beyond, — 
and when commencement is over his undergraduate life is 
ended. 

What has he acquired in the four years ? At least some 
insight into the terms and commonplaces of liberal learning 
and some discipline in the central categories of knowledge, 
some moral training acquired in the punctual performance 
of perhaps unwelcome daily duty and some reverence for 
things intellectual and spiritual. He is not only a very 
different man from what he was when he entered, but very 
different from what he could have become had he not 
entered. He is wiser socially. He is becoming cosmopol- 
itan. Awkwardness, personal eccentricity, conceit, diffidence, 
and all that is callow or forward or perverse have been taken 
from him, so far as the ceaseless attrition of his fellow- 
students and professors has touched him. He has been 
unconsciously developed into the genuine collegian. He is 
still frank and unconventional. But he has become more 
tolerant, better balanced, more cultivated and more open- 
minded, and thus better able to direct himself and others. 
This is the priceless service his college has rendered him. It 
is little wonder his student affiliations last. As he goes out 
to take his place among the thousands of his fellow alumni 
it is natural that his and their filial devotion to their 
academic mother should last through life. He will return 
with his class at their annual or triennial or decennial or 
later pilgrimages to the old place. No matter what univer- 
sity he may subsequently attend, here or abroad, his college 
allegiance remains unshaken. It is this which explains the 
active interest shown by our alumni. In the best sense they 
advertise their college to the public, and it is to their exer- 
tions the recent rapid advancement of many of our colleges 
is largely due. 

IX ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. STUDENT EXPENSES 

The form of government is simple. A college corpora- 
tion, legally considered, consists of a body of men who have 



3<D THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [236 

obtained the charter and who hold and administer the prop- 
erty. Where a particular state has established a college or 
even a university, which regularly includes a college, the 
members of the corporation are commonly styled regents, 
and are appointed by the state to hold office for a limited 
term of years. But most colleges have been established as 
private corporations. In this case the title is vested in a 
board of trustees, sometimes composed of members who hold 
office for life, or else composed of these associated with 
others who are elected for a term of years. Boards of trus- 
tees holding office for life usually constitute a close corpo- 
ration, electing their own successors as vacancies occur. 
The two chief functions of such governing bodies, whether 
known as regents or trustees or by any other name, are to 
safeguard the intent of the charter and to manage the prop- 
erty. They give stability to our college system. To carry 
out the main purpose for which the charter was obtained 
they create a faculty of professors and instructors and 
entrust the general headship to a president. The president 
and professors usually hold office for life. In some places 
provision is beginning to be made for the retirement of pro- 
fessors on pensions as they grow old. Instructors and some- 
times assistant professors are appointed for a limited time, 
such appointments being subject to renewal or promotion. 
In the larger colleges the president is assisted in his admin- 
istrative work by one or more deans. By immemorial tradi- 
tion the president and faculty are charged with the conduct of 
the entire instruction and discipline. They have the power 
to admit and dismiss students. The conferring of degrees 
belongs to the corporation, but this power is almost invari- 
ably exercised according to recommendations made by the 
faculty. Honorary degrees, however, are sometimes given 
by the trustees or regents on their own initiative. 

In state colleges the income is derived from taxation ; in 
others from endowments, often supplemented by annual sub- 
scriptions for special purposes. The increase of income of 
a college founded by a state depends on the increase of the 



237] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 3 1 

wealth of the state and the liberality of disposition shown by 
the legislature. State colleges receive few private gifts. 
But the private colleges are cut off from dependence on the 
state, and have to rely on private gifts. This stream of pri- 
vate liberality flows almost unceasingly. The fact that many 
colleges are integral parts of real or so-called universities 
makes it difficult to say how much the specifically collegiate 
endowments and incomes amount to. But a few significant 
facts may be mentioned. No college president, unless he is 
at the same time the president of a university, receives as high 
a salary as ten thousand dollars annually. He is more likely 
to receive four, five or six thousand dollars. Two thousand 
dollars is considered a good professor's salary in small col- 
leges ; three thousand is a usual salary in the larger colleges, 
while few professors receive more than four thousand. 

The expenses of individual students vary greatly. In 
some places there is no charge for tuition ; in others they 
must pay as much as one hundred or one hundred and fifty 
dollars. In little country colleges the total cost for a year 
often falls within three hundred dollars ; in the larger old 
eastern colleges, drawing patronage from all parts of the 
land, the student who must pay all his bills and receives no 
aid in the form of a scholarship can hardly get along with less 
than six or seven hundred dollars, exclusive of his expenses 
in the summer vacation. The average expenses in some of 
the oldest colleges, according to tables prepared by succes- 
sive senior classes, is higher than this, running up to eight 
or nine hundred dollars, or even more. But these institu- 
tions afford the student of limited means multiplied oppor- 
tunities for self-help. There are many instances where bright 
boys have been able to win their way through, standing high 
in their classes and at the same time supporting themselves 
entirely by their own exertions. Moreover many colleges 
possess scholarships which are open to able students who 
need temporary pecuniary help. The young American of 
narrow means, if he be of fair ability and industry, can almost 
always manage to find his way through college. 



32 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [238 



X THE COLLEGE IS AMERICAN 

The college lies very close to the people. Distinctions of 
caste may manifest themselves occasionally, and yet the col- 
lege is stoutly and we believe permanently democratic. Its 
relation to the better side of our national life has been pro- 
foundly intimate from the beginning. The graduates of 
Harvard and Yale in New England, of Princeton and Colum- 
bia in the middle states, and of the College of William and 
Mary in Virginia contributed powerfully to the formation of 
our republic. Edmund Burke attributed the "intractable 
spirit " of the Americans to " their education," and by this 
he meant the college education. " The colleges," wrote 
President Stiles of Yale shortly after the revolution, " have 
been of signal advantage in the present day. When Britain 
withdrew all her wisdom from America this revolution found 
above two thousand in New England only, who had been 
educated in the colonies, intermingling with the people and 
communicating knowledge among them." John Adams of 
Harvard delighted to find in President Witherspoon of 
Princeton " as high a son of liberty as any in America." 
Hampden-Sidney college in Virginia, founded about the 
time of the revolution, incorporated in its charter the follow- 
ing clause : " In order to preserve in the minds of the stu- 
dents that sacred love and attachment which they should 
ever bear to the principles of the ever-glorious revolution, 
the greatest care and caution shall be used in selecting such 
professors and masters, to the end that no person shall be 
so elected unless the uniform tenor of his conduct manifest 
to the world his sincere affection for the liberty and inde- 
pendence of the United States of America." And from that 
day to this the collegiate spirit and the national spirit have 
been at one. Rightly, indeed, did our appreciative French 
visitor, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, perceive that the place 
to find "the true Americans" is in our college halls; " les 
vrais Amerlcains, la base de la nation, Vespoir de Vavenir" 
Scarcely one in a hundred of our white male youth of college 



239] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 33 

age has gone to college. But this scanty contingent has 
furnished one-half of all the presidents of the United States, 
most of the justices of the supreme court, not far from one- 
half of the cabinet and of the national senate, and almost a 
third of the house of representatives. No other single class 
of equal numbers has been so potent in our national life. 

FIRST NOTE A FEW STATISTICS 

In the reports of the United States commissioner of 
education, colleges, universities, schools of technology and 
professional schools are classed under the general heading 
of " Institutions for Higher Education." The latest report 
is for the academic year ending July first, 1897. The statis- 
tics for colleges are to be found in chapter XXXVI (pp. 
1648— 1755). A study of the tables given discloses clearly 
the difficulty of separating the whole body of collegiate 
facts by themselves and the further difficulty of distinguish- 
ing between the really substantial and the nominal institu- 
tions. " One of the most discouraging features in our system 
of higher education," says the commissioner in his report 
(p. 1647), " is the lack of any definite, or, in fact, in a large 
number of states the lack of any requirements or conditions 
exacted of institutions when they are chartered and author- 
ized to confer degrees. This condition of affairs is largely, 
if not entirely, responsible for the large number of weak, 
so-called colleges and universities scattered throughout our 
country, institutions that are no better than high schools, 
and in a large number of cases do not furnish as good an 
education as may be obtained in good secondary schools." 
It is not an exaggeration to say that more than half of our 
professed colleges are not worthy of the name. Accord- 
ingly since it is impossible to separate and evaluate in 
an exact way the purely collegiate statistics, especially in 
short limits, this paper has been devoted to general char- 
acterization and description. We are still far from having 
a complete account of the history and present condition of 
our colleges. While good special histories exist for some 



'34 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [ 2 4-0 

of the older institutions, no comprehensive and detailed 
general account of adequate character has yet been written. 
In view of the limited means at its command, the bureau of 
education in Washington from year to year has done all 
that could be asked in its reports. But it is greatly to be 
desired that congress shall furnish the commissioner of edu- 
cation with the means necessary to institute an elaborate 
and searching investigation, which shall bring to light the 
real status, the exact inner condition of all the colleges. 

In the report mentioned, statistics for universities and 
colleges are at times necessarily given together. Every uni- 
versity, with hardly an exception, contains a college. The 
whole number of professedly collegiate students enrolled in 
universities and colleges for men and for both sexes and for 
women is 84,955 (p. 1654). The male students number 
52,439 (p. 1670). The estimated population of the United 
States in 1896 was 70,595,321, or one college student to 831 
of the population. The states which enroll the greatest 
number of students attending college are : 

Massachusetts 8 in 

New York . 7 257 

Pennsylvania 6 527 

Ohio * 5257 

Illinois 5 692 

College students are found in greatest numbers in the 
belt beginning in New England, passing southwestward 
through the middle states, and thence extending broadly 
across the middle west. These northeastern and north- 
central portions contain 70 per cent of the college students 
and 63 per cent of the population of the whole country; 
114 colleges, exclusive of colleges for women, enrolling 
31,941 students and generally possessing the largest endow- 
ments, are under no ecclesiastical control ; 59 colleges, 
enrolling 5,954, are Roman Catholic ; 284 are under the 
control of various Protestant denominations and enroll 
29,104. It thus appears that the division of student enroll- 
ment between non-sectarian and sectarian colleges is not 



241] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 35 

very uneven, but the non-sectarian colleges show an average 
enrollment of nearly three hundred and the church colleges 
of about one hundred. 

The number of professors and instructors in all colleges, 
except colleges for women only, is 7,228 ; 749 of these are 
women. So far as reported there were 31,762 students pur- 
suing the course for the degree of bachelor of arts ; 1 1 , 8 1 2 the 
courses leading to the degrees of bachelor of letters and 
bachelor of philosophy; 12,711 the course leading to the 
degree of bachelor of science, and 4,190 the courses leading 
to various other first degrees of minor importance. The total 
is 60,475. These figures indicate that a little more than 
half our collegiate undergraduates, who seek any degree, 
are studying for the degree of bachelor of arts, which still 
generally means, with some important exceptions, that they 
have had a classical education. The figures for the bachelor 
of letters and the bachelor of philosophy may be properly 
associated in one total as representing the intermediate type, 
which enrolls a little more than one-third of the number study- 
ing for the bachelor of arts. The figures for the bachelor of 
science, as will be observed, do not materially differ from the 
total for the bachelor of philosophy and bachelor of letters. 
Turning to the table on page 1673 it appears that the pro- 
portion of students who received the degree of bachelor of 
arts at graduation in 1897, as compared with other bachelor's 
degrees, is very nearly the same as the proportion indicated 
by the figures which represent undergraduate enrollment. 

SECOND NOTE: LIST OF AMERICAN COLLEGES ARRANGED IN 

CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER 

As has been explained, it is impossible at present to effect 
a perfect statistical separation between colleges and univer- 
sities. The list given below embraces all colleges and uni- 
versities reported up to July first, 1897, excepting those for 
women only. It is primarily a college list, although the 
universities of the country appear in it. As a matter of fact 
the older real universities have usually grown up around 



36 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [242 

colleges, and strong universities of recent establishment, such 
as Johns Hopkins and Chicago, regularly contain colleges. 
Clark university in Massachusetts is the only significant 
exception ; it has no undergraduate department. The names 
of many of the older colleges have changed. Harvard col- 
lege is now the center of Harvard university and Yale col- 
lege of Yale university. Princeton university originated 
under the name of the college of New jersey, and Colum- 
bia university was Kings college. The most important 
common feature in the entire list is the corporate right to 
grant the bachelor's degree. 

The list is classified under five periods. The first includes 
eleven colleges founded before the American revolution. 
They form a distinct class by themselves, representing the 
colonial and revolutionary influences. It will be noticed that 
they all lie along the narrow strip of Atlantic coast, extend- 
ing southwestward from Massachusetts to Virginia. The 
second group is composed of twelve colleges founded imme- 
diately after the revolution. They likewise form a sepa- 
rable class. In spirit they were repetitions of the earlier 
colleges, and were planted here and there in the newer parts 
of the country. The third class consists of thirty-three col- 
leges founded between the years 1800 and 1830. The latter 
date is somewhat arbitrary ; but the thirty years are taken to 
include the first marked development of the United States 
previous to the wave of European immigration which set 
in strongly after 1830. The fourth class contains one hun- 
dred and eighty colleges. They were founded in a period 
when the country was rapidly settling and developing. A 
great wave of immigration was flowing in, and the railroad 
and telegraph were facilitating the westward distribution of 
the new population. The period was naturally brought to an 
end by the civil war. The fifth class extends from the close 
of the civil war in 1865 to the present time. The interrupted 
national development enters energetically on a new period 
and is represented on this list by the foundation of two hun- 
dred and thirty-six colleges, — just one-half of the entire list. 



243] 



THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 



37 



I Before the American Revolution (n) 



1636 Harvard University, Massachu- 
setts 

1693 College of William and Mary, 
Virginia 

1701 Yale University, Connecticut 

1746 Princeton University, New Jer- 
sey 

1749 Washington and Lee University, 
Virginia 



1751 University of Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania 
1754 Columbia University, New York 
1764 Brown University, Rhode Island 
1766 Rutgers College, New Jersey 
1770 Dartmouth College, New Hamp- 
shire 
1776 Hampden-Sidney College, Vir- 
ginia 



II From the American Revolution to 1800 (12) 



1783 
1783 
1785 

1785 

1789 
1791 



1800 
1800 
1801 
1802 
1802 

1804 
1805 

1807 



1812 

1817 
1818 
1819 
1819 
1819 
1819 



Dickinson College, Pennsylvania 
Washington College, Maryland 
College of Charleston, South 

Carolina 
University of Nashville, Ten- 
nessee 
St. John's College, Maryland 
Georgetown University, District 
of Columbia 



1793 Williams College, Massachusetts 

1794 Greenville and Tusculum Col- 

lege, Tennessee 

1794 University of Tennessee, Ten- 

nessee 

1795 Union College, New York 

1795 University of North Carolina, 

North Carolina 
1795 Washington College, Tennessee 



III From 1800 to i8jo (33) 



Middlebury College, Vermont 1820 
University of Vermont, Vermont 

University of Georgia, Georgia 1820 

Bowdoin College, Maine 1820 

Washington and Jefferson Col- 1821 

lege, Pennsylvania 1821 
Ohio University, Ohio 

South Carolina College, South 1822 

Carolina 1824 

Moravian College, Pennsylvania 1824 

Mount St. Mary's College, Mary- 1825 

land 1825 

Hamilton College, New York 1825 

Allegheny College, Pennsylvania 1826 
Colby University, Maine 

Center College, Kentucky 1827 

Colgate University, New York 1828 

Maryville College, Tennessee 1829 

Western University of Pennsyl- 1829 

vania, Pennsylvania 1829 



Gonzaga College, District of 

Columbia 
Indiana University, Indiana 
St. Mary's College, Kentucky 
Amherst College, Massachusetts 
Columbian University, District 

of Columbia 
Hobart College, New York 
Miami University, Ohio 
Trinity College, Connecticut 
Franklin College, Ohio 
Kenyon College, Ohio 
University of Virginia, Virginia 
Western Reserve University, 

Ohio 
Shurtleff College, Illinois 
McKendree College, Illinois 
Georgetown College, Kentucky 
Illinois College, Illinois 
St. Louis University, Missouri 



IV From 1830 to 1 86s (180) 



1830 Spring Hill College, Alabama 

1831 Dennison University, Ohio 
1831 New York University, New York 



1831 University of Alabama, Alabama 
1831 Wesleyan University. Connecti- 
cut 



38 



THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 



[244 



1832 
1832 
1832 

1832 

1832 
1832 
1833 
1833 
1834 
1834 
1834 
1834 

1835 
1835 
1836 
1836 

1836 
1837 

1837 

1837 
1837 
1S37 
1837 
1837 
1837 
1837 



1839 
1839 
1840 
1841 
1841 

1841 

1842 

1842 



1842 
1843 
1843 



Hanover College, Indiana 
Lafayette College, Pennsylvania 
Pennsylvania College, Pennsyl- 
vania 
Randolph Macon College, Vir- 
ginia 
Richmond College, Virginia 
Wabash College, Indiana 
Haverford College, Pennsylvania 
Oberlin College, Ohio 
Delaware College, Delaware 
Franklin College, Indiana 
Tulane University, Louisiana 
Wake Forest College, North 

Carolina 
Marietta College, Ohio 
Richmond College, Ohio 
Alfred University, New York 
Franklin and Marshall College, 

Pennsylvania 
Kentucky University, Kentucky 
Central High School, Pennsyl- 
vania 
Davidson College, North Caro- 
lina 
De Pauw University, Indiana 
Emory College, Georgia 
Guilford College, North Carolina 
Knox College, Illinois 
Mercer University, Georgia 
Muskingum College, Ohio 
University of Michigan, Michi- 
gan 
Emory and Plenry College, Vir- 
ginia 
Erskine College, South Carolina 
Concordia College, Indiana 
St. Xavier College, Ohio 
Bethany College, West Virginia 
Centenary College of Louisiana, 

Louisiana 
Howard College, Alabama 
Cumberland University, Ten- 
nessee 
University of Notre Dame, Indi- 
ana 
University of the State of Miss- 
ouri, Missouri 
Villanova College, Pennsylvania 
Albion College, Michigan 
College of the Holy Cross, Mas- 
sachusetts 



1843 New Windsor College, Maryland 

1843 St. Vincent's College, Missouri 

1844 Iowa Wesleyan University, Iowa 
1844 Milton College, Wisconsin 

1844 Ohio Wesleyan University, Ohio 

1844 Willamette University, Oregon 

1845 Baylor University, Texas 

1845 Wittenberg College, Ohio 

1846 Baldwin University,' Ohio 

1846 Bucknell University, Pennsyl- 

" vania 
1846 Mount Union College, Ohio 
1846 St. John's College, New York 

1846 St. Vincent's College, Pennsyl- 

vania 

1847 Beloit College, Wisconsin 
1847 Earlham College, Indiana 

1847 College of the City of New York, 
New York 

1847 College of the Immaculate Con- 
ception, Louisiana 

1847 College of St. Francis Xavier, 
New York 

1847 Otterbein University, Ohio 

1847 Southwestern Baptist University, 
Tennessee 

1847 Taylor University, Indiana 

1848 Burritt College, Tennessee 
1848 Iowa College, Iowa 

1848 Pacific University, Oregon 
1848 St. Charles College, Maryland 

1848 University of Mississippi, Mis- 

sissippi 

1849 Geneva College, Pennsylvania 
1849 Hiwasse College, Tennessee 
1849 Lawrence University, Wisconsin 
1849 South Kentucky College, Ken- 
tucky 

1849 William Jewell College, Mis- 
souri 

1849 University of Wisconsin, Wis- 

consin 

1850 Austin College, Texas 
1850 Bethel College, Tennessee 
1850 Capital University, Ohio 
1850 Heidelberg University, Ohio 
1850 Hiram College, Ohio 

1850 Illinois Wesleyan University, 
Illinois 

1850 University of Rochester, New- 
York 

1S50 University of Utah, Utah 



245] 



THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 



39 



1851 Carson and Newman College, 

Tennessee 
1851 Catawba College, North Carolina 
1851 Christian Brothers College, Mis- 
souri 
1851 Santa Clara College, California 
1851 Trinity College, North Carolina 

1851 University of the Pacific, Cali- 

fornia 

1852 Antioch College, Ohio 

1852 Furman University, South Caro- 
lina 
1852 Lombard University, Illinois 
1852 Loyola College, Maryland 
1852 Mississippi College, Mississippi 

1852 Westminster College, Pennsyl- 

vania 

1853 Central University of Iowa, Iowa 
1853 Hedding College, Iowa 

1853 Ripon College, Wisconsin 
1853 Roanoke College, Virginia 
1853 Rutherford College, North Caro- 
lina 

1853 Westminster College, Missouri 

1854 Bethel College, Kentucky 

1854 Hamline University, Minnesota 
1854 Lincoln University. Pennsyl- 
vania 
1854 St. Mary's University, Texas 

1854 Wofford College, South Carolina 

1855 Amity College, Iowa 
1855 Berea College, Kentucky 
1855 Butler College, Indiana 

1855 Central Pennsylvania College, 

Pennsylvania 
1855 Christian University, Missouri 
1855 Eureka College, Illinois 
1855 Hillsdale College, Michigan 
1855 Kalamazoo College, Michigan 
1855 Northwestern University, Illi- 
nois 
1855 Polytechnic Institute of Brook- 
lyn, New York 
1855 Southwestern Presbyterian Uni- 
versity, Tennessee 
1855 St. Ignatius College, California 

1855 Tufts College, Massachusetts 

1856 Keachie College, Louisiana 
1856 Mars Hill College, North Caro- 
lina 

1856 Monmouth College, Illinois 
1856 Moores Hill College, Indiana 



1856 
1856 

1856 
1856 
1856 
1856 

1857 
1857 
1857 
1857 
1857 
1857 

1857 
1857 
1858 



1858 
1858 



1858 

1859 
1859 
1859 
1859 

1859 

1859 
1859 

1859 

1859 
1859 
1859 
1859 

i860 
i860 

i860 

i860 

i860 
i860 



Niagara University, New York 
Seminary of St. Francis of Sales, 

Wisconsin 
State University of Iowa, Iowa 
Western College, Iowa 
Wilberforce University, Ohio 
Setcn Hall College, New Jersey 
Bowdon College, Georgia 
Central College, Missouri 
Cornell College, Iowa 
Highland University, Kansas 
Rock Hill College, Maryland 
Seminary West of the Suwanee 

River, Florida 
St. Meinrad College, Indiana 
Upper Iowa University, Iowa 
Baker University, Kansas 
Grand River Christian Union 

College, Missouri 
Legrange College, Missouri 
Newberry College, South Caro- 
lina 
St. Benedict's College, Kansas 
St. Lawrence University, New 

York 
Susquehanna University, Penn- 
sylvania 
Adrian College, Michigan 
Lenox College, Iowa 
McMinnville College, Oregon 
Mission House, Wisconsin 
North Carolina College, North 

Carolina 
Olivet College, Michigan _ 

Pennsylvania State College, 

Pennsylvania 
St. Bonaventure's College, New 

York 
St. Francis College, New York 
Southern University, Alabama 
Union Christian College, Indiana 
Washington University, Mis- 
souri 
Augustana College, Illinois 
Louisiana State University, Lou- 
isiana 
Kentucky Wesleyan College, 

Kentucky 
St. Francis Solanus College, Illi- 
nois 
St. Stephen's College, New York 
Wheaton College, Illinois 



40 

i86i 
1861 
1861 
1861 

1862 

1862 

1862 

1862 



1865 

1865 
1865 
1865 
1865 

1865 

1865 
1865 
1865 
1865 
1865 
1865 
1866 



1866 

1866 
1866 

1866 
1866 
1866 
1866 
1866 
1866 
1866 
1867 
1867 

1867 
1867 
1867 

1867 



THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 



[246 



Blackburn University, Illinois 

Luther College, Iowa 

Northwestern College, Illinois 

Pacific Methodist College, Cali- 
fornia 

Gustavus Adolphus College, Min- 
nesota 

Oskaloosa College, Iowa 

Pennsylvania Military College, 
Pennsylvania 

St. Joseph's Diocesan College, 
Illinois 



1862 

1863 
1863 
1863 

1863 

1864 



1864 
1864 



University of Washington, Wash- 
ington 
Bates College, Maine 
Boston College, Massachusetts 
Manhattan College, New York 
Roger Williams University, Ten- 
nessee 
Central Wesleyan College, Mo. 
Gallaudet College,- District of 

Columbia 
German Wallace College, Ohio 
University of Denver, Colorado 



V From 1865 to the Present Time (236) 



Des Moines College, Iowa 
Hope College, Michigan 
Jefferson College, Louisiana 
Lane University, Kansas 
Northwestern University, Wis- 
consin 
Northern Illinois College, Illi- 
nois 
Ottawa University, Kansas 
Shaw University, North Carolina 
St. Vincent's College, California 
University Institute, Mississippi 
Washburn College, Kansas 
Westfield College, Illinois 
Agricultural and Mechanical 
College of Kentucky, Ken- 
tucky 
Central Tennessee College, Ten- 
nessee 
Fisk University, Tennessee 
Lebanon Valley College, Penn- 
sylvania 
Lehigh University, Pennsylvania 
Lincoln University, Illinois 
Pritchett College, Missouri 
Scio College, Ohio 
University of Kansas, Kansas 
Tabor College, Iowa 
Whitman College, Washington 
Ewing College, Illinois 
Howard University, District of 

Columbia 
King College, Tennessee 
LaSalle College, Pennsylvania 
Muhlenberg College, Pennsyl- 
vania 
Philomath College, Oregon 



867 Ridgeville College, Indiana 
867 Simpson College, Iowa 
867 St. John's University, Minnesota 
867 U. S. Grant University, Ten- 
nessee 

867 West Virginia University, West 

Virginia 

868 Avalon College, Missouri 

868 Biddle University, North Caro- 
lina 
868 Clark University, Georgia 
868 Cornell University, New York 
868 St. Benedict's College, New Jer- 
sey. 
868 St. Viateur's College, Illinois 
868 University of Illinois, Illinois 
868 University of Minnesota, Minne- 
sota 
868 University of the South, Ten- 
nessee 
868 Wartburg College, Iowa 

868 Western Maryland College,, 

Maryland 

869 Atlanta University, Georgia 
869 Augsburg Seminary, Minnesota 
869 Claflin University, South Caro- 
lina 

869 Rust University, Mississippi 
869 St. Ignatius College, Illinois 
869 St. Mary's College, Kansas 
869 Straight University, Louisiana 
869 Swarthmore College, Pennsyl- 
vania 
869 Trinity University, Texas 
869 University of California, Cali- 
fornia 
1870 California College, California 



247] 



THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 



41 



1870 Carleton College, Minnesota 
1870 Carthage College, Illinois 
1870 Canisius College, New York 
1870 Leland University, Louisiana 
1870 Ohio State University, Ohio 
1870 St. John's College, New York 
1870 Thiel College, Pennsylvania 
1870 University of Wooster, Ohio 
1870 Ursinus College, Pennsylvania 

1870 Wilmington College, Ohio 

1871 Christian Brothers College, Ten- 

nessee 

1871 Evangelical Proseminary, Illi- 
nois 

1871 Syracuse University, New York 

1871 University of Nebraska, Neb- 

raska 

1872 Arkansas College, Arkansas 
1872 Arkansas Industrial University, 

Arkansas 
1872 Boston University, Massachu- 
setts 
1872 Buchtel College, Ohio 
1872 Doane College, Nebraska 
1872 Morrisville College, Missouri 

1872 St. Joseph's College, Ohio 

1873 Add-Ran University, Texas 
1873 Drury College, Missouri 
1873 German College, Iowa 

1873 New Orleans University, Louisi- 
ana 
1873 North Georgia Agricultural Col- 
lege, Georgia 
1873 Penn College, Iowa 
1873 Southwestern University, Texas 
1873 University of Cincinnati, Ohio 
1873 Weaverville College, North Caro- 
lina 

1873 Wiley University, Texas 

1874 Battle Creek College, Michigan 
1874 Central University, Kentucky 
1874 Colorado College, Colorado 

1874 Sweetwater College, Tennessee 

1875 Knoxville College, Tennessee 
1875 Liberty College, Kentucky 
1875 Park College, Missouri 

1875 St. Olaf College, Minnesota 

1875 Vanderbilt University, Tennes- 

see 

1876 College of the Sacred Heart, 

Colorado 
1876 Chaddock College, Illinois 



1876 

1876 
1876 
1876 
1876 
1876 
1877 
1877 
1877 

1877 
1878 



1878 
1878 
1878 



1880 
1880 
1880 



1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 

1882 
1882 
1882 

1883 
188^ 



Johns Hopkins University, Mary- 
land 
Lake Forest University, Illinois 
Morgan College, Maryland 
Parsons College, Iowa 
Rio Grande College, Ohio 
University of Oregon, Oregon 
Detroit College, Michigan 
Ogden College, Kentucky 
Philander Smith College, Arkan- 
sas 
University of Colorado, Colorado 
Alabama Baptist Colored Univer- 
sity, Alabama 
Brigham Young College, Utah 
College of Montana, Montana 
Creighton College, Nebraska 
Holy Ghost College, Pennsylvania 
Southwest Baptist College, Mis- 
souri 
St. Mary's College, North Caro- 
lina 
Allen University, South Carolina 
Drake University, Iowa 
Indian University, Indian Ter- 
ritory 
Presbyterian College of South 

Carolina, South Carolina 
University of Omaha, Nebraska 
University of Southern Califor- 
nia, California 
Bethany College, Kansas 
Fort Worth University, Texas 
Marquette College, Wisconsin 
Paul Quinn College, Texas 
St. Edward's College, Texas 
Bridgewater College, Virginia 
Campbell University, Kansas 
Coe College, Iowa 
Gates College, Nebraska 
Hastings College, Nebraska 
Livingstone College, North Caro- 
lina 
Milligan College, Tennessee 
Pike College, Missouri 
University of South Dakota, 

South Dakota 
University of Texas, Texas 
Yankton College, South Dakota 
College of Emporia, Kansas 
John B. Stetson University, 
Florida 



42 



THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 



[248 



1883 
1883 



1884 
1884 
1884 

1885 
1885 
1885 

1885 



1887 



1888 
1888 

1888 



Missouri Wesleyan College, Mis- 
souri 
Tarkio College, Missouri 
Pierre University, South Dakota 
Fairfield College, Nebraska 
Florida State Agricultural Col- 
lege, Florida 
Grove City College, Pennsylvania 
Hendrix College, Arkansas 
University of North Dakota, 

North Dakota 
Colfax College, Washington 
Dakota College, South Dakota 
Defiance College, Ohio 
French American College, Massa- 
chusetts 
Lafayette College, Alabama 
Macalester College, Minnesota 
Morris Brown College, Georgia 
Young L. G. Harris College, 

Georgia 
Findlay College, Ohio 
Florida Conference College, 

Florida 
Kansas Wesleyan University, 

Kansas 
Ouachita Baptist College, Arkan- 
sas 
Rollins College, Florida 
Searcy College, Arkansas 
Southwest Kansas College, Kan- 
sas 
St. Ignatius College, Ohio 
State University of Nevada, 

Nevada 
Union College, Kentucky 
Alma College, Michigan 
Cooper Memorial College, Kan- 
sas 
Fargo College, North Dakota 
Gonzaga College, Washington 
Midland College, Kansas 
Occidental College, California 
University of Wyoming, Wyo- 
ming 
Barboursville College, West Vir- 
ginia 
Cotner University, Nebraska 
Nannie Lou Warthen College, 

Georgia 
Nebraska Wesleyan University, 
Nebraska 



890 

890 
890 

890 
890 
890 
890 



890 
890 



890 



890 



891 



891 



891 



891 
891 
892 



892 
892 



Parker College, Minnesota 
Pomona College, California 
Scarritt Collegiate Institute, 

Missouri 
Catholic University of America, 

District of Columbia 
(Clark University, Massachu- 
setts) 
Lafayette Seminary, Oregon 
Missouri Valley College, Mis- 
souri 
Arkadelphia Methodist College, 

Arkansas 
Benzonia College, Michigan 
Black Hills College, South Da- 
kota 
Blount College, Alabama 
Elon College, North Carolina 
Howard Payne College, Texas 
Lineville College, Alabama 
Montana Wesleyan University, 

Montana 
Morningside College, Iowa 
Puget Sound University, Wash- 
ington 
St. Leo Military College, Florida 
Volant College, Pennsylvania 
Whitworth College, Washing- 
ton 
York College, Nebraska 
Arkansas Cumberland College 

Arkansas 
Austin College, Illinois 
Buena Vista College, Iowa 
Charles City College, Iowa 
Duquesne College, Pennsylvania 
Greer College, Illinois 
Lenoir College, North Carolina 
Leland Stanford Junior Univer- 
sity, California 
Pacific College, Oregon 
Polytechnic College, Texas 
Portland University, Oregon 
St. Bede College, Illinois 
Throop Polytechnic Institute, 

California 
Union College, Nebraska 
University of Arizona, Arizona 
Central Christian College, Mis- 
souri 
Fairmount College, Kansas 
Henry College, Texas 



249] 



THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 



43 



1892 
1892 



1892 
1892 
1892 
1892 

1892 
1892 

1893 



Millsaps College, Mississippi 
Northwest Missouri College, Mis- 
souri 
Red River Valley University, 

North Dakota 
St. Bernard College, Alabama 
University of Chicago, Illinois 
University of Idaho, Idaho 
University of Oklahoma, Okla- 
homa 
Vashon College, Washington 
Walla Walla College, Washing- 
ton 
American Temperance Univer- 
sity, Tennessee 



893 Fredericksburg College, Virginia 

893 Lima College, Ohio 

893 Mountain Home Baptist College, 

Arkansas 
893 Soule College, Kansas 

893 St. John's Lutheran College, 

Kansas 

894 Cedarville College, Ohio 

894 Henry Kendall College, Indian 
Territory 

894 St. Louis College, Texas 

895 University of Montana, Montana 

896 Adelphi College, New York 

897 Atlanta Baptist College, Georgia 



THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 



BY 
EDWARD DELAVAN PERRY 

Jay Professor of the Greek Language and Literature in Columbia University 



THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 



I INTRODUCTION. DO UNIVERSITIES OR THEIR EQUIVALENT 
EXIST IN THE UNITED STATES ? 

Professor Ladd of Yale university, in an essay originally 
read before the " Round Table" of Boston, about 1888, and 
republished in his little book, The Higher Education? says : 
" Any one possessed of the requisite information knows at 
once what is meant by the university of France, the English 
universities, or a German university ; but no one can become 
so conversant with facts as to tell what an American uni- 
versity is." And again: " — it is scarcely less true than it 
was a score of years ago, that, although there may be uni- 
versities in America, no one can tell what an American 
university is." 

A discouraging statement certainly, if true, for the would- 
be exponent of the American university ! While not so 
accurate at the present day as when first made, it is still true 
enough, if one fail to free himself at the very start from 
dependence upon the name as necessarily indicative of the 
thing. It is incontestable that within the last ten years the 
conception of the natural and necessary relation of the "uni- 
versity " to the " college " has become much clearer, and that 
many and important changes of organization and adminis- 
tration have resulted, so that it is certainly easier than it was 
in 1888 to define, or at least to describe, the American uni- 
versity. However, there remain difficulties of many kinds ; 
and it still is, and will undoubtedly be for years to come, if 
not actually impossible, at least very difficult, to give a defini- 
tion broad enough to include all institutions of learning in 
the United States which possess true university character, 
and precise enough to exclude all others. 

'N. Y., Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1899. 



4 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [254 

The first difficulty is this: The names "university" and 
" college," as used in the official titles of institutions, are 
absolutely worthless as indications of the character of these 
institutions. Among the scores of titular " universities " in 
this country most are merely colleges, some good, some indif- 
ferent, some so badly endowed and organized as to be not 
even good high schools. On the other hand, Bryn Mawr 
" college " has never assumed, even in informal use, the name 
" university," yet offers true university instruction of the 
highest order in most of the subjects covered by the philo- 
sophische Fakult'dt of a German university ; and even Har- 
vard and Columbia, though they have now acquired a true 
university character, of a very elaborate type, and are habitu- 
ally spoken of as such, have retained in their corporate titles 
their ancient designation of " college." It happens that in 
the most eastern states the word " university " is much less 
used as a title, the higher institutions of learning having 
mostly been founded while the English influence was still 
strong, many of them indeed in colonial times, under direct 
English authority, and so having adopted the peculiarly Eng- 
lish name of " college." In the newer states more ambitious 
plans prevailed, and the consideration of conditions in non- 
English European countries — notably those of Germany, 
where the universities had obtained a more commanding 
position and influence than elsewhere by the beginning of 
the 19th century — led to the choice of the name of appar- 
ently greater dignity. This consideration seems also to have 
been paramount with the founders of the countless purely 
sectarian institutions which sprang up all over the country, 
and still lead a precarious existence, striving to hold the 
attention of their brethren in the faith by promiscuously 
showering down honorary degrees. Yet it would be grossly 
unfair to assume that in all cases the name of university was 
adopted out of pure conceit ; in many the choice of name 
was the proclamation of a purpose sincerely cherished, and 
resolutely carried forward, amid difficulties of which the 
European critic can form no conception, to a realization 



255] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 5 

more or less complete. It will be necessary then to get rid 
of this first difficulty by ignoring completely the difference 
in title. If we shall succeed in describing the thing, though 
we may be ever conscious of the unfortunate ambiguity of 
terms, now doubtless too firmly fixed in official and legal 
use to be easily changed, we may rest content. 

Another difficulty is this. It is now clearly seen that, as 
institutions, the college and the university, having very dif- 
ferent functions, demand a different organization and admin- 
istration. Yet the full recognition of this fact is compara- 
tively recent, and the logical consequences have been reached 
in only a few instances. The circumstances of foundation 
and the necessities of the hour have made it practically 
impossible for the university and the college in the United 
States to exist apart. There are still but two institutions 
which may be called even fragmentary universities entirely 
unconnected with a college : The Clark university of Worces- 
ter, Mass., and the Catholic university of America at Wash- 
ington. Down to 1876, when the Johns Hopkins university 
was opened, whatever real university instruction was offered 
was organized at a college already existing, and even the 
founders of the Johns Hopkins, though their chief purpose 
was avowedly to provide for university instruction of the 
highest grade, felt it necessary or at least advisable to organ- 
ize a college also. The wide scope planned for Cornell 
university, opened in 1868, from the first necessarily included 
a college, nay, many colleges, as part of the scheme. In all 
discussion of the American university, therefore, in this 
article it must be borne in mind that the term (with the two 
exceptions noted above) is used to include only certain parts 
of institutions whose organism is often highly complex, and 
that probably no two institutions coincide in theory or even 
in practice, though certain principles and practices are com- 
mon to those of more complete type. 

What then is that American university, a description of 
which is here undertaken, if it does not anywhere exist in 
completeness and exactness, unobscured by contact with 



6 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [256 

institutions of different character and divergent aims ? It 
will be least misleading to say at the outset : It is nowhere. 
In so far, therefore, Professor von Hoist's famous pronounce- 
ment is right ; a university in the European sense does not 
exist in America. And yet, from Harvard on the Atlantic 
tidewater to the University of California, which looks out 
through the Golden Gate upon the Pacific, and from Minne- 
apolis to New Orleans, will be found many institutions which 
offer training in the methods of scientific research, oppor- 
tunities for the prosecution of such research, and abundant 
facilities in the way of libraries, museums and laboratories, 
to those individuals who have had such preliminary training 
as to be able to profit fully by these advantages, and which 
certify by the formal bestowal of a particular degree or 
degrees that the individual receiving one of them has proved 
himself or herself to have acquired the methods and habits 
of such scientific research. This is equivalent to saying, in 
the technical language in vogue in the United States, that 
these institutions offer to graduate students courses leading 
to advanced or higher degrees. Where such courses are 
well organized and equipped and successfully maintained, 
there is a university at least in part, and, it may be, in the 
whole. Whether the institution do only this, or this and 
many other things besides, and whether it be called univer- 
sity or college, may be important questions from some points 
of view ; for the point of view of this discussion the exist- 
ence of such organization for research work by graduates is 
the test, and it is its purpose to describe as clearly as possi- 
ble such organization of this character as may be found in 
the United States of America. Apparent or evident diva- 
gations from this strict purpose will perhaps find readier 
pardon from the foregoing allusions to some of the diffi- 
culties in the way. 



257] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 



II DIFFERENT FORMS OF AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES. THE STATE 
UNIVERSITIES. CONTRAST WITH EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES 

It has often been remarked by observant foreign travel- 
lers in the United States that among this young people 
many institutions change less rapidly than in the older 
nations of Europe. This conservatism, in large part an 
English trait persisting through many generations, is par- 
ticularly observable in the field of education ; experiments 
are carefully tried, downright innovations still less willingly 
adopted. Only where occasion is offered for new founda- 
tions are we apt to find a ready breaking with traditional 
forms. When, on reviewing the American institutions of 
learning to discover which of them give the opportunities for 
training in the methods of research that we have taken as 
our standard of measurement, we find them to be almost 
without exception colleges, or technical schools, or pro- 
fessional schools as well, or all of these together, we shall 
also find that they were generally colleges first of all, and 
that training in research was made a part of the system only 
later, very gradually and hesitatingly, the two institutions 
which disclaim all " college " work being almost the youngest, 
and one of them not yet displaying a very encouraging 
vitality. We shall find also that one of the oldest and most 
famous colleges of all, Yale, was also the first to institute 
regular courses of instruction for those who wished to pur- 
sue their studies after receiving the degree of bachelor of 
arts. 

A. Universities unconnected with colleges 

i Clark university, Worcester, Mass. — Clark university 
was founded in 1887 by the generous gift of Mr. Jonas G. 
Clark, and the work of instruction was begun in 1889. From 
the first the range of the future university was strictly lim- 
ited ; there was to be no college, no technical school, no pro- 
fessional schools pure and simple. Only those who had 
taken a first degree were to be admitted, and of these only 



8 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [258 

such individuals as should give promise of high attainments 
in some specialty of scientific research. The design and 
organization of the new institution were intrusted to Mr. 
Stanley G. Hall, for some years professor of philosophy at 
Johns Hopkins university in Baltimore. Only a few depart- 
ments were organized, and these were intended to cover sub- 
jects closely and organically connected, viz. : mathematics, 
physics, chemistry, biology (including anatomy, physiology 
and palaeontology) and psychology (including neurology, 
anthropology, criminology and history of philosophy). It 
was strongly emphasized in the scheme of foundation that so 
far as possible the line of demarcation between professor 
and student should be wiped out ; the professors and other 
instructors were to feel themselves as merely older students, 
the students were to be expected to lecture occasionally on 
topics connected with their chosen specialties. The attempt 
to secure large numbers of students was expressly dis- 
claimed. Seminar-organization was adopted as the essential 
plan of the institution, one which should bind together 
instructors and students into homogeneous groups. For suc- 
cessful completion of certain requirements of research, 
including the publication of an acceptable dissertation, the 
degree of doctor of philosophy was offered. A number of 
fellowships and scholarships were established, making it 
possible for students of limited means to carry on their 
researches unhampered by the necessity of seeking lucrative 
employment outside of their university studies. 

As was expected, the number of students has never been 
great; it has varied from 53 in 1892-3 to 38 in 1896-7 and 
48 in 1898-9. The number of instructors has remained 
nearly constant, being in 1898-9 10. The departments at 
present (1899) organized are the following: Mathematics, 
biology, philosophy, physics, pedagogy, psychology and 
anthropology ; it is intended to organize others from time 
to time, in logical order of development. Thus far Clark 
university, judged by its size alone, is a " torso of a univer- 
sity," to use Professor von Hoist's famous phrase ; its 



259] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 9 

methods, however, and the character of the work accom- 
plished there, are thoroughly those of the most fully 
developed universities of the old world. 

2 The Catholic university of America, Washington, D. C. — 
The inception of this institution dates from 1884, when 
its establishment was decided upon at a Roman Catholic 
congress held in Baltimore. The actual work of instruction 
was begun in 1889, in the school of theology. The univer- 
sity is now constituted as follows : 

1 School of divinity, comprising four departments : a Bib- 
lical sciences ; b Dogmatic sciences ; c Moral sciences ; 
d Historical sciences. 

2 School of philosophy, comprising six departments : 
a Philosophy ; b Letters ; c Mathematics ; d Physics ; e 
Chemistry ; f Biological sciences. 

For admission to the school of philosophy candidates must 
have received the bachelor's degree, or show by passing an 
examination that they have received the full equivalent of a 
collegiate course of training. Two degrees are granted, 
master of philosophy (Ph. M.), after two years' graduate 
study, an examination on a major and a minor subject, and 
the presentation of a satisfactory dissertation ; and doctor 
of philosophy, after not less than three years' graduate 
study, an examination on a major and two minor subjects, 
and a satisfactory dissertation. 

3 The school of social science, comprising four depart- 
ments : a Sociology ; b Economics ; c Political science ; 
d Law. 

The first three of these constitute a school of social 
science, or political science, in a narrower sense. Three 
degrees are offered, bachelor, master and doctor of social 
science ; no specific period of study is prescribed for them, 
but satisfactory dissertations are required and examinations 
must be passed. The department of law is somewhat differ- 
ently organized, and grants six degrees : bachelor and mas- 
ter of laws, doctor of civil law, doctor of ecclesiastical law, 
doctor of civil and ecclesiastical law (J. U. D.), and doctor 



IO THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [260 

of laws (LL. D.). The holding of a bachelor's degree, 
while not demanded for admission to the school of law, is 
urgently recommended. 

4 The institute of technology consists of four depart- 
ments : a Applied mathematics ; b Civil engineering ; c 
Electrical engineering ; d Mechanical engineering. 

Neither Clark university nor the Catholic university of 
America admits women to any of its courses of instruction. 

B. Universities united with colleges and professional and 

technical schools 
The union of college and university may fairly be called 
the typical American form of organization for the higher 
education. Only in the institutions of comparatively recent 
origin do we find that university organization was attempted 
from the first. The professional and technical schools have 
generally occupied a position of great independence toward 
the institution as a whole, in many cases having hardly 
more than the name in common, but possessing their own 
budgets and boards of trustees, sometimes even being admin- 
istered as proprietary schools, wherein the professors divided 
among themselves the fees paid by the students. The 
medical schools have been the most independent in this 
respect. It should be borne in mind that in the case of 
such complex institutions the name "university" is applied 
to the whole, so that, theoretically at least, the university 
may include the equivalent of a German university, technische 
Hochschule (formerly called Polytechnicum), landwirtschaft- 
liche Hochschule or agricultural college, and Gymnasium. 
Passing under review the many types of organization 
wherein university and college are united, we shall find that 
in most cases the graduate and undergraduate work are car- 
ried on by the same individuals, so that, instead of a univer- 
sity and a college being in alliance, so to speak, as might be 
said if the body of instructors of each part were composed 
of quite different individuals, with one governing body for 
the whole, we have to do really with a complex and overlap- 



26l] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY II 

ping structure. Herein lies, it must be said, one of the 
greatest disadvantages for the American university, though 
there are valuable compensations. The American univer- 
sity professor is rarely able to devote himself exclusively to 
advanced scientific work with well-prepared students, but 
must, in most cases, carry on a good deal of mere class 
work as well, which cannot but prove detrimental to the 
progress of his researches. 

The many institutions falling under this head illustrate 
almost as many principles of combination as there are insti- 
tutions. A detailed description of all is of course impossi- 
ble here ; those that are chosen as the most instructive types 
may best be grouped in two classes : 

Into the first class (a) will come those which, though pos- 
sessing both a collegiate or undergraduate and a graduate 
department, yet in practice draw a hard and fast line between 
the two, conducting the undergraduate and graduate courses 
as entirely separate, sometimes with quite different methods, 
and rigidly excluding from the latter courses all who have 
not taken a baccalaureate degree or its equivalent (as for 
example the testimonium maturitatis or Reifezeugniss of a 
German gymnasium). Very few institutions belong in this 
first group. 

a 
i Johns Hopkins university — This famous establishment, 
the good influence of which upon the general development of 
higher education in the United States has been incalculably 
great, was founded by the noble bequests of Johns Hopkins, a 
citizen of Baltimore. Mr. Hopkins devoted nearly all of his 
estate, amounting to more than three and a half million dol- 
lars, to the foundation of a university and a hospital. The 
institution was incorporated in 1867 ; the board of trustees 
was organized in 1870, and held its first meeting in 1874. 
In the same year Professor Daniel Coit Gilman, of the Uni- 
versity of California, and previously of Yale university, was 
elected president. The work of instruction was begun in 
1876 ; from the first the chief aim was proclaimed to be the 



12 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [262 

development of instruction in the methods of scientific 
research. An undergraduate or collegiate course was also 
arranged, intended to give the best possible preparation for 
the advanced work, and leading to the degree of bachelor 
of arts. In the university proper only a faculty of philoso- 
phy was organized, as the faculty of medicine, which was 
also planned, had to wait for its realization upon the open- 
ing of the hospital. This event took place in 1889, and 
four years later the school of medicine was opened. It 
admits women on equal terms with men, this having been 
stipulated by Miss Garrett, by whom large gifts were made; 
women are not admitted to either the school of philosophy 
or the undergraduate department. 

An important place at Johns Hopkins university has 
always been held by the " fellows." Twenty fellowships are. 
awarded each year to the most promising among the many 
candidates, without preference of college ; each fellowship is 
of the annual value of $500, though it does not exempt 
from charges for tuition. The candidates must prove 
their ability to carry on independent researches in the sub- 
jects in which they seek fellowships, and engage to prose- 
cute such researches during the time of their appointment. 
In the language of the official announcement of the univer- 
sity the fellowships are bestowed " almost exclusively on 
young men desirous of becoming teachers of science and 
literature, or proposing to devote their lives to special 
branches of learning which lie outside of the ordinary 
studies of the lawyer, the physician and the clergyman." 
The university also extends the privilege of " fellowships by 
courtesy " (without emolument) to certain individuals. 

The university receives as students the following classes : 

1. College graduates and other advanced scholars, who may 
proceed to the degree of doctor of philosophy, in literature 
or science, or remain for longer or shorter periods in such 
of the various seminaries or laboratories as they may choose. 

2. Undergraduate students looking forward to the degree 
of bachelor of arts. 3. Candidates for the degree of doctor 



263] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 13 

of medicine. 4. Doctors of medicine desiring to pursue 
certain postgraduate courses. 5. Students who have taken 
no degree, and are not looking forward to a degree, but who 
desire to avail themselves for a brief period of the opportu- 
nities here offered. 

The courses of study under 1, 3 and 4 are entirely closed 
to those who are still candidates for a baccalaureate degree. 

2 Bryn Mawr college — This excellent institution for 
women, modeled closely after the pattern of Johns Hopkins 
university, is situated at Bryn Mawr, a suburb of Philadel- 
phia. It was founded chiefly by the gifts of Dr. Jos. 
W. Taylor and other members of the Society of Friends 
(" Quakers "), and opened in 1 885. Four classes are admitted : 
Graduates, undergraduates, special students, and hearers ; 
the latter, receiving no formal recognition from the institu- 
tion, are admitted to various courses by the consent of the 
instructors. To the graduate courses only holders of the 
degree of bachelor of arts are admitted. These courses 
cover the usual ground of the " faculty of philosophy," as at 
Johns Hopkins, i. e., philosophy, logic and psychology, lan- 
guage and letters, political and social science, history, nat- 
ural science and mathematics, and lead to the degrees of 
master of arts and doctor of philosophy. 

From the first the standard set at Bryn Mawr has been 
extremely high, and a very able body of instructors has been 
secured. Its degrees are held fully equal to those granted 
anywhere in the United States. 

3 University of Pennsylvania — In 1 75 1 the "Charitable 
School" at Philadelphia, which had been established in 1740, 
was reconstituted, under the advice of Franklin, into an 
academy, comprising an English, Latin and mathematical 
school. Two years later a charter was granted by the gover- 
nors of the province of Pennsylvania; and in 1755 the insti- 
tution received the privilege of granting degrees, and was 
officially designated as: "The College and Academy of 
Philadelphia, in the Province of Pennsylvania." In 1791, 
after several years of tribulation, a more recent institution, 



14 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [264 

founded largely by spoliation of the old college, was united 
with it, under the name of the University of Pennsylvania. 

The university is entirely a private and self-perpetuating 
corporation, except that the governor of the state is virtute 
officii president of the trustees. It comprises the following 
teaching divisions : The college, including the school of 
arts and the Towne scientific school ; the department of 
philosophy (graduate school) ; the department of law ; the 
department of medicine ; the laboratory of hygiene ; the 
department of dentistry ; the department of veterinary 
medicine. 

The department of philosophy, or graduate department, is 
organized to give advanced instruction in the various 
branches of literature and science. Admission is granted to 
persons holding a " bachelor's degree in arts, letters, philoso- 
phy, pure or applied science, granted by the University of 
Pennsylvania or by any college or university whose degrees 
are recognized by this university." Admission to the gradu- 
ate school does not imply admission to candidacy for a 
degree. The courses of instruction are grouped as follows : 
I. Semitic languages. II. American archaeology and lan- 
guages. III. Indo-European philology. IV. Classical lan- 
guages. V. Germanic languages. VI. Romanic languages. 
VII. English. VIII. Philosophy, ethics, psychology and 
pedagogy. IX. History. X. Economics, politics, soci- 
ology and statistics. XI. Mathematics. XII. Astronomy. 
XIII. Physics. XIV. Chemistry. XV. Botany and 
zoology. XVI. Geology and mineralogy. 

The principle of separation between undergraduate and 
graduate students is, with some few exceptions, strictly 
carried out. These exceptions are found chiefly in depart- 
ments which are not represented in the college plan of 
instruction except by one or more courses offered to seniors, 
as e. g. Semitic languages and Sanskrit. 

In this group might also be placed, with some reserva- 
tions, Yale university. The graduate school, which conducts 
the courses leading to the degrees of master of arts and doctor 



265] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 1 5 

of philosophy, while accepting as a rule only actual gradu- 
ates of Yale or other colleges, admits in exceptional cases 
other persons of liberal education. Some few of the higher 
undergraduate courses are open to graduate students, and 
may be counted toward the higher degrees. A description 
of the organization of the university will be given below. 

b 
By far the greater number of institutions which conduct 
" graduate " work fall into the second division (5) which we 
have established, as not drawing a rigid line of demarcation 
between the undergraduate and the graduate courses. This 
does not mean that students who have not received their first 
or bachelor's degree, or its equivalent, are accepted as can- 
didates for the master's or doctor's degree, for to the writer's 
knowledge that is nowhere the case ; but merely that some 
at least of the courses leading- to the higher degrees are 
open to undergraduate students. This feature, so difficult 
for foreign, especially German, observers to understand, is 
partly a necessity, partly the result of a deliberate policy which 
has in the main well justified itself. The policy will be dis- 
cussed later ; the necessity has arisen from the limited 
endowment of most of the institutions, which has made it 
impossible, even where it would have been desirable, to 
increase largely the number of professorships and the extent 
of such educational aids as libraries, laboratories, etc. 

The institutions remaining for our consideration are most 
conveniently divided into those of private (or originally pri- 
vate) foundation and the " state universities." The former 
have generally been aided at different times with greater or 
less liberality by the governments of the states in which they 
are established, in many cases a return having been demanded 
by the state in the form of free scholarships of one or another 
kind, or other privileges ; the state universities have fre- 
quently received valuable aid from private individuals. It 
should be stated here that the national government supports 
no universities, this being left entirely to the separate states. 



l6 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [266 

InstiHitions of private foundation 
I Harvard university — The foundation of this venerable 
institution, at once the oldest, largest and most famous seat 
of learning in the United States, dates from 1636, when the 
general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay voted a 
gift of four hundred pounds " towards a school or college." 
Instruction was not begun until 1638, in which year a bequest 
of John Harvard, a non-conforming clergyman of England, 
and a graduate of Emmanuel college, Cambridge, who had 
died at Charlestown, became available. The sum realized 
was sufficient to open the institution at once, and the grati- 
tude of the court was shown by the attachment of Harvard's 
name to the new college. In 1642 the management of the 
institution was entrusted to aboard of overseers; in 1650 
the college was made a corporation, the board of overseers 
being also retained. With considerable changes in the mode 
of selecting the president and fellows (who constitute the 
" corporation ") and the overseers, this organization has per- 
sisted until the present day. The corporation is self-per- 
petuating ; the board of overseers, for a long period chosen 
by the legislature of Massachusetts, is now elected entirely 
by the graduates of Harvard college. From 1636 until 
1782, when a school of medicine was established, Harvard 
college composed the entire institution, conferring only the 
degrees of bachelor and master of arts. The term university 
seems to have been first applied to it in 1780, and has for 
many years been used of the institution as a whole, of which 
Harvard college is by statute merely a part. The legal titles 
of the controlling bodies are, however, "The President and 
Fellows, and the Board of Overseers, of Harvard College." 
The various departments of the university, added from time 
to time, have been largely reorganized during the last ten 
years. The present organization pf the departments of 
instruction is briefly as follows : 

I — 1 1 1 Three schools under the faculty of arts and 
sciences, viz. : 



267] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 1 7 

I Harvard college, leading to the degree of bachelor of arts. 

II The Lawrence scientific school (degree of bachelor of 
science). 

III The graduate school (degrees of master of arts, mas- 
ter of science, doctor of philosophy and doctor of science). 

IV The divinity school (degree of bachelor of divinity). 

V The law school (degree of bachelor of laws). 

VI The medical school (degree of doctor of medicine). 

VII The dental school (degree of doctor of dental 
medicine). 

VIII The school of veterinary medicine (degree of doc- 
tor of veterinary medicine). 

IX The Bussey institution (degree of bachelor of agri- 
cultural science). 

Of these the graduate school corresponds very closely in 
range and methods of instruction to the philosophise he Fak- 
ult'dt of the universities of Northern Germany, offering 
courses of research in philology (Semitic languages, Indo- 
Iranian, the classics (including Greek and Roman archae- 
ology), English, Germanic and Scandinavian, Romance 
languages, Celtic, Slavonic, history and political science, 
philosophy (including ethics and psychology), fine arts, 
music, mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, botany, 
zoology, geology, mineralogy, American archaeology and 
ethnology, physiology. Admission to the graduate school 
is ordinarily granted to graduates of colleges and scientific 
schools of good standing. This does not, however, imply 
admission to candidacy for a degree ; such is granted only to 
those whose credentials are approved by the committee on 
admission from other colleges, which satisfies itself that the 
applicant has had a training substantially equivalent to that 
demanded for the Harvard bachelor's degree. It frequently 
happens that such applicants spend a year in study for the 
Harvard degree of bachelor of arts, after which they may 
or may not go on to the higher degrees. 

The courses offered under the faculty of arts and sciences 
are of three kinds : 



1 8 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [268 

(1) Primarily for undergraduates. These, though often 
open to graduates, may be counted only toward the bach- 
elor's degree. 

(2) For undergraduates and graduates. These may be 
counted toward either the bachelor's, or toward the master's 
and doctor's degrees ; they are attended chiefly by under- 
graduates in their last, or graduates in their first, year of 
study as such. 

(3) Primarily for graduates. These courses are attended 
only by such undergraduates as have made unusual progress 
in their studies, and some of them are entirely closed to 
undergraduates. 

The school of law, with a course of three years, admits to 
full standing as candidates for the degree holders of a bach- 
elor's degree in arts, literature, philosophy or science granted 
by certain institutions named in the university catalogue, 
also persons qualified to enter the senior class of Harvard 
college. In the main it may be called a true graduate 
school, as out of 551 students enrolled in 1898-9, 489 held 
the bachelor's degree. This is true, in a minor degree, of 
the school of divinity, in which candidates for the degree of 
bachelor of divinity must have a satisfactory degree in arts 
or an equivalent approved by the faculty. The medical 
school, which at present prescribes a moderate examination 
for entering students, will soon be put on a true university 
basis by the requirement that in and after June, 1901, can- 
didates for admission must present a degree in arts, litera- 
ture, philosophy, science, or medicine from a recognized 
college or scientific school ; from this rule exceptions are to 
be made only by special vote of the faculty in each case. 

2 Yale university, New Haven, Conn.— In 1701 there was 
founded at Saybrook the Collegiate School of Connecticut, 
which was transferred to New Haven in 1716, and in 1 71 8 
renamed Yale college, in recognition of the gifts made to 
the young institution by Elihu Yale of London. The 
degree of bachelor of arts, first awarded in 1702, was the 
only one given until 18 14. In the latter year the degree of 



269] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 1 9 

doctor of medicine was first bestowed, that of bachelor of 
laws in 1843, doctor of philosophy in i860, and civil engi- 
neer and bachelor of divinity in 1867. The name Yale col- 
lege was retained by the entire institution until compara- 
tively recent years. 

The present organization shows four departments : I Phil- 
osophy and the arts ; II Theology; III Medicine; IV Law. 

The department of philosophy and the arts includes Yale 
college (for some years called the " academical depart- 
ment"), the Sheffield scientific school, the graduate school, 
and the schools of fine arts and music. The graduate 
school, in its reorganized form, corresponds quite closely to 
that of Harvard university and to the German philosophische 
Fakultat, but differs from the latter in including advanced 
technical instruction in civil and mechanical engineering. 
It offers the degrees of master of arts, master of science, 
doctor of philosophy, civil engineer, and mechanical engi- 
neer. Admission is granted to graduates of Yale and of 
other colleges and universities, and (in exceptional cases) to 
other persons of liberal education, at least eighteen years 
old. The departments of study are these : Psychology, 
ethics and philosophy ; economics, social science, history 
and law ; Semitic languages and biblical literature ; classical 
and Indo-Iranian philology ; modern languages and litera- 
tures ; natural and physical science ; pure and applied mathe- 
matics ; the fine arts; music; physical culture. Out of 257 
students registered as in actual attendance upon the courses 
of the graduate school in 1898-9 only 8 were not holders of 
degrees, and of these 6 had received academic training 
in Japan. Some of the courses designed for advanced 
undergraduates in Yale college or the Sheffield scientific 
school are open to graduates, and may be counted toward 
the higher degrees. The schools of theology, medicine and 
law do not demand the possession of a degree as a condition 
of entrance, though this is practically recommended. 

3 Columbia university, New York — In 1754 there was 
founded in the city of New York, under royal charter of 



20 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [ 2 70 

George II, an institution for the education of youth, to 
which the name Kings college was given. The college 
existed under this name until 1784, though the exercises 
were partially, at times wholly, suspended during the war 
of the revolution. In 1784, on the incorporation of the 
" Regents of the University of the State of New York," 
the property of Kings college was vested in them, and its 
name changed to Columbia college. In 1787, however, this 
act was repealed, and the original charter issued to the col- 
lege was confirmed. The legal style of the new corporation 
was fixed as " The Trustees of Columbia College in the 
City of New York." This is still its legal designation. In 
1896 the board of trustees sanctioned the use in all official 
publications of the term Columbia University in the City of 
New York ; the name Columbia college has accordingly 
been restricted to its original sense, viz., the college proper, 
exclusive of the professional and graduate schools. It had 
been for some years customary to speak of this as the school 
of arts, to distinguish it from the schools of law, medicine 
and mines. The school of medicine (which bears also the 
title college of physicians and surgeons) was founded in 
1807, the school of law in 1858, the school of mines in 1864 ; 
from the latter were set off in 1896 the schools of chemistry, 
engineering and architecture. Affiliated with Columbia 
university are Barnard college, founded in 1889, and Teachers 
college, founded in 1888. The former offers to women 
undergraduates courses identical with those given in Colum- 
bia college, while its graduate students are admitted to the 
work of the faculties of philosophy, political science and pure 
science in Columbia university ; the latter is devoted to the 
special training of teachers, men and women alike, and certain 
of its courses are accepted by Columbia as part of the work 
required for its degrees, both baccalaureate and advanced. 
The organization of Columbia university, excluding Bar- 
nard and Teachers colleges, is as follows : 

I Columbia college. 

II The university, including 



27l] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 21 

A. The non-professional schools 

1 Faculty of philosophy, which offers advanced courses 
and opportunities for original research in philosophy and 
education, psychology, Greek and Latin (including archae- 
ology and epigraphy), English, literature, music, and the 
Germanic, Romance and oriental languages. 

2 Faculty of political science, giving similar instruction 
in political and social science, including history, economics 
and public law. 

3 Faculty of pure science, for mathematics and the vari- 
ous branches of natural science. 

4 Faculty of applied science, covering mining, metal- 
lurgy, engineering and architecture. 

B. The professional schools 
These are 

1 School of medicine, or college of physicians and sur- 
geons, with a four years' course leading to the degree of 
doctor of medicine. 

2 School of law, with a three years' course leading to the 
degree of bachelor of laws. 

3 Schools of mines, chemistry, engineering and architec- 
ture, which are under the charge of the faculty of applied 
science, and offer courses, each of four years, leading to the 
appropriate technical degrees (bachelor of philosophy, engi- 
neer of mines, civil engineer, etc.). 

Applying the test hitherto used, we find that the non-pro- 
fessional schools, which award the degrees of master of arts 
and doctor of philosophy, exact as the condition of admis- 
sion to candidacy for a degree the possession of a bacca- 
laureate or equivalent degree. Their organization as three 
faculties (or four) instead of one is modelled largely after 
those South German universities which have subdivided the 
ancient faculty of philosophy into two or more parts. The 
professional faculties do not as yet demand the possession of 
a degree of entering students ; but the faculty of law has 



22 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [272 

announced that in and after 1903 the bachelor's degree in 
arts or philosophy will be required of all candidates for 
admission to full standing. (In 1898-9, out of 348 pri- 
marily registered under the faculty of law, 216 held degrees.) 

A peculiarity of the Columbia organization is the system 
by which seniors in Columbia college, who have entered the 
college not later than the beginning of the junior year, are 
allowed to select part or all of the courses necessary for the 
bachelor's degree from among those designated by the 
" university " faculties, professional or non-professional, as 
open to them. Naturally only the introductory courses, or 
those of more general bearing, are so offered by these facul- 
ties. The object of this arrangement is to shorten the time 
necessary to the attainment of the higher, particularly of the 
professional, degrees. With the establishment of the four 
years' course in medicine, and the higher standards set by 
all the faculties, it was found that those who finished their 
college course before entering on professional studies could 
rarely secure the professional degree before reaching their 
twenty-fifth year, and it was believed that while good stu- 
dents should be ready to begin professional work after com- 
pleting their third year in college, yet the bachelor's degree 
should not be cheapened by awarding it for less than four 
years of collegiate study. On the whole the plan has 
worked well, though some complaints are made of the diffi- 
culty of carrying on graduate courses to which undergradu- 
ates, often necessarily of a lower grade of preparation, are 
admitted. In many cases courses thus open to undergradu- 
ates and graduates alike may not be counted toward the 
higher degrees unless additional work be done in connection 
with them. 

4 Cornell university, Ithaca, N. Y. — Cornell university occu- 
pies a middle ground between the institutions of private (or 
chiefly private) foundation and independent corporate exist- 
ence and the state universities to be described below. Its 
foundation was chiefly due to the generosity and strenuous 
efforts of Ezra Cornell, and it possesses corporate independ- 



273] TIIE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY. 23 

ence ; but the government of the state of New York is rep- 
resented by ex-officio members on the board of trustees, and 
the funds for its establishment, other than those given by 
Mr. Cornell and other benefactors, were derived from the 
sale of the grants of public lands made to the state of New 
York by the " Morrill Act" of the national congress in 1862. 
Mr. Cornell's plan designed the establishment of an institu- 
tion " where any person might find instruction in any study ; " 
and if this has long since been seen to be impossible of reali- 
zation, yet the very breadth of sympathy evidenced by the 
desire has resulted in a foundation of unusual breadth and 
strength. The university was incorporated in 1865, and 
opened to students in 1868. Its constitution has undergone 
many changes, as well of internal arrangement as of outward 
expansion ; its present organization is the following : 

I Graduate department. 

II Academic department, or department of arts and 
sciences. 

III College of law. 

IV College of civil engineering, 

V Sibley college of mechanical arts. 

VI College of architecture. 

VII College of agriculture. 

VIII College of medicine. 

The New York state veterinary college and college of 
forestry are administered by Cornell university. The col- 
lege of medicine, constituted in 1897-8 from the faculties of 
two medical schools already existing in the city of New 
York, is situated in that city, though the work of the first 
two years may be done in Ithaca. 

The graduate department provides courses of instruction 
and research for graduate students leading to advanced 
degrees. No sharp line is drawn between graduates and 
undergraduate students, many of the courses being open to 
undergraduates who have prepared themselves by taking 
the necessary preliminary elective courses, but a large num- 



24 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [274 

ber are specially adapted to the wants of graduate students, 
and some are open exclusively to them. The degrees offered 
to graduate students are : Master of arts, master of science 
in architecture, master of civil engineering, master of mechan- 
ical engineering, master of science in agriculture, and doctor 
of philosophy. 

Seniors and juniors in the academic department are 
allowed, with certain restrictions, to elect studies in other 
departments of the university which shall count towards 
graduation in the academic department. The Columbia 
principle is thus applied more widely. 

The schools of law and medicine have not as yet made 
the possession of a first degree a necessary condition of 
admission. 

The exigencies of space forbid the description here of 
several of the prominent autonomous corporative institutions 
which include true university instruction in their work, such 
as Brown university at Providence, R. I., Princeton univer- 
sity in New Jersey, the Leland Stanford, Jr., university at 
Palo Alto, Cal., the Tulane university of Louisiana, the 
Vanderbilt university at Nashville, Tenn., and others. All 
comprise the college and the various scientific schools. We 
turn, therefore, to the most recently founded of the larger 
institutions, one which has taken at a bound a place in the 
very front rank of American education. 

5 The university of Chicago — The history of the university 
of Chicago begins with the year 1886, when Mr. J. D. Rocke- 
feller formed the idea of founding a new institution of learn- 
ing in Chicago. By a series of extraordinarily munificent 
gifts, made by Mr. Rockefeller and others, the establishment 
of the new institution was assured ; the first buildings were 
erected in 1891, and the doors opened to students October 
1, 1892. The organization is complicated, and in many 
respects unlike that of any other American university. An 
entirely original feature is the division of the academic year 
into four quarters of twelve weeks each, instead of two or 
three terms. Instruction is given during the whole year, 



2 75] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 25 

except during the interval of one week at the end of each 
quarter ; students remain for one or more quarters as they 
chose, and each instructor is bound to teach during thirty- 
six weeks of the year, with certain bounties for additional 
instruction given beyond this requirement. The university 
is organized in five distinct divisions : I The schools, col- 
leges and academies ; II The university extension ; III The 
university library, laboratories and museums ; IV The uni- 
versity press ; V The university affiliation. The first divis- 
ion, comprising the whole teaching staff of the university 
proper, consists of i The schools ; a Graduate schools ; 
b Professional schools. 2 The colleges ; a Junior college, 
corresponding to the first two years ; b Senior college, cor- 
responding to the last two years of the ordinary college. 

The graduate schools thus far organized are two, the 
graduate school of arts and literature, and the Ogden (grad- 
uate) school of science. Admission is granted (1) to those 
who have been graduated from the colleges of the univer- 
sity of Chicago with the degree of bachelor of arts, science 
or philosophy ; (2) to graduates of other institutions of 
good standing, holding degrees corresponding to those 
granted by the university. The degrees conferred are : Mas- 
ter of arts, master of science, master of philosophy, and 
doctor of philosophy. Most of the courses in the graduate 
schools are open to graduate students only, but some are 
open to students in the senior college who have received the 
preliminary training enabling them to profit by these courses. 
The divinity school includes, a the graduate divinity school, 
designed primarily for college graduates ; b the English 
theological seminary, with resident courses only in the sum- 
mer quarter ; c and d the Scandinavian theological semi- 
naries. The graduate divinity school admits to candidacy 
for the degree of bachelor of divinity only graduates of 
accepted colleges ; the degrees of master of arts and doctor 
of philosophy are also offered. 



26 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY \_ 2 7& 

The state universities 
At the present time, in each of twenty-nine of the states 
of the union, there is maintained a single " state university," 
supported exclusively or prevailingly from public funds, and 
managed under the more or less direct control of the legis- 
lature and administrative officers of the state. In some 
cases private benefactions have notably supplemented the 
support given from public revenues. These states are the 
following : Alabama, California, Colorado, Georgia, Illi- 
nois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, 
Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, North 
Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, 
South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, 
West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming. 1 The organization 
of these institutions, while more similar than that of the 
universities which are autonomous corporations, yet shows 
many points of divergence ; and their extent and stand- 
ards of scholarship vary even more widely. The larger 
among them exhibit a very complete development of 
technical and professional schools, with the exception of 
schools of theology, which naturally have no place in a 
country where state aid is not extended to religion. The 
professional schools of law and medicine, however, are 
generally supported, at least in greater part, by the fees 
received from students, and up to the present time none 
of them has been put on a true university basis. Other- 
wise, the sources of income of these universities are mainly 
the following: i The proceeds of land-grants made in 1862 
by the federal government, in accordance with the famous 
"Morrill Act" of 1862, for the maintenances of colleges 
whose leading object should be instruction in those branches 
of learning relating to agricultural and mechanical arts, 
including military tactics, and not excluding other scientific 

1 The university of the state of New York is not a university at all, but rather 
a state board of education, with supervision of all instruction given in the state. 
The " University of France," as constituted under Napoleon I, is closely analo- 
gous to it. 



2 77] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 2 J 

and classical studies ; 2 State taxation, whether by way of 
annual appropriations from the general taxes of the state, or 
by continuous appropriations from a permanent special tax ; 

3 Tuition fees (only in some of the universities, while in 
many instruction is entirely gratuitous) ; 4 Private gifts and 
endowments — the least common source of revenue, although 
some brilliant exceptions are to be noted. 

The universal verdict of public opinion, in the states 
where such institutions are maintained, is that they, as state 
organizations supported directly by public taxation from 
which no taxable individual is exempt, should be open with- 
out distinction of sex, color or religion to all who can profit 
by the instruction therein given. Each forms the uppermost 
division of the general system of public education of the 
state in which it is maintained, and is managed with a view 
to completing the scheme of instruction begun in the pri- 
mary and carried on in the secondary schools. Control is 
vested in a board of public officials, generally called 
"regents." For example, the board of regents of the Uni- 
versity of Minnesota consists of the governor of the state, 
the superintendent of public instruction, the president of the 
university, and seven members appointed by the governor 
and confirmed by the senate. In Michigan the regents are 
elected by popular vote for terms of eight years — an 
unusual feature. The composition and mode of choice of 
these boards varies greatly in different states, and not less 
their fitness for the responsibilities entrusted to them. In 
some states, as in Michigan and Wisconsin, the result of 
many years' endeavor has been, though after many vicissi- 
tudes and bitter struggles, the creation of noble schools of 
training ; in others the constant changes in political com- 
plexion of the legislature, and the self-seeking of party lead- 
ers, have made the universities mere shuttlecocks of public 
or party opinion, and not only has their development been 
hindered, but in some cases their usefulness deliberately 
crippled. Instances are not unknown where particularly 
able and courageous professors, who would not cut their 



28 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [278 

scientific opinions after the prevailing fashion in politics, 
have been driven from their chairs, even by outrageously 
underhanded methods. 

Of the state universities the most prominent and success- 
ful are those of Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Cali- 
fornia. The first mentioned is the oldest and perhaps the 
best known. Under the direction of a series of singularly 
able men it has grown, since its foundation in 1837, into a 
position of commanding importance. The three others, 
while considerably younger, have shown a surprisingly rapid 
growth. As examples of the organization of state universi- 
ties will be taken Wisconsin and California. 

The University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. — When the 
state of Wisconsin was organized in 1848, the university was 
established by constitution as a part of the free school sys- 
tem of the state. The law establishing it declares that its 
object shall be " to provide the means of acquiring a 
thorough knowledge of the various branches of learning 
connected with scientific, industrial and professional pur- 
suits." The institution was reorganized in 1866, when the 
college of agriculture was united with it ; and the profes- 
sional and technical schools were added in rapid succession. 

The university comprises six divisions : 

I College of letters and science, with seven different 
undergraduate courses leading to baccalaureate degrees. 
The corresponding graduate courses lead to the higher 
degrees of master of arts, literature or science, and doctor of 
philosophy. These graduate courses include philosophy, 
pedagogy, economic and social science, history, philology, 
mathematics, natural sciences. 

II College of mechanics and engineering; the under- 
graduate courses lead to the degree of bachelor of science, 
and graduate courses to those of civil, mechanical, or electri- 
cal engineer. 

III College of agriculture, with three different courses, 
one leading to the degree of bachelor of science, and a 
course for graduates, to the degree of master of science. 



279] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 29 

IV College of law, with a three years' course, leading to 
the degree of bachelor of laws. 

V School of pharmacy. 

VI School of music. 

The school of economics, political science and history and 
the school of education are subdivisions of the college of 
letters and science ; their work extends over the later portion 
of the undergraduate, and through the graduate, depart- 
ments. The line between advanced undergraduates and 
graduate students is not sharply drawn, some courses being 
open to both classes of students. 

The University of California, Berkeley and San Francisco, 
Cal. — The University of California, an integral part of the 
public educational system of the state, was established in 
1868, and instruction was begun the following year. The 
college of California, which had been organized in 1855, 
transferred its property and students to the new institution 
in 1869, and closed its own work of instruction. The pro- 
fessional schools, though contemplated in the original plan, 
were not actually organized until later. In June, 1888, the 
Lick observatory at Mount Hamilton became a part of the 
university. 

The controlling body is unusually large, consisting of the 
governor and lieutenant-governor of the state, the speaker 
of the assembly, the state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion, the presidents of the state agricultural society and the 
mechanics' institute of San Francisco, and the president of 
the university (all these ex-officio), and sixteen other regents 
appointed by the governor with the approval of the state 
senate. 

The institution is supported by various state funds ; the 
college of law has a special endowment ; the other profes- 
sional schools are supported by tuition-fees. 

In 1898 gifts amounting to many millions of dollars were 
made to the institution by Mrs. Phoebe Hearst, which will 
make possible the development of the university on a scale 
hitherto unexampled in America. 



30 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [280 

The organization of the university comprises the follow- 
ing departments of instruction : 

I In Berkeley : 

A The colleges of general culture : Letters (with degree 
of bachelor of arts), social science (bachelor of letters), 
natural sciences (bachelor of science), commerce (degree 
not yet established). 

B The colleges of applied science, leading to the degree 
of bachelor of science. 

II At Mt. Hamilton: 

The Lick astronomical department (observatory). 

III In San Francisco: 

1 The Mark Hopkins institute of art. 2 The Hastings 
college of the law. 3 The medical department. 4 The 
post-graduate medical department. 5 The college of dent- 
istry. 6 The California college of pharmacy. 7 The vet- 
erinary department. 

In the graduate department, regularly organized courses 
of instruction and research lead to the degrees of master of 
arts, literature or science, and doctor of philosophy. These 
courses comprise instruction in philosophy and education, 
history and political science, philology, decorative and indus- 
trial art, mathematics and natural science, engineering and 
agriculture. They are classified as : 1 Primarily for gradu- 
ates ; 2 for graduates and advanced undergraduates. 

Contrast with European universities 

The foregoing account of the chief types of university 
organization in the United States will, it is hoped, have 
made clear most of the details in which their structure is 
peculiarly American. The older institutions, starting from 
the English type of college, never developed in the direction 
of universities of Oxford and Cambridge, where the idea of 
the university as a great teaching body was lost in the 
excessive development of the college as a place of residence, 
and of the university as primarily a congeries of colleges. 



28 i] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 3 I 

The early medieval universities of Europe, on the continent 
as well as in England, generally provided for their students 
places of residence in buildings set apart for this purpose, 
instruction of the lower grades in connection with these 
residence halls, and higher instruction independently of them. 
On the continent, however, especially in France and Ger- 
many, the residential feature rapidly became less important, 
and finally, with a few unimportant exceptions, disappeared 
altogether, so that the entire resources of the universities, 
though often scanty enough, could be turned to account for 
the work of instruction. In England exactly the opposite 
occurred ; the residential halls became, through the impulse 
of successive pious foundations, the important factors in the 
university life, even attaining corporate independence and 
ultimately great wealth, and gradually assumed most of the 
instruction of the students, though the examinations and 
the award of degrees remained the prerogatives of the uni- 
versity as a whole — conditions which made directly for the 
fixity of residence characteristic of English universities, and 
adopted as a matter of course in the American colleges pat- 
terned after the English model. If the establishment of 
Harvard and Yale colleges had been followed at brief inter- 
vals of time by the foundation of other residential colleges 
in Cambridge and New Haven, and if there had existed in 
the colonies an established church with a prestige such as 
that possessed by the church of England in the home coun- 
try, keeping the colleges under its control, a state of affairs 
similar to that at Oxford would doubtless have resulted. 
The scanty population and limited means of the colonies, 
and their independence of the church of England, prevented 
such a result, fortunately, on the whole, for the educational 
welfare of the country at large. 1 Yet the residential feature 
has persisted throughout the history of the American col- 
lege ; though abandoned here and there, as at Columbia and 

1 It is interesting to note that during the last few years the rapid growth of 
Harvard college, which had 1,851 undergraduate students in attendance during 
1898-9, led to a suggestion that it be divided somewhat on the English plan into 
three or four separate colleges, a plan which met with little favor. 



32 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [282 

the University of Pennsylvania, it has been restored at the 
latter, has again been adopted in principle, if not yet in 
practice, at Columbia, and deliberately introduced, in various 
forms, at many new institutions, even in some which at first 
had made no provision for students' residence. The Ameri- 
can institutions differ furthermore from the English universi- 
ties in this, that their growth has been so largely in the 
direction of professional and technical schools, though these 
have been thus far in less than a half a dozen instances 
placed on a real university basis. 

The points of difference between the American and the 
continental European universities are not less apparent 
Taken as a whole, the American institutions exhibit only a 
portion of what in Europe is thought necessary to the con- 
stitution of a complete university, viz., the traditional four 
faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy, because, 
although all four may be in existence (as for example at 
Harvard), they are not all organized and administered on 
the same plane ; but on the other hand they include elements 
which in Europe are sharply marked off from the universi- 
ties, namely, technical schools, and undergraduate schools 
which in some cases correspond fairly well to the lycee or 
gymnasium of France or Germany, in others to the last two 
or three years of these institutions and the first year of the 
university or technical school. If we separate the strictly 
graduate schools of the American universities from the 
remainder of their respective institutions, we shall find them 
in general covering pretty nearly the ground of the " philo- 
sophical faculties" of Germany, and more or less closely 
approximating them in methods of work. A decided point 
of difference, however, consists in the comparative infre- 
quence of migration on the part of students from university 
to university, which is so nearly the universal rule in 
Germany. 



283] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 33 



III EARLIEST BEGINNINGS OF UNIVERSITY OR GRADUATE 
INSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OUT 
OF THE COLLEGE. INFLUENCE OF GERMAN MODELS AND 
METHODS 

The catalogs of Harvard college contain, somewhat 
before 1800, the names of individuals enrolled as "resident 
graduates," though no statement is made of the advantages 
offered them or the work expected of them. This continues 
for many years, the numbers of the graduate students vary- 
ing greatly; e.g., in 181 1 are entered twelve such; in 1825, 
one; in 1833, nine; in 1837, one; in 1845, I 5l m 1 ^5°^ 
three; in 1855, six; in i860, nine. During the early years 
of the 19th century Americans began to seek out the uni- 
versities of Germany. The first American to be graduated 
at a German university was Edward Everett, who was made 
a doctor of philosophy of Gottingen in 181 7. He was fol- 
lowed in 18 19 by Joseph Green Cogswell, by George Ban- 
croft in 1820, and R. B. Patton in 182 1. The inspiration 
there received sowed the seed from which has sprung such 
abundant fruit. Yet the seed was long in sprouting. A 
very interesting letter from Bancroft, written in 1871, 1 offer- 
ing the foundation of a graduate scholarship, tells of the 
writer's unsuccessful attempts in 1821 "to introduce among 
us some parts of the German system of education, so as to 
divide more exactly preliminary studies from the higher 
scientific courses, and thus facilitate the transformation of 
our colleges into universities, after the plan everywhere 
adopted in Germany." He then continues: " But it is not 
easy to change an organization that has its roots in the 
habits of the country ; and the experiment could not suc- 
ceed." " I then applied * * * for leave to read lec- 
tures on History in the University. At Gottingen or at 
Berlin I had the right, after a few preliminary formalities, 
to deliver such a course. * * * My request was 

1 In the Harvard University Catalog for 1898-9, pp. 459 ff. 



34 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [284 

declined by my own alma mater. * * *■" After 1821 
no American seems to have received a German degree until 
1848, when B. A. Gould, the astronomer, took the doctor's 
degree in philosophy. From this time on the numbers 
increased rapidly. Gottingen was the favorite university 
with Americans, though some studied elsewhere, W. D. 
Whitney taking his degree at Breslau in 1852. 

The year 1847 saw the establishment at Yale of a " depart- 
ment of philosophy and the arts," for scientific and graduate 
study, leading to the degree of bachelor of philosophy. 
The catalog of that year says : " The branches intended 
to be embraced in this department are such in general as 
are not included under theology, law or medicine ; or more 
particularly, mathematical science, physical science and its 
application to the arts, metaphysics, philology, literature and 
history. The instructions in the department are intended 
for graduates of this and other colleges, and for such other 
young men as are desirous of pursuing special branches of 
study ; but it is necessary for all students in philosophy and 
mathematical science that they be thoroughly grounded in 
these studies." Among the first lecturers in these courses 
were President Woolsey in Greek, Professors Silliman in 
chemistry, Porter in logic and philosophy, Salisbury in ori- 
ental languages. During the years between 1847 and 1861 
these, courses were gradually expanded, and soon separated 
into two divisions, 1, the Yale (afterwards called the Shef- 
field) scientific school ; and 2, special courses in history, phil- 
ology, philosophy and mathematics. Other scholars of note 
were added to the list of lecturers, notably W. D. Whitney 
in 1854. In the catalog for 1860-61 appears for the first 
time in the United States the announcement that the degree 
of doctor of philosophy will be awarded. As candidates 
there were to be admitted, without examination, bachelors of 
arts, science and philosophy ; others after successfully pass- 
ing equivalent examinations. The degree was first bestowed 
in 1 86 1. A distinct graduate school was first fully organ- 
ized in 1872. 



285] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 35 

At the University of Michigan a university course was 
projected early in President Tappan's administration (1852- 
1863), but never fully carried out. In 1858-9 some gradu- 
ate courses of lectures were established. The degree of 
master of arts was first conferred after examination in 1859; 
previously it had been given, as elsewhere, " in course," i. e., 
after the lapse of a certain period. 

At Columbia college a plan was formed between 1854 and 
1857 to establish three schools, of philosophy or philology, 
jurisprudence and history, and mathematics and physical 
science, to extend through the senior year of the college 
and two years beyond it, the degree of bachelor of arts to 
be given as usual at the end of the four years' course. The 
plan was not completely realized, but twenty-five years later 
it was revived in a somewhat different form by the establish- 
ment of the school of political science, and the principle 
has been substantially adopted in the present organization 
of the university. In 1858 courses of lectures for advanced 
students were opened by Professors A. Guyot, G. P. Marsh, 
W. G. Peck and others, but continued only for one year. 

In i860 the Harvard catalog contains for the first time 
a definite statement about graduate students : " Graduates 
of the university, or of other collegiate institutions, desirous 
of pursuing studies at Cambridge without joining any pro- 
fessional school, may do so as resident graduates." In 
February, 1863, courses of lectures were offered "open to 
all graduates of colleges and school teachers who enter their 
names, to persons connected with the university, except 
undergraduates, and to others on payment of $5 " on nat- 
ural science, philosophy, literature, art, etc. Among the lec- 
turers were Louis Agassiz, James Russell Lowell, Charles 
Eliot Norton. These lectures were continued until 1872 ; 
but the number of resident graduates remained practically 
stationary, even declining to 5 in 1868-9. 

In 1872 Harvard university announced that it would con- 
fer the degrees of doctor of philosophy and doctor of 
science, and that the degree of master of arts would be 



36 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [286 

given only on examination. To candidacy for these higher 
degrees were to be admitted bachelors of arts of Harvard, 
and bachelors of arts of other colleges who should satisfy the 
faculty that they had had a training equal to that given at 
Harvard. Excellent provision was made for the instruction 
of graduates, and one fellowship and one scholarship for 
graduates were established. In 1872 28 graduate students 
were enrolled; in 1876-7, 61 ; in 1889-90, in. The gradu- 
ate department was organized as a separate school in 1890. 
In the twenty-five years from 1873 to 1898 the doctorate in 
science or in philosophy has been conferred on 212 men. 

At Cornell university, where actual instruction was begun 
in 1868, the degree of doctor of philosophy was planned for 
from the beginning, though at first the requirements were 
strangely limited. Rapid changes were soon made, how- 
ever, and in 1871 we find the requirements of two years' 
resident graduate study, the passing of examinations, and 
the presentation of a satisfactory dissertation, laid down in 
the catalog. The graduate courses are thus described in 
the catalog of 1876: " Post graduate courses of study 
leading to secondary or advanced degrees have been or will 
be on application marked out, in the following general 
departments : Chemistry and physics, ancient classical lan- 
guages and literature, modern European languages and 
literatures, oriental languages and literatures, mathematics, 
natural history, and philosophy and letters." In the same 
year regulations for the award of the degree of doctor of 
science were established. 

At Princeton " post-graduate " courses are first mentioned 
in the catalogue for 1877-8, as in operation, with 44 students, 
in three groups, philology, philosophy and [natural] science. 
At first only a certificate of work done was given to these 
students ; the degree of master of arts was still given " in 
course." Courses in natural science, leading to the degree 
of master of science, were established in 1881 ; and about 
the same time new regulations for the master's decree were 
published, and that of doctor of philosophy was offered. 



287] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 37 

Johns Hopkins university was organized from the first 
with chief regard to graduate work ; its influence upon 
older institutions became very marked from the time of its 
opening in 1876. The University of Michigan first offered 
the doctor's degree in philosophy in 1874—5. The degree 
of master of arts ceased to be conferred "in course" in 1877. 

At Columbia the master of arts degree was conferred " in 
course" for the last time in 1880; thereafter it was given 
only to bachelors of arts of three years' standing, who had 
pursued for at least one year a course of study under the 
direction of the faculty of the college, in one or more of five 
groups : Greek, Latin, English ; philosophy, ethics, logic ; 
mathematics, mechanics, astronomy ; physics, chemistry, 
geology; constitutional law, economics, history. Instruction 
for graduates was begun in the same year. The degree of 
doctor of philosophy was first awarded in 1884. The regu- 
lations for the award of the higher degrees suffered several 
changes from year to year. In 1890 the entire institution 
was thoroughly reorganized ; the school of philosophy was 
established ; it and the school of political science, existing 
since 1879, were made "university" faculties, and in 1893 
the faculty of pure science was added to them. 

At Bryn Mawr college, opened in 1885, graduate instruc- 
tion was undertaken from the first, as at Johns Hopkins, 
though the organization of undergraduate work was made 
relatively more important than at Baltimore. Clark univer- 
sity, from 1887, has never organized undergraduate courses. 

The twenty-eight years elapsed since the first doctor of 
philosophy was created at New Haven, in 1861, have brought 
about an expansion and development of graduate study that 
is not less than wonderful. In 1898-9 over 3,600 students, 
of whom nearly 1,000 were women, were enrolled in some 
24 institutions. The whole number who were receiving 
graduate instruction in the United States was much greater 
than this; and in 1898, 246 persons received from these 
institutions the degree of doctor of philosophy. 

In this rapid development, from i860 to 1899, of the doc- 



38 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [288 

torate as the goal to which the graduate student presses on, 
must be recognized the working of the impulse and inspira- 
tion brought from Germany. The enthusiastic desire, felt 
by Bancroft in 1820, of transforming the American college 
into a German university, shows itself again in Michigan 
and elsewhere a generation later. Between 1870 and 1880 
many Americans were returning home from foreign study, 
and the number of those seeking the universities of the 
fatherland increased rapidly. What appealed to them most 
among the advantages there found was the freedom of 
research, and the abundant encouragement and opportunities 
extended to the aspiring student. There was little or noth- 
ing in the American college organization of 1870 to encour- 
age this spirit, and it is no wonder that each returning Ph. D., 
or his less fortunate brother whose means or time had not 
permitted him to acquire this badge of accomplishment, 
should have proved an apostle of a new dispensation. That 
many mistakes should be made was inevitable ; the first 
enthusiasm overlooked many of the stubborn facts of Ameri- 
can life which refused to be bent into agreement with Ger- 
man standards. It is to the credit of American educators 
that so many ways have been found of keeping what is good 
for us in the German system, and bringing it into harmony 
with a national view of life quite different from that which 
produced this system. The plan, so often advocated, of turn- 
ing the colleges into universities at once, could not have 
succeeded, because the projectors forgot that only the Ger- 
man secondary school system made possible the German 
university and its methods of work, that the reform must be 
begun at the bottom as well as at the top, and that the 
American college was too intimately connected with the 
American national life to be abolished or summarily turned 
into a Gymnasium. The last ten or fifteen years have 
brought much greater clearness of vision. The problem to 
be worked out, a problem whose solution is well begun, is 
how to make of the college the proper complement of the 
secondary school. In their gymnasial organization, with its 



289] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 39 

rigid training under one system for nine years, the Germans 
have beyond question an educational advantage of incalcu- 
lable value ; but such a system is possible only in a state 
whose government is sufficiently strong and paternal to 
impose its will upon the people for generation after genera- 
tion. We too could have gymnasia if we were willing to 
pay the price for them. That price, however, would be one 
against which the personal independence of the American 
would instantly protest. The maintenance of the rigid con- 
trol and discipline of the gymnasium is made possible only 
by a direct interference of the teachers, as government offi- 
cials, even with what seem to Americans to be pure family 
matters. 1 

Naturally, then, what was adopted from Germany was 
found to be most available and useful when employed as a 
supplement to the American college, not as a substitute for 
it. That this addition to our educational system was in 
general made in connection with existing institutions has 
been on the whole a great advantage to us. Great libraries, 
laboratories and museums, such as are necessary to a univer- 
sity, cannot be created at once, even with adequate endow- 
ments. Until the principle of American government is 
changed it will not be possible to create state institutions 
exclusively devoted to the highest education ; nor, under the 
political conditions of the United States, is it desirable. 
The number of men thoroughly competent to organize and 
administer a great university is very small indeed ; the best 
commercial or political organizer often fails most signally in 
this field. For this very reason, probably, the experiment 
has not yet been possible on a scale large enough to afford 
a real test. 

1 So for instance the domiciliary visits sometimes made by the teachers, to see 
if the pupils are at work at the hours prescribed for Hausarbeit. For an excellent 
account of the German gymnasia, see Russell, J. E., German Higher Schools, N. 
Y. i8qo. 



40 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [ 2 90 



IV QUALIFICATIONS FOR ADMISSION. STUDIES AND DEGREES. 
HONORARY DOCTORS OF PHILOSOPHY. AIDS TO STUDY AND 
RESEARCH : MUSEUMS, LABORATORIES, LIBRARIES 

In general, the possession of a bachelor's degree is requi- 
site for admission to the graduate school of an American 
university. In the earlier years of the existence of these 
schools, it was chiefly the degree of bachelor of arts which 
was demanded. A difficulty soon arose. Many students 
presented themselves who had had a good training, though 
without the classics, or at least without Greek, and held 
bachelors' degrees in philosophy or science. At some insti- 
tutions these degrees represented distinctly less severe work 
than the degree of bachelor of arts, at others this discrep- 
ancy did not exist. In general, however, it must be said, 
the first degrees in "philosophy," "letters" or "science" 
were more easily acquired than that in arts. To ensure the 
proper preparation of intending students, most graduate 
faculties or boards of administration reserved and still 
reserve the right of passing upon the special qualifications 
of each individual who does not hold a first degree from the 
institution where he seeks admission as a graduate student. 
In some universities great liberality — sometimes too great 
— is shown toward applicants. At Columbia those who 
hold a baccalaureate degree in arts, letters, philosophy or 
science, or an engineering degree, or the equivalent of one 
of these from a foreign institution of learning, are admitted 
as candidates for the degrees of master of arts and doctor of 
philosophy ; the university faculties protect themselves by 
requiring that every candidate for a higher degree must 
present to the dean of each school in which he intends to 
study evidence that he is qualified for the studies he desires 
to undertake. A student once admitted to one of the 
schools, however, unless as a special student, becomes ipso 
facto a candidate for a degree, and is expected to settle at 
once upon his major and two minor subjects. At other 
universities admission to a graduate school does not imply 



291] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 41 

admission to candidacy for a degree, this being granted only 
later, when the student has shown himself thoroughly quali- 
fied for the necessary work. This qualification includes in 
many institutions the ability to read fluently French and 
German, sometimes Latin. The plan has been found to 
work well where it has been in operation, and deserves gen- 
eral adoption. It is followed, e.g., at Harvard, and at the 
University of Chicago. At the latter institution the names 
of those who are, and those who are not yet, admitted to 
candidacy for a degree are printed separately in the 
catalog. 

All the graduate schools, with few if any exceptions, award 
the degrees of master of arts and doctor of philosophy. At 
Columbia these are the only ones thus awarded, the degree 
of master of laws, though classed as a university degree, 
being given for work done under the faculties of law and 
political science together. The doctorate is offered at some 
institutions in two forms, doctor of philosophy and doctor of 
science ; the latter, given for advanced work in natural 
science, is rarely taken. At Harvard, for instance, while 
190 degrees of Ph. D. were granted from 1873 to 1898, but 
22 of S. D. were given, the greatest number in any one year 
being three, and none were awarded in 1874, 1876, 1877, 
1880, 1883, 1885, 1888, 1890, 1896, or 1898. 

The master's degree has not been reduced to such sim- 
plicity. Many institutions still create masters of science, 
philosophy, letters (or literature), corresponding to the bac- 
calaureate degrees in those subjects. 

The requirements to be fulfilled for the doctor's degree 
show greater uniformity among the different institutions than 
those for the master's. The minimum period of study any- 
where accepted is two years after receiving the bachelor's 
degree. Where undergraduates are admitted to some of 
the courses arranged for graduates, this means that three 
years (as at Columbia), or even four (as at Cornell), may 
still be passed under the direction of the graduate faculty 
or committee of graduate instruction by a student who 



42 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [292 

merely fulfills the minimum requirement of graduate attend- 
ance. But even in those institutions where the minimum 
period is two years the degree is not often obtained in that 
time ; it may indeed be safely said that the minimum of 
three years' study is practically universal. The Johns Hop- 
kins university, in establishing its regulations for the doc- 
tor's degree, adopted the German system of Hauptfach and 
Nebenfcicher, the " major subject " being that field of research 
which furnishes the subject for the dissertation demanded, 
and the "minor subjects" being required to be organically 
connected with it. Harvard and Yale, on the other hand, 
do not hold to this system, demanding merely that the 
amount and kind of work done shall be satisfactory to the 
controlling board or committee. At Harvard the regula- 
tions read as follows : " A candidate for the degree of doctor 
of philosophy must offer himself for examination in some 
one of the divisions of the faculty of arts and sciences. 
The subjects in which the degree may be taken are * * * : 
philology, philosophy, history, political science, music, mathe- 
matics, physics (including chemistry), natural history, Amer- 
ican archaeology and ethnology. Within his chosen division 
the candidate must name some special field of study, approved 
as sufficient by the committee on honors and higher degrees 
in that division. He is liable to minute examination on the 
whole of that special field and is also required to prove such 
acquaintance with the subject-matter of his division in gen- 
eral as the committee in that division shall require." For 
the doctorate in science two subjects in the range of the 
mathematical, physical and natural sciences are demanded, 
in one of which special attainments must be shown. Colum- 
bia goes farther perhaps than any other American univer- 
sity in specifying minutely what branches of study may 
count as subjects in the schools of philosophy, political sci- 
ence and pure science. Concerning the recognition of work 
done in graduate schools elsewhere great diversity of prac- 
tice prevails. No university has yet seen fit to accept can- 
didates for the degree who have completed all their residence 



293] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 43 

elsewhere, as is so freely done in Germany ; the feeling is 
still strong that the institution that bestows a degree upon a 
candidate must have had that candidate under its direct 
charge for a considerable time. The practice shows a dis- 
trust of other institutions which is far from complimentary 
to the general state of the university education in America, 
and is partly explainable from the strong competition for 
students which, characteristic of most of the colleges, is often 
seen in the graduate schools as well. It is to be hoped that 
this spirit will gradually disappear. The sooner all the 
graduate schools realize that their interests are absolutely 
identical the better for university education in America. 
The smallest minimum time of actual residence where the 
degree is sought that is anywhere prescribed for the doctor's 
degree is one year. Generally it is the last year of resi- 
dence that is thus demanded. Wisconsin stipulates that 
either the last year or the first two years be spent in resi- 
dence there. At some of the universities there are regula- 
tions concerning the minimum number of hours of lectures 
to be taken ; at Columbia, for instance, candidates for either 
the master's or the doctor's degree are expected to attend 
lectures for at least four hours a week in the major subject, 
and two hours a week in each of the minors, and a seminar 
must be attended in the major subject. At Johns Hopkins 
each minor subject is expected to be followed for a year, the 
first minor to about double the extent of the second. Most 
of the universities, however, leave the graduate student free 
in this respect, justly regarding the direction and advice of 
the professor as a better guide than hard and fast regula- 
tions. Nearly everywhere a reading knowledge of French 
and German, and in many institutions a similar knowledge 
of Latin, are demanded of the candidate. The require- 
ments of a dissertation embodying original research, and of 
examinations, are enforced at all the prominent institutions. 
In the management of the examinations the practice of the 
various institutions differs widely. In many both written 
and oral examinations must be passed, and often the candi- 



44 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [ 2 94 

date must pass an oral examination at least on his major 
subject, and defend his dissertation, before the whole fac- 
ulty — a custom which ought to be made universal. Fifteen 
at least of the universities granting the doctor's degree 
require the dissertation, when accepted, to be printed ; in 
most cases where this is done a stated number of copies 
must be furnished, free of cost to the institution, to its 
library, for distribution among other institutions at home and 
abroad. 

Concerning the master's degree, as has been said above, 
much less uniformity prevails. The Ph. D. degree was so 
distinctively a new departure when first introduced into 
America that it was easier to establish regulations for it 
which should be at variance with old-established usage ; but 
the master of arts was as old as the college itself, and a 
firmly fixed tradition gave it, for many years, as a matter of 
course, after a certain interval of time, to those bachelors 
who were willing to pay a moderate amount for the privilege. 
Only rarely was any evidence of continued study demanded. 
After the middle of the present century, however, this cus- 
tom was viewed with increasing disfavor, and one college 
after another abolished it. Requirements of residence and 
study were established, or of study elsewhere than at the 
institution granting the degree, with an examination as a 
test. But these requirements were made on two different 
principles. In some places the master's degree was viewed 
as an advanced baccalaureate, and requirements of certain 
"courses," covering a certain number of hours of attendance, 
adopted. Elsewhere it was regarded as a sort of minor doc- 
tor's degree, and the requirements arranged accordingly, i. e. y 
attendance for a certain minimum period, without stipulation 
of the number of hours, and a thesis or essay. Columbia 
seems to have gone farthest in this respect, demanding work 
in three subjects, as for the doctor's degree. In all cases, 
however, under both systems alike, the time spent in resi- 
dence for the master's degree may count towards the doctor- 
ate. The minimum term of residence is everywhere a year, 



295J THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 45 

except that the University of Michigan is satisfied with six 
months from its own graduates. Clark university and Johns 
Hopkins do not grant the master's degree separately from 
the doctorate ; at Bryn Mawr it may be given separately 
only to graduates of that college. 

The better and more logical plan seems to be the separa- 
tion of the master's degree in principle from the doctor's. 
While both go back to the same beginning, and when first 
bestowed in European universities meant about the same 
thing, their courses of development diverged, England hold- 
ing to the master of arts and Germany substituting for it 
the doctorate in philosophy, to correspond with that in law 
and medicine, and everywhere doing away with the bacca- 
laureate, except as transferred to the gymnasia and repre- 
sented by the testimonium maturitatis. It is interesting, 
and characteristic for the peculiar development of American 
educational forms, that the two divergent branches of the 
parent stem should have been brought together again in our 
universities. There will always be a considerable number 
of students who wish to continue their work beyond the 
bachelor's degree, but along the same lines, and do not care 
to enter upon the detailed research necessary for the doctor- 
ate. For these the master's degree, administered on the 
first plan, is most appropriate. Those, on the other hand, 
who seek the doctorate are mostly indifferent to the master's 
degree. 

The methods of study and instruction differ but slightly 
from those in vogue in the German university, and thus far 
have yielded excellent results. The differences are mainly 
such as result naturally from the greater burdening of the 
American professor with routine work, and from the varying 
conditions of previous training on the part of the students. 
In general, the "lecture," or frcicr Vortrag, is less common 
than in Germany, though gradually supplanting the recita- 
tion even in the upper classes of the college ; in the opinion 
of the present writer, the lecture is still far from receiving 
its due development among us. Its value in the exposition 



4 6 



THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 



[296 



of the fundamental principles of the various sciences is not 
yet everywhere fully recognized. " Seminar " methods are 
now very widely used even where the constitution of the 
class is much less restricted than in the German seminars. 
The American seminar is of course very variously adminis- 
tered, depending on the ability of those in charge and the 
preparation of the students. The professors, so far as their 
other prescribed tasks allow, set the example of individual 
scientific research. It cannot yet be said, however, that this 
is made easy for the American professor. 

An interesting chapter in the history of American educa- 
tion, and unfortunately one that cannot yet be brought to a 
close, concerns the fight made against the outrageous prac- 
tice of awarding the doctorate in philosophy as an honor- 
ary degree. Awarded first by Yale in i860 as strictly a 
specialist's degree, it has been jealously guarded by the 
more reputable institutions, while the less scrupulous col- 
leges seized upon it with avidity as a new advertisement for 
themselves. Several learned societies, following the lead 
taken by the American philological association in 1881, set 
themselves vigorously against the abuse, and in 1896 a con- 
vention of graduate students held at Baltimore strongly 
condemned the practice. The sentiment of the enlightened 
public is gradually being brought to condemn the custom, 
though the rate of progress surfers considerable variation 
from year to year. The following table shows the figures 
for certain years : 



NO. OF PH. D. DEGREES 

GRANTED IN UNITED 

STATES 


1873 


1S84 


1889 


1894 


1895 


1896 


1897 


1898 




25 
68$ 


23 

36 

128$ 


121 

41% 


233 
33 


234 
34 

15* 


239 

27 

91-2$ 


227 
30 


3°4 




15 


Ratio of honorary Ph. D. to 
Ph. D. on examination... 


5% 



With the equipment of laboratories, museums and libra- 
ries, indispensable for research, the American universities 



297] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 47 

are now fairly well, and some of them abundantly, provided. 
Many of the laboratories are the gift of private individuals ; 
sometimes the buildings only have been thus provided, 
sometimes the equipment only, sometimes both. The insti- 
tutions situated in or near large cities have in addition the 
advantage of the public museums and libraries ; thus, to 
mention but a few instances, Harvard is within easy reach 
of the Boston museum of fine arts and the Boston public 
library, besides having under her own control several excel- 
lent museums ; Columbia is close to the Metropolitan 
museum of art, the American museum of natural history, 
and others ; the Johns Hopkins students can easily reach the 
great national collections at Washington, and so on. The 
western universities are not as yet so highly favored in this 
respect. 

The growth of the university and college libraries in the 
United States is hardly less than phenomenal. The largest 
are the following : Harvard, 524,000 vols.; Chicago, 309,000 ; 
Yale, 290,000; Columbia, 260,000 ; Cornell, 211,000; Penn- 
sylvania, 160,000. It must be said, however, that the excel- 
lence of the library is not always indicated by its size. The 
liberal and practical spirit in which American university 
libraries are administered is very striking ; of the cumber- 
some methods and vexatious restrictions so common in 
European libraries little is to be found. 

V PUBLICATIONS OF AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES 

From a number of the universities of the United States 
issue serial publications of a scientific character, and occa- 
sional learned works, written or edited by professors and 
advanced students of those institutions. Some of the uni- 
versities issue these at their own expense, the entire publi- 
cation being under the immediate control and direction of 
the institution, as at Chicago, others through arrangements 
made with publishing houses. The following list of the 
chief publications of six of the leading universities will afford 
an idea of the activity prevailing in this field : 



48 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [298 

I Harvard university — Some departments of study issue 
periodicals or yearly volumes, embodying the work of 
instructors and students at the university. Such are : 

Harvard Oriental Series. Vols. I-V. 

Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. Yearly. Vols. I-X. 

Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature. Yearly. Vols. 
I-VII. 

Harvard Historical Studies. Vols. I-VII. 

Quarterly Journal of Economics; now in thirteenth year. 

Annals of the Observatory of Harvard College. Vols. I-XXXVI. 

Contributions from the Cryptogamic Laboratory. Nos. 1-40. 

Publications of the Museum of Comparative Zoology : Bulletins, 
vols. I-XXXII ; Memoirs, vols. I-XXII. 

Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory. Nos. 1-86. 

Publications of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology 
and Ethnology: Reports, Nos. 1-3 1 ; Papers, Nos. 1-6; Memoirs, 
Nos. 1-5. 

2 Johns Hopkins university — The Johns Hopkins press 
issues the following, edited by professors of the university : 

American Journal of Mathematics. Quarterly. Vols. I-XXI. 
American Chemical Journal. Monthly. Vols. I-XXI. 
American Journal of Philology. Quarterly. Vols. I-XX. 
Studies from the Biological Laboratory. 

Studies in History and Politics. Monthly. Vols. I-X VII ; also 
eighteen extra volumes. 

Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports. Vols. I-VII. 

Contributions to Assyriology, etc. Vols. I-IV. 

Memoirs from the Biological Laboratory. Vols. I-IV. 

Modern Language Notes. Monthly. Vols. I-XIV. 

Journal of Experimental Medicine. Bi-monthly. Vols. I-IV. 

American Journal of Insanity. Quarterly. 

Reports of the Maryland Geological Survey. 

3 University of Pennsylvania — The following are issued 
under the editorial supervision of the university publications 
committee. They are issued for the most part at irregular 
intervals. 

Series in Philology, Literature and Archaeology. 

Series in Philosophy. 

Series in Political Economy and Public Law. 



299] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 49 

Series in Botany. 
Series in Zoology. 
Series in Mathematics. 
Series in Hygiene. 
Series in Astronomy. 

The museums of archaeology and palaeontology also pub- 
lish occasional reports. 

4 Columbia university — The Columbia university press 
is a private corporation, the trustees of which must be mem- 
bers of the teaching staff, and its presiding officer the presi- 
dent of the university. Up to the present time it has issued 
sixteen volumes, mostly by present or former members of 
the university. 

From the university issue the following series of studies 
and contributions, some few of them through regular pub- 
lishing channels : 

Biological Contributions from C. U. 

C. U. Contributions to Philosophy, Psychology and Education. 

Contributions from the Electrical Engineering Department of 
C. U. 

Contributions from the Geological Department, the Herbarium, 
the Mineralogical Department, the Observatory. 

Memoirs from the Department of Botany. 

Studies from the Analytical and Assay Laboratories, the Depart- 
ment of Pathology. 

Studies in History, Economics and Public Law. 

The following journals are issued under the direction of 
members of the faculty : 

Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 
Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 
Educational Review. 
Political Science Quarterly. 
School of Mines Quarterly. 

5 University of Wisconsin — The university issues four 
series of publications, known as the Bulletins of the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin, under the direction of a committee 
consisting of the president and several professors. 



5P THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [300 

Series in Economics, Political Science and History. Vols. I 
and 2. 

Series in Science. Vols. 1 and 2. 

Series in Language and Literature. Vol. I. 

Series in Engineering. Vols. 1 and 2. 

6 University of Chicago — The University press forms one 
of five divisions in the constitution of the university, and is 
managed by a director appointed by the trustees. The 
department of publication, one of its parts, issues the fol- 
lowing journals, edited by professors of the university : 

Journal of Political Economy. Quarterly. 
Journal of Geology. Bi-monthly. 
Astrophysical Journal. Ten nos. a year. 
American Journal of Sociology. Bi-monthly. 
Biblical World. Monthly. 

American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature (con- 
tinuation of: Hebraica). Quarterly. 
Botanical Gazette. Monthly. 
School Review, Ten nos. a year. 
American Journal of Theology. Quarterly. 

Several series of " Studies " have also appeared. These are : 

Contributions to Philosophy. I-IV. 
Economic Studies. I-IV. 
Studies in Political Science. I — III. 
Studies in Classical Philology. I-V, 
Germanic Studies. I— III. 
English Studies. I. 
Physiological Archives. I. 
Anthropological Bulletins. I, II. 

The press also issues from time to time books, particu- 
larly those of scientific value. 

VI FELLOWSHIPS AND SCHOLARSHIPS. GIFTS AND ENDOW- 
MENTS FOR UNIVERSITIES, PARTICULARLY FOR RESEARCH 

The generosity of private individuals towards education, 
which in its largest form has made possible the foundation 
of such institutions as Johns Hopkins, Cornell and Chicago, 
manifests itself likewise in the humbler guise of gifts and 



3<Dl] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 5 1 

endowments for special purposes, in the establishment of 
museums and laboratories, of funds for the maintenance of 
these or of libraries, in the foundation of scholarships and 
fellowships intended to aid students of high promise in the 
prosecution of their studies, or to reward those who have 
shown conspicuous merit. In general, it may be said that 
the specifically college part of an institution fares much bet- 
ter than the university or graduate part in these respects. 
The reasons are not far to seek. Prizes naturally appeal 
more to the younger students, and are more easily awarded 
in connection with the definitely arranged work of under- 
graduate courses ; it is harder for undergraduates to support 
themselves by giving private instruction, and in other ways, 
than for graduate students ; the need of " dormitories " or 
residence halls, which few colleges can afford to erect from, 
their own funds, is more pressing for undergraduates ; and, 
finally, of the college-trained men, from whom the larger 
number of endowments come (though to this there are many 
striking exceptions), not a very large proportion have had 
actual experience of graduate work, and do not so readily 
recognize the importance of it, and their loyalty to their almce 
matres is accordingly concentrated chiefly upon the collegi- 
ate rather than the university part, where the latter exists. 
Scholarships and fellowships are much more bountifully 
supplied, for graduates as well as undergraduates, in the 
universities of private foundation than in the state universi- 
ties. In the latter tuition is either free or considerably 
cheaper than in the former, and the need for aid to the stu- 
dent correspondingly less. Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cor- 
nell, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Johns Hopkins, Bryn Mawr, 
and Chicago are particularly well supplied in this respect ; 
Chicago has nearly eighty fellowships to award each year, 
Columbia and Pennsylvania each over thirty. The amount 
paid by a fellowship to the holder varies from $120 (as some 
at Chicago) to $800 ; the most usual figure is about $500. 
The value of a fellowship may, however, be decreased by 
the requirement, made at some universities, that all tuition 



52 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [3O 2 

fees must be paid by the holders ; Columbia is perhaps the 
most liberal in exempting the holders of fellowships from 
such payments. In some universities certain duties in the 
way of instruction, etc., are expected of the fellows. 

The differences between scholarships and fellowships are 
in general briefly these : The fellowships are awarded only 
to graduates ; a scholarship may be for graduates or for 
undergraduates ; the scholarships are awarded generally for 
a single year only, and without possibility of renewal, while 
some fellowships run for several years, and the annual ones 
may be reassigned once or twice to the same person. 

The fellowship system was first extensively used by Johns 
Hopkins, and has rapidly become a striking feature of Ameri- 
can university organization. The object sought has been in 
most cases completely attained, viz., to bring together a body 
of picked men or women, who display high ability and good 
previous training for the work of research, and spare them 
the necessity, so trying to earnest students, of earning their 
living while carrying on their advanced studies. Some few 
of the fellowships are so organized as to permit part or the 
whole of the time over which they extend to be spent in study 
abroad ; Bryn Mawr in particular offers three European fel- 
lowships, and for 1898-9 Harvard made twelve appointments 
to non-resident fellowships. 

Some of these fellowships are paid out of the general funds 
of the university awarding them ; others are maintained by 
the proceeds of private gifts and endowments. At some 
institutions the fellowships are assigned permanently to cer- 
tain departments ; at others the majority of them are given 
to the most promising candidates, little regard being had to 
an even distribution among departments. The fellowships 
and scholarships founded by individuals are generally 
attached to some one department. Among the notable 
benefactions of this sort are : At Harvard, the Kirkland 
fellowship, founded by Bancroft in 1871 ; the Walker fel- 
lowship (1881), generally given to a student of ethics and 
philosophy; the John Tyndall fellowship (1885), in physics; 



303I THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 53 

the Robert Treat Paine fellowship of social science (1887); 
the Hemenway fellowship of American archaeology and 
ethnology (1891). At Columbia, the Tyndall fellowship, 
similar to that at Harvard, both of them, with others else- 
where, having been founded by Professor Tyndall ; the 
Barnard fellowship, in physical science, established by will 
of the late President Barnard ; the Henry Drisler fellow- 
ship in classical philology ; the Mosenthal fellowship in 
music ; the Schiff fellowship in political science. The Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania possesses a permanent fund of 
$500,000, the gift of Provost Harrison, the income of which 
is partly applied to nineteen fellowships, fourteen of which 
are permanently assigned to particular departments. This 
fund also supplies five remarkable senior fellowships, yield- 
ing $800 a year each, open only to doctors of philosophy of 
the university. Johns Hopkins awards the Bruce fellowship 
in biological science. Cornell offers, among others, two 
President White fellowships, one in modern history and one 
in political and social science, and three Susan Linn Sage 
fellowships in philosophy. 

Several fellowships at the American schools of classical 
studies at Athens and in Rome are also offered to graduates 
of American universities ; of these the Hoppin fellowship at 
Athens, and the fellowship in Christian archaeology at the 
school in Rome, are private foundations. 

There is, perhaps, no prominent institution in the United 
States devoted to the higher education which does not pos- 
sess some practical demonstration of the determination of 
individuals to further the work, not only of instruction, but 
of research as well. The greater gifts result in museums, 
laboratories or libraries ; such are the Semitic museum and 
the Fogg art museum at Cambridge, the Avery architectural 
library at Columbia, the White historical library at Cornell, 
and many more. The magnificent library building at Colum- 
bia is the gift of her president ; a great fund, presented by 
the Due de Loubat, will one day become available as a 
library fund at Columbia ; the generosity of several gradu- 



54 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [304 

ates of Yale brought to her the admirable classical library 
of Ernst Curtius, as the historical library of Bluntschli was 
brought to Baltimore ; in Messrs. Stanford and Rockefeller 
and Mrs. Hearst the Leland Stanford, Jr., university, the 
University of Chicago and the University of California 
have found more than princely benefactors ; the gifts of the 
patrons of Princeton, Cornell, Chicago are almost without 
number. In the Drisler classical fund Columbia possesses 
a means of supply for the purchase of books and illustra- 
tions, such as casts and photographs, for the better prosecu- 
tion of the work in Latin and Greek. The Harvard astro- 
nomical observatory, among many splendid gifts, received 
in 1885 one of more than a quarter of a million dollars, the 
entire fortune of the late Robert Treat Paine, for purposes 
of astronomical research. Owing to the comparative lack 
of great fortunes in the southern states, the universities there 
have not fared so well ; but the spirit is abroad there too, and 
the constant increase of wealth in those states is certain to be 
followed by the liberal extension of aid to the universities. 
A very remarkable and encouraging feature of the gener- 
osity manifested in the United States towards institutions of 
learning is the fact that so many of the gifts, among them 
several of the largest, have come from men who had not 
enjoyed collegiate education. A case in point is the munifi- 
cence of Mr. Fayerweather, a merchant of New York, who 
bequeathed in 1891 more than four millions of dollars to 
various colleges and universities, wisely refraining from 
adding, as many public spirited men of less judgment have 
done, to the superfluity of institutions already existing, and 
with equal wisdom leaving to the recipients of the funds the 
determination of the purposes for which the funds should, be 
used. It is truly encouraging for the future of education in 
America that so many of her millionaires are willing to give 
freely of the fortunes that they have accumulated, and that 
those who give the most should set the example of entrust- 
ing the application of the funds to those who best under- 
stand the needs to be met. 



305] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 55 



VII SOME PRESENT UNIVERSITY PROBLEMS 

Da muss sick manches R'dtsel losen, 
Dock manches Ratsel knilpft sich auch. 

— Faust. 

When the problems of education are all solved, educa- 
tion itself will be dead, and the need of it greater than 
ever. The entire range of education in the United States 
has been in a state of rapid transition for many years 
already, and nowhere have the changes been more constant 
than in the domain of college and university education. 
From the establishment of graduate courses at Yale in 1847 
until the present day, probably no year has passed without 
seeing some new experiment tried, some old institution reor- 
ganized or new one founded. If the new institutions have 
often shown too little willingness to profit by the experience 
of others, or to adopt the ways and means of other lands, it 
must be remembered that the educational problem has been 
but one of many with which the leaders of thought in this 
country have been confronted, and that in the attempt to 
conform institutions to the spirit of the country it has been 
necessary first to discover, often at great pains and heavy 
cost to the experimenter, what that spirit was. 

Naturally the most important question has been and still 
is that of organization. It has doubtless become apparent 
from the foregoing description that no two universities are 
just alike, and that the differences do not by any means con- 
cern unimportant points. Every possible variety of organic 
zation and administration seems to the observer — especially 
the foreign observer — to have been tried, except that of a 
consistent and rigid adherence to forms sanctioned by cen- 
turies of permanence in Europe. 

The vacillation has come from uncertainty as to the true 
purposes of the university. In Europe these purposes were 
long ago settled : the university exists to train servants of 
the state, or, as prevailing in England, to train up a race of 
gentlemen who shall never forget the obligations of their 



56 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [306 

caste. It is the glory of Germany that she has seen more 
clearly than other nations how truly the highest scientific 
training is none too good for her public servants. 

The wholly different conditions prevailing in the United 
States have been reflected in the organization of our univer- 
sities and colleges. There is no state religion, and the 
national constitution forbids the patronage or proscription of 
any sect ; consequently the theological faculty, originally the 
most important in the universities of western and northern 
Europe, found no state recognition. The practice of the law 
was subject to few restrictions, and indeed in at least one 
state is still open to every citizen of mature age, so that the 
schools of law, when they began at all, grew up mostly on a 
basis of private organization, with purely practical training 
as their object, and often underbid one another in their 
eagerness for students. With such exceptions as the nature 
of the profession brings with it, the regulation of the study 
and practice of medicine went the same course, proprietary 
schools being the most frequent form of organization for 
instruction in the healing art. As for the faculty of arts or 
philosophy, which, originally preparatory for one of the 
others, had in Germany been put on a par with them and 
made the doorway to the new profession of teaching in the 
state schools, its ground was partially covered by the cur- 
ricula of the best colleges. The character of these colleges 
however resembled more nearly that of the German philo- 
sophical faculty of two centuries ago. The state systems of 
education did not at first include more than elementary 
schools, so that there was no great incentive for prescribing 
a college course for those persons who wished to teach in 
them ; nor would such a regulation have been popular in 
intensely democratic communities, or, in the poverty of 
many of the states, easily possible of fulfillment. Under 
these circumstances the European conception of a univer- 
sity was lost ; and when it began to be regained, different 
systems, imperfect and incongruous it is true, but still in 
many ways useful, had grown up to fill the needs which are 



307] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 5/ 

supplied in Europe by the university. Other needs had 
made themselves felt in America even more keenly : the 
needs incident to the rapid settling and exploitation of a 
new country, where vast distances and a phenomenal growth 
of population made imperative some provision for training 
in the technical professions and mechanical arts. It is not 
strange, then, though it has been unfortunate for the country 
at large, that the last need to be recognized in education has 
been the need of thorough training in the humanities and in 
pure science, in what has been admirably well called 1 " dis- 
interested scientific thinking, as distinguished from tech- 
nical or commercial science." 

American educators, then, are not yet at one as regards 
the true function of the university. In general, two oppos- 
ing views are chiefly held. The purpose of the Leland 
Stanford, Jr., university is declared to be : To fit young 
persons for success in life. An admirable purpose, no doubt, 
but one which the university must share in common with 
many other institutions. Of a like breadth of conception is 
the avowed purpose of Ezra Cornell : I would found an 
institution where any person may find instruction in any 
study. The brilliant history of Cornell university is chiefly 
due to the wisdom of the men who have seen what limita- 
tions should be put upon this great plan. This view of the 
true function of a university is chiefly prevalent in the west ; 
one sometimes hears it said that the western universities 
exist solely for the sake of the students, while some of the 
eastern universities seem to think that the students exist 
-chiefly for the sake of the universities or of science at large. 
The universities of private foundation are proceeding more 
and more on the assumption that their function is to train, 
in their graduate departments or faculties of philosophy, 
specialists, as teachers, and to a less extent as investigators ; 
those which have raised some of their professional schools to 

1 By Professor West of Princeton, in the Educational Review for October, 1899. 
So too Professor Coulter {Ibid. IV [1892] 366 ff): " The university is in the largest 
sense a place for the emancipation of thought." 



58 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [308 

true university rank by refusing admission to all who have 
not received a non-professional degree aim not merely to 
instruct the future physicians and lawyers in the technique 
of their professions, but to give them true scientific insight 
and philosophic grasp. 

Until there is agreement as to the true function of a uni- 
versity, there cannot be agreement as to their organization 
and administration. Whoever holds to the Stanford idea 
will wish to see all departments of instruction put on pre- 
cisely the same plane ; whoever believes that scientific 
research is the highest and noblest aim of education will 
demand for the university an organization which shall 
emphasize this, leaving to other institutions the teaching 
which is entirely practical. 

As a whole, American universities seem to be trying to 
do too many things at once, generally with an altogether 
inadequate equipment of instructors, and with an insufficient 
endowment. Each university aims to cover the entire field 
of instruction ; the result is that the professors, who are, 
except in the professional faculties, almost always college 
instructors as well, are cruelly overburdened with teaching 
and administrative duties, with the inevitable result that few 
of them can carry on much research. The organization of 
most of our universities is too complicated. Many profes- 
sors have to attend two, three, or even four faculty meetings 
each month, and serve on committees without number ; some 
of them are even expected to do purely clerical work. 

Perhaps the most important of American university prob- 
lems at present, as bearing directly upon the necessary organi- 
zation and determining it, is the relation of university or 
graduate work to undergraduate work and to professional 
training. 

With the very liberal regulation, often lack of regulation, 
exercised by the state governments over the practice of the 
professions of law and medicine, the number of practition- 
ers has inevitably become excessively great. The need of 
stricter control has been seen, and many states have increased 



309] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 59 

the requirements for admission to practice. That any of the 
states will require a complete collegiate education as a pre- 
liminary to admission to practice is a very remote possibility. 
It rests with the universities to raise the plane of their pro- 
fessional schools so that only the fittest will survive. Experi- 
ence has shown that raising the standard of an institution is 
surely followed in a few years by an increase in numbers as 
well as in the quality of students entering. A beginning 
has already been made, as indicated above, for the profes- 
sional schools of law and medicine. As for the technical 
schools, most of them, whether connected with the universi- 
ties or not, have been too ready to admit students on very 
slight requirements. Perhaps in time the best of these will 
see that a good preliminary training ought to be demanded 
of their students, and so put themselves also on a university 
level. 

Enough has been said, it is hoped, to show that there is 
little chance of re-establishing in any American university 
the traditional four faculties, unaccompanied by any other 
departments of instruction. If means were abundant, it 
would perhaps be advisable to separate entirely from the 
universities the technical schools, except such as should be 
willing to demand a preliminary degree for admission and 
to develop more fully the theoretical and research side of 
their teaching. At present undue prominence is given to 
the technical schools in many institutions, largely because 
they are the best paying parts, and the tone of the whole 
institution, as an organization that should exist as largely 
for the advancement of research as for any other cause, is 
distinctly lowered thereby. 

The graduate school, or faculty of philosophy, bears closer 
relations with the collegiate course than can be borne by 
any professional faculty. The overburdening of professors 
alluded to above might be remedied by the appointment, 
where endowments would allow, of professors exclusively 
for graduate work on the lines of the faculty of philosophy, 
who should be able to engage in extended research work 



60 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [3IO 

with advanced students. Hitherto no institution has been 
in a position to do this in any large degree. Nor has it 
been possible to try on a really instructive scale the experi- 
ment of a university without college or technical schools. 
Whether such a university could properly maintain a faculty 
of theology, it is hard to say. The Union theological semi- 
nary in New York, while under Presbyterian management, 
is in many respects a real university faculty, and the same 
may be said of some few others. The relations between 
Columbia and the Union seminary have become close, with 
the good result that many students of the latter attend 
courses at Columbia under the faculties of political science 
and philosophy, and are eligible for Columbia degrees. 

Concerning the precise relation to be borne by the gradu- 
ate work to that of the college, no general agreement has 
yet been reached. Even where the two are carefully sepa- 
rated, no such great dissimilarity in methods exists as pre- 
vails in Germany between the gymnasium and the university. 
Where, as at Harvard, the lines of demarcation are partly 
obliterated, the change from one method to another is very 
gradual. Johns Hopkins aims above all at producing spe- 
cialists, and even her college courses are largely shaped to 
this end. The results certainly justify her policy. 

The preparation which the candidates for admission to the 
graduate schools bring with them is naturally very varied. 
For many kinds of advanced work, the general training 
given in the college is not enough ; so that the student, in 
order not to lose much valuable time afterward, has to begin 
his special studies before receiving his first degree. This is 
encouraged by the system in vogue at Columbia, especially 
in the case of students looking forward to medicine or the 
law. A tendency to over-early specialization is showing 
itself in many places ; the students are naturally anxious to 
begin the active duties of life as soon as possible, and are 
unwilling to postpone the acquirement of the professional 
degree until the 25th or 26th year of their age. A remedy 
for this has been sought in several directions, but none of 



3Il] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 6l 

the plans tried has been successful enough to prevail over 
the others. The trouble seems to lie largely in the loss of 
time during the earlier school years. The pupils are not 
taken in hand early enough, nor do they receive severe 
enough training. With the improvement in organization 
and methods which is everywhere noticeable, it ought to be 
possible after a few years to send young men and women to 
college at sixteen as well prepared as they are now at seven- 
teen or eighteen. With this done, the college course might 
well be shortened to three years. 

It may be asked, what of the Lehrfreiheit and Lern- 
freiheit, the freedom for teacher and learner, as they are 
claimed for the universities of Germany, in those of Amer- 
ica ? As for the first, the American university professor has 
little cause for complaint ; whatever may have been the case 
twenty-five years ago, he may now teach what he likes nearly 
everywhere, though now and then the regents of a state uni- 
versity, or the religious body controlling a divinity school, 
raise noisy protest. In one respect there is yet much room 
for improvement : as yet no serious effort has been made to 
introduce one of the most valuable features of the German 
university system, the system of Privatdozenten. It is not 
yet possible, any more than it was for Bancroft in 182 1, for a 
young man of ability to secure the right of lecturing at a 
university by merely proving that he is competent to do it. 
The introduction of this custom has been several times 
attempted, but so far with quite insignificant results. 

As for the Lernfreiheit, that too has become naturalized 
among us ; even the undergraduate enjoys a large measure 
of it, largest in those colleges where the elective system has 
taken firm root. One development of it, the migration of 
students from one university to another without loss of 
standing, is still unsatisfactory. The custom is highly 
desirable, and is steadily gaining ground in America; it is 
much commoner from the colleges to the purely profes- 
sional schools, students of law and medicine naturally seek- 
ing the large cities ; the chief obstacles to its adoption are 



62 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [3 1 2 

the differences between the various universities in the mat- 
ter of organization and of requirements for degrees, and the 
close connection between college and university which lead 
the college graduate in many instances to remain for gradu- 
ate work where he has taken his bachelor's degree, out of 
pure attachment to his alma mater. According to a writer 
in the Educational Review, 1 in 1892-3 at Harvard 119 out 
of 206 graduate students, or nearly 58 per cent, had received 
degrees at other institutions; at Johns Hopkins 201 out of 
270, or 74 per cent ; at Yale 59 out of 125, or 47 per cent ; 
at Cornell 119 out of 182, or 65 per cent; at Columbia 
(faculties of philosophy and political science) 109 out of 
212, or 51 per cent; total of these five, 607 out of 995, or 
61 per cent. In 1898-9, however, of the graduate students 
registered in the graduate school at Harvard, only 39 per 
cent had received their degrees elsewhere ; at Yale only 43 
per cent. 

It is interesting to observe how rapidly the spirit of inde- 
pendence with responsibility is developing among the gradu- 
ate students. At twenty-two or more institutions which 
maintain graduate schools the students in these have formed 
themselves into associations for the furtherance of their 
mutual interests, and these clubs have formed a national 
federation which holds annual meetings, where papers are 
read, and questions affecting the whole range of graduate 
work are discussed. The interest shown in these proceed- 
ings, and the intelligent spirit in which many important ques- 
tions are approached, make these associations into a most 
valuable adjunct to the work of the graduate schools. At 
the fourth annual convention, held at Cambridge, Mass., in 
December, 1898, addresses were delivered by President Eliot 
and Professor J. W. White, of Harvard, and papers were 
read, followed by animated discussion, on the following top- 
ics : The migration of students ; the regulations concerning 
major and minor subjects ; specialized scholarship vs. prepa- 
ration for teaching, as a basis for graduate study ; the mas- 

1 Gross, Chas., E. R. VII, 26 ff. 



313] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 63 

ter's degree ; graduate studies in European universities ; the 
regulation of graduate to undergraduate courses. The fed- 
eration of graduate clubs also carries on a determined oppo- 
sition to the practice of conferring the Ph. D. honoris causa. 
A project vigorously advocated by many eminent Ameri- 
can educators is the foundation of a national university for 
the United States, to be situated at Washington, to be con- 
trolled by a board of regents under the chairmanship of the 
president of the United States, and' to be constituted on the 
true university basis of admitting to any of its schools only 
those who have received the preliminary training shown by 
the possession of a bachelor's degree. The plan is an allur- 
ing one from some points of view. The chief difficulty 
would seem to be in the matter of endowment. To add 
another institution of learning- to those that swarm in the 
United States, unless the new comer should at once outrank 
them all in the magnitude and completeness of its equip- 
ment, and unless its rise should imply the setting of a num- 
ber of the minor lights, would be a very doubtful service to 
the cause of university education. So far no endowments at 
all comparable with those of half-a-dozen of the universities 
already existing have appeared ; and it is extremely doubtful 
whether congress could be depended upon to give the insti- 
tution the thoroughly adequate support without which it 
must remain at best one additional " torso of a university." 

Note: Since the above lines were written, a large and representative committee 
appointed by the National Educational Association to consider the question has 
reported against the establishment of such a national university. 



64 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [3H 

APPENDIX A 

Some statistics of graduate schools in the United States 

The peculiarly complicated and varying organization of 
the American college-university makes it impracticable to 
draw up satisfactory tables of statistics on such simple lines 
as would suffice if the universities of Germany, for instance, 
were to be thus treated. Only such figures are given here 
as suffice to show the rapid increase in the numbers of 
graduate, non-professional students during the last twenty- 
eight years, and the attendance at the best known institu- 
tions in 1898-99 : 

I 

Number of graduate students {excluding professional schools) 1871-87 



1871-72 198 

1874-75 ••••• 369 

1877-78 4H 



1880-81 460 

1883-84 778 

1886-87 I 237 



II 

Attendance of graduate students {exclusive of professional schools) 

1889-97 

1889-90 1 998 graduate students at 1 14 institutions. 

1891-92.. 2900 " " " 121 

1893-94 3026 " " " 135 

1895-96 , 3756 " " " 122 

1896-97 4 392 " " " 146 

Note: It should be. borne in mind that (except for 1889-90) no account is here 
taken of non-resident graduate students, and that an overwhelming majority of 
graduate students is to be found in attendance at the 23 institutions mentioned in 
Table III. A very great number of institutions report less than half-a-dozen 
graduate students. 



3!5] 



THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 



65 



III 

Statistics of the 23 most prominent institutions reporting graduate 

students, i8g8-g 1 



1. Brown university 

2. Bryn Mawr college 

3. University of California 

4. University of Chicago 

5. Clark university. . , 

6. Columbia university (including Barnard 

college) 

7. Columbian university (Washington, 

D. C) 

8. Cornell university 

9. Harvard university 



10. Johns Hopkins university. 



Leland Stanford, Jr., university 

University of Michigan 

University of Minnesota 

University of Missouri 

New York university. 

University of Pennsylvania 

Princeton university 

Radcliffe college (closely connected with 

Harvard) 

Vanderbilt university 

Wellesley college 



21. Western Reserve university. 

22. University of Wisconsin.... 

23. Yale university 



36 

25 

40 

130 

10 



95 



26 

328 9 
130 



64 

32 
45 
35 
18 

27 
55 
37 

57 

4 

47 



31 

47 

112 



Graduate stu- 
dents (exclud- 
ing profes- 
sional schools) 





c 

V 

s 




30 




39 
61 


IOI 

58i 


90 
276 


48 





260 


82 


59 


9 


IOC. 11 


33 2 


329 





210 





58 


39 


49 


17 


104 

18 


52 
7 


124 


35 


124 


34 


128 


•o 



3i 


58 
6 





27 


16 


12 


102 


26 


241 


42 



69 

61 
191 

857 



342 

68 
142 s 
329 



210 

97 

66 

156 

25 
159 
158 
128 

58 
37 
27 



28 
128 
283 



Remarks 



Women only 

Includ'g sum- 
mer quarter 

W omen not 
admitted 

Women ad- 
mitted thro' 
Barnard 



Women ad- 
mitted to 
some cour- 
ses and only 
thro' Rad- 
cliffe; d e- 
gree of A. 
M. given by 
Radcliffe , 
Ph. D., not 
given to 
women 

Women not 
admitted 



Women not 

admitted 
Women only 

Women only; 
Ph. D. not 
given 



'The figures are taken (except for Cornell) from the "Graduate Handbook" 
for 1899. 

2 Including professional schools. 



66 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [316 

APPENDIX B 

Brief bibliography 

The chief source of information concerning all educational 
matters in the United States is the admirable series of reports 
of the commissioner of education, issued from the United 
States bureau of education, Washington, D. C. These are 
issued for each academic year (z. e., September-June), gen- 
erally within two years after the close of the academic year 
for which the report is drawn up. The last issued to date 
(October, 1899) is the report for 1896-7. These contain 
not only exhaustive statistics, but also reviews of the educa- 
tional progress of the year, and valuable articles by various 
writers on educational questions at home and abroad. 

Of accounts of the American system of higher education 
the following may be reported here : 

Compayre, G. L'enseignement superieur aux Etats-Unis. Paris, 
1896. (Rapports de la delegation envoyee a 1' Exposition Col- 
ombienne de Chicago. 1893, Ire partie.) 

de Coubertin, Pierre. Universites Transatlantiques. Paris, 1890. 
(Largely impressions de voyage?) 

Zimmermann, Athanasius, S. J. Die Universit'aten in den Ver- 
einigten Staaten Amerikas. Ein Beitrag zur Culturgeschichte. 
Freiburg, Baden, 1896. (Erganzungshefte zu den " Stimmen aus 
Maria Laach." No. 68, XVII. Erganzungsband.) An excellent 
account in brief compass, with a selected bibliography. 

Bryce, James. The American Commonwealth. N. Y. Vol. II. 

Schoenfeld, H. Amerikanische Staatsuniversitaten. Article in 
the Padagogisches Archiv, Vol. XXXVIII (1896). 

Report of Commissioner of Education. 1889-90, vol. II, p. 783 ff. 
(On organization of the state universities.) 

Thwing, C. F. The American College in American Life. 
Tappan, H. P. University Education. N. Y., 185 1. 

Burgess, J. W. The American University : When shall it be? 
Where shall it be? What shall it be? Boston, 1884. 

Haven, E. O. Universities in America. Ann Arbor, 1863. 



317] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 67 

Johnston, W. P. Work of the University in America. Address 

before the South Carolina college. Columbia, S. C, 1884. 
Butler, N. M. Introduction to Paulsen's German Universities, 

Engl, translation. N. Y., 1895. 
Howard, G. E. Evolution of the University. Lincoln, Nebraska, 

1890. 
The American University and the American Man. Palo 

Alto, Cal., 1893. 
Eliot, C. W. Educational Reform. Essays and addresses. N. Y., 

1898. 
Ladd, G. T. Essays on the Higher Education. N. Y., 1899. 

For the history and development of the individual univer- 
sities the "annual catalogues" or "registers" published by 
the institutions themselves often give valuable material. In 
some of the universities it is the custom to publish the 
" annual reports " of the president or chancellor ; these are 
of great importance for an understanding of the policy of 
the university in question. Harvard, Columbia, Johns 
Hopkins and others publish such reports — an example 
worthy of imitation by every large institution of learning. 

The Federation of graduate clubs has published several 
small volumes of great interest. These at first gave merely 
the courses offered to graduate students at the most promi- 
nent institutions; but the Graduate handbook for 1899 
(printed for the federation by Lippincott, 1899 — unfortu- 
nately not in the market) contains the proceedings of the 
meeting at Cambridge alluded to on p. 62. 

In the successive volumes of the Educational review (N. 

Y., 1 89 1 ) will be found many valuable articles on a wide 

range of topics connected with American university educa- 
tion, e. g. : Davis, H., Limitations of state universities, I, 
426 ff. Butler, N. M., On permitting students to take studies 
in professional schools while pursuing a regular undergradu- 
ate course, III, 54 ff. Jordan, D. S., The policy of the Stan- 
ford university, IV, 1 ff ; The educational ideas of Leland 
Stanford, VI, 136 ff. Hyde, W. D., Organization of Ameri- 
can education, IV, 209 ff. Coulter, J. M., The university 



68 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [3 I 8 

spirit, IV, 366 ff. Low, Seth, Higher education in the U. 
S., V, 1 ff. von Hoist, H. E., The need of universities in the 
U. S. (the famous Chicago address), V, 105 ff. Gross, Chas., 
Colleges and universities in the U. S., VII, 26 ff. Santa- 
yana, G., Spirit and ideals of Harvard univ., VII, 313 ff. 
Taylor, J. M., Graduate work in the college, VII, 62 ff. 
Hinsdale, B. A., Spirit and ideals of the University of 
Michigan, XI, 356 ff., 476 ff. Baird, W., The University of 
Virginia, XII, 417 ff. Draper, A. S., State universities of 
the middle west, XI, 313 ff. Edgren, H., American gradu- 
ate schools, XV, 285. Anon., The status of the American 
professor, XVI, 417 ff. In vol. XVI, pp. 503 ff., is repro- 
duced an interesting article published in the London Spec- 
tator of Feb. 12, 1898, entitled, What is a university? 



7 

EDUCATION OF WOMEN 



BY 

M. CAREY THOMAS 

President of Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania 



EDUCATION OF WOMEN 



The higher education of women in America is taking place 
before our eyes on a vast scale and in a variety of ways. 
Every phase of this great experiment, if experiment we choose 
to call it, may be studied almost simultaneously. Women 
are taking advantage of all the various kinds of education 
offered them in great and ever-increasing numbers, and the 
period of thirty years, or thereabouts, that has elapsed since 
the beginning of the movement is sufficient to authorize us 
in drawing certain definite conclusions. The higher educa- 
tion of women naturally divides itself into college educa- 
tion designed primarily to train the mental faculties by 
means of a liberal education, and only secondarily, to equip the 
student for self-support, and professional or special educa- 
tion, directed primarily toward one of the money-making 
occupations. 

COLLEGE EDUCATION 

Women's college education is carried on in three different 
classes of institutions : coeducational colleges, independent 
women's colleges and women's colleges connected more or 
less closely with some one of the colleges for men. 

i. Coeducation — Coeducation is the prevailing system of 
college education in the United States for both men and 
women. In the western states and territories it is almost 
the only system of education, and it is rapidly becoming the 
prevailing system in the south, where the influence of the 
state universities is predominant. On the other hand, in the 
New England and middle states the great majority of the 
youth of both sexes are still receiving a separate college 
education. Coeducation was introduced into colleges in 
the west as a logical consequence of the so-called Ameri- 
can system of free elementary and secondary schools. 
During the great school revival of 1830-45 and the ensu- 
ing years until the outbreak of the civil war in 1861, free 



4 EDUCATION OF WOMEN \j> 22 

elementary and secondary schools were established through- 
out New England and the middle states and such western 
states as existed in those days. It was a fortunate circum- 
stance for girls that the country was at that time sparsely 
settled ; in most neighborhoods it was so difficult to estab- 
lish and secure pupils for even one grammar school and one 
higfh school that girls were admitted from the first to both. 1 
In the reorganization of lower and higher education that took 
place between 1865 and 1870 this same system, bringing with 
it the complete coeducation of the sexes, was introduced 
throughout the south both for whites and negroes, and was 
extended to every part of the west. In no part of the 
country, except in a few large eastern cities, was any dis- 
tinction made in elementary or secondary education between 
boys and girls. 2 The second fortunate and in like manner 
almost accidental factor in the education of American 

1 That their admission was due in large part to the stress of circumstances is 
shown by the fact that in the very states in which these coeducational schools 
had been established there was manifested on other occasions a most illib- 
eral attitude toward girls' education. In the few cities of the Atlantic sea- 
board, where European conservatism was too strong to allow girls to be taught 
with boys in the new high schools, and where there were boys enough to fill the 
schools, girls had to wait much longer before their needs were provided 
for at all, and then most inadequately. In Boston, where the boys' and girls' 
high schools were separated, it was impossible until 1878 for a Boston girl to be 
prepared for college in a city high school, whereas, in the country towns of Massa- 
chusetts, where boys and girls were taught together in the high schools, the girl 
had had the same opportunities as the boy for twenty-five or thirty years. Indeed, 
it was not until 1852 that Boston girls obtained, and then only in connection with 
the normal school, a public high-school education of any kind whatsoever. In 
Philadelphia, where boys and girls are taught separately in the high schools, no 
girl could be prepared for college before 1893, neither Latin, French, nor German 
being taught in the girls' high school, whereas, for many years the boys' high school 
had prepared boys for college. In Baltimore the two girls' high schools are still, 
in 1900, unable to prepare girls for college, whereas the boys' high school has for 
years prepared boys to enter the Johns Hopkins university. The impossibility of 
preparing girls for college is only another way of stating that the instruction 
given is very imperfect. 

9 The magnitude of this fact will be apparent if we reflect that here for the first 
time the girls of a great nation, especially of the poorer classes, have from their 
earliest infancy to the age of eighteen or nineteen received the same education as 
the boys, and that the ladder leading, in Huxley's words, from the gutter to the 
university may be climbed as easily by a girl as by a boy. Although college edu- 
cation has affected as yet only a very few out of the great number of adult women 
in the United States, the free opportunities for secondary education have influenced 



323] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 5 

women was the occurrence of the civil war at the forma- 
tive period of the public schools, with the result of placing 
the elementary and secondary education of both boys and 
girls overwhelmingly in the hands of women teachers. 
In no other country of the world has this ever been the 
case, and its influence upon women's education has 
been very great. The five years of the civil war, which 
drained all the northern and western states of men, 
caused women teachers to be employed in the public 
and private schools in large numbers, and in the first 
reports of the national bureau of education, organized 
after the war, we see that there were already fewer men 
than women teaching in the public schools of the United 
States. This result proved not to be temporary, but per- 
manent, and from 1865 until the present time not only the 
elementary teaching of boys and girls but the secondary 
education of both has been increasingly in the hands of 
women. 1 When most of the state universities of the west 
were founded they were in reality scarcely more than second- 
ary schools supplemented, in most cases, by large prepara- 
tory departments. Girls were already being educated with 
boys in all the high schools of the west, and not to admit 
them to the state universities would have been to break with 

the whole American people for nearly two-thirds of a century. The men of the 
poorer classes have had, as a rule, mothers as well educated as their fathers, 
indeed, better educated ; to this, more than to any other single cause, I think, 
may be attributed what by other nations is regarded as the phenomenal indus- 
trial progress of the United States. Our commercial rivals could probably take 
no one step that would so tend to place them on a level with American competi- 
tion as to open to girls without distinction all their elementary and secondary 
schools for boys. In 1892, girls formed 55.9 per cent, and in 1898, 56.5 per cent of 
all pupils in the public and private secondary schoools of the United States. 

1 In 1870 women formed 59.0 per cent ; in 1880, 57.2 per cent ; in 1890, 65.5 per 
cent ; and in 1898, 67.8 per cent (in the North Atlantic Division 80.8 per cent) of 
all teachers in the public elementary and secondary schools of the United States 
(U. S. ed. rep. for 1897-98, pp. xiii, lxxv). It has been frequently remarked that 
the feminine pronouns "she" and "her" are instinctively used in America in 
common speech with reference to a teacher. Moreover more women than men 
are teaching in the public and private secondary schools of the United -States (in 
1898, women formed 53.8 per cent of the total number of secondary teachers, see 
U. S. ed. rep. for 1897-98, pp. 2053, 2069); whereas in all other countries the sec- 
ondary teaching of boys is wholly in the hands of men. 



6 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [3 2 4 

tradition. Women were also firmly established as teachers 
in the secondary schools and it was patent to all thoughtful 
men that they must be. given opportunities for higher edu- 
cation, if only for the sake of the secondary education of 
the boys of the country. 1 The development of women's 
education in the east has followed a different course because 
there were in the east no state universities, and the private 
colleges for men had been founded before women were suf- 
fered to become either pupils or teachers in schools. The 
admission of women to the existing eastern colleges was, 
therefore, as much an innovation as it would have been in 
Europe. The coeducation of men and women in colleges, 
and at the same time the college education of women, began 
in Ohio, the earliest settled of the western states. In 1833 
Oberlin collegiate institute (not chartered as a college until 
1850) was opened, admitting from the first both men and 
women. Oberlin was at that time, and is now, hampered 
by maintaining a secondary school as large as its college 
department, but it was the first institution for collegiate 
instruction in the United States where large numbers of 
men and women were educated together, and the uniformly 
favorable testimony of its faculty had great influence on 
the side of coeducation. In 1853 Antioch college, also in 
Ohio, was opened, and admitted from the beginning men 
and women on equal terms. Its first president, Horace 
Mann, was one of the most brilliant and energetic educa- 
tional leaders in the United States, and his ardent advocacy 
of coeducation, based on his own practical experience, had 
great weight with the public. 2 From this time on it became 
a custom, as state universities were opened in the far west, 
to admit women. Utah, opened in 1850, Iowa, opened in. 
1856, Washington, opened in 1862, Kansas, opened in 1866, 

1 In many cases in the west women made their way into the universities through 
the normal department of the university, being admitted to that first of all. The 
summer schools of western colleges, chiefly attended by teachers, among whom, 
women were in the majority, served also as an entering wedge. (See Woman's 
work in America, Holt & Co., 1891, pp. 71-75.) 

2 Antioch college opened, however, with only 8 students in its college depart- 
ment, all the rest, 142, belonging to its secondary school. 



325] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 7 

Minnesota, opened in 1868, and Nebraska, opened in 1871, 
were coeducational from the outset. Indiana, opened as 
early as 1820, admitted women in 1868. The state Univer- 
sity of Michigan was, at this time, the most important west- 
ern university, and the only western university well known 
in the east before the war. When, in 1870, it opened its 
doors to women, they were for the first time in America 
admitted to instruction of true college grade. The step 
was taken in response to public sentiment, as shown by 
two requests of the state legislature, against the will of 
the faculty as a whole. The example of the University 
of Michigan was quickly followed by all the other state uni- 
versities of the west. In the same year women were allowed 
to enter the state universities of Illinois and California; in 
1873 the only remaining state university closed to women, 
that of Ohio, admitted them. Wisconsin which, since i860, 
had given some instruction to women, became in 1874 unre- 
servedly coeducational. All the state universities of the 
west, organized since 1871, have admitted women from the 
first. In the twenty states which, for convenience, I shall 
classify as western, there are now twenty state universities 
open to women, and, in four territories, Arizona, Oklahoma, 
Indian and New Mexico, the one university of each territory 
is open to women. Of the eleven state universities of the 
southern states the two most western admitted women first, 
as was to be expected. Missouri became coeducational as 
early as 1870, and the University of Texas was opened in 
1883 as a coeducational institution. Mississippi admitted 
women in 1882, Kentucky in 1889, Alabama in 1893, South 
Carolina in 1894, North Carolina in 1897, but only to 
women prepared to enter the junior and senior years, West 
Virginia in 1897. 1 The state universities of Virginia, 
Georgia and Louisiana are still closed. The one state 
university existing outside the west and south, that of 
Maine, admitted women in 1872. 

1 In every case I give the date when full coeducation was introduced ; West Vir- 
ginia, for example, admitted women to limited privileges in 1889. 



8 EDUCATION OF WOMEN \_2> 2 & 

The greater part of the college education of the United 
States, however, is carried on in private, not in state univer- 
sities. In 1897 over 70 per cent of all the college students in 
the United States were studying in private colleges, so that 
for women's higher education their admission to private 
colleges is really a matter of much greater importance. 
The part taken by Cornell university in New York state 
in opening private colleges to women was as significant 
as the part taken by Michigan in opening state universities. 
Cornell is in a restricted sense a state university, inas- 
much as part of its endowment, like that of the state 
universities, is derived from state and national funds. Nev- 
ertheless, there is little reason to suppose that Cornell 
would have admitted women had it not been for the 
generosity of Henry W. Sage, who offered to build and 
endow a large hall of residence for women at Cornell 
university. After carefully investigating coeducation in 
all the institutions where it then existed, and especi- 
ally in Michigan, the trustees of the university admitted 
women in 1872. The example set by Cornell was fol- 
lowed very slowly by the other private colleges of the New 
England and middle states. For the next twenty years the 
colleges in this section of the United States admitting 
women might be counted on the fingers of one hand. In 
Massachusetts Boston university opened its department of 
arts in 1873, and admitted women to it from the first ~ 
but no college for men followed the example of Boston until 
1883, when the Massachusetts institute of technology, the 
most important technical and scientific school in the state, 
and one of the most important in the United States, admit- 
ted women. This school, like Cornell, is supported in part, 
from state and national funds. Very recently, in 1892, Tufts 
college was opened to women. In the west and south the 
case is different, and the list of private colleges that one 
after another have become coeducational is too long to be 
inserted here. Among new coeducational foundations the 
most important are, on the Pacific coast, the Leland Stan- 



32 7] 



I 20 western states and j territories 



STATES 



Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

North Dakota . . 
South Dakota... 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington 

Oregon 

California 

Indian Territory 
Oklahoma 



Total 
no. cols 



Men only 



3 R. C, i Luth., i P. E., Western reserve. 

2 R. C, i Luth., i Cong., Wabash college. 

5 R. C, i Ger. Ev., Illinois college. 

i R. C. 

i R. C, i Luth., i Dutch Reformed 

i R. C, i Luth. 

2 Luth. 



i R. C. (professional dept. open) 
2 R. C. 



i R. C. 



2R. C. 
3 R. C. 



22 R. C, 6 Luth., i Ger. Ev., i Dutch. Ref., i P. E., i Cong. 



II 1 4. soutJiem and 2 southern middle states 



STATES 


Total 
no. cols 


Coed. 


Men only 




2 

11 
6 
10 

3 
15 

9 
11 

6 
13 
24 
9 
4 
9 
16 
8 
26 


1 

4 
3 
4 

3 
10 

7 
6 
5 
9 
20 
7 
2 

3 
12 

8 
21 


Delaware college. (The one coeducational college is for 
negroes.) 

4 R. C, St. John's, Maryland agric. college, Johns Hopkins. 

3R.C. 

2 M. E. So., Univ. of Virginia, Hampden-Sidney, Washing- 
ton and Lee, William and Mary. 

1 R. C, 2 Presb., i Luth., i Bapt. 

1 A. M. E., College of Charleston. 

2 Bapt., 1 A. M. E., 1 M. E. So., Univ. of Georgia. 
1 R. C. 




District of Columbia. 




Florida 




1 R. C, 1 Bapt., 1 Presb., Ogden college. 

1 R. C, 2 Presb., i P. E.(Univ. of South.) 

2 R C. 








1 Bapt., 1 M. E. So. 

2 R. C, 1 M. E. So., 1 Cong., Louisiana State univ,, Tulane. 

3 R. C, 1 Presb. 










3 R. C, 1 Bapt., 1 Presb. 






182 


125 


21 R. C, 5 M. E. So., 6 Bapt., 7 Presb., 1 Luth., 2 A. M. E., 1 
P. E., 1 Cong. 



Ill 6 New England and j northern middle states 



STATES 


Total 
no. cols 


Coed. 


Men only 




4 
2 

3 
9 
1 
3 
2.3 

4 
32 


2 

2 
2 

1 

S 

17 


1 Bapt. (Colby, limited coed.), Bowdoin 

1 R. C, 1 Cong. (Dartmouth) 
Norwich university 

2 R. C, 2 Cong. (Amherst), Harvard, Williams, Clark 
Brown 

1 P. E. (Trinity), Yale 

8 R. C, 2 P. E. (Hobart), 1 Bapt. (Colgate), Polytechnic institute 
of Brooklyn, Hamilton, College of City of New York (boys' 
high school), Columbia, Union, Rochester, New York uni- 
versity 

2 R. C, 1 Dutch Ref. (Rutgers), Princeton 

4 R. C, 1 Luth., 1 Moravian, 1 Friends (Haverford), 1 Dutch 
Ref. (Franklin & Marshall), Pennsylvania military college, 
Philadelphia central high school (boys' high school), Lehigh 
university, University of Pennsylvania, 3 Presb. (Lafayette, 
Washington & Jefferson, Lincoln) 


New Hampshire. .. 










81 


29 


17 R. C, 1 Luth., 3 P. E.. 3Cong., 3 Presb., 2 Bapt., 1 Friends, 2 
Dutch Ref., 1 Moravian (The Univ. of Penna. admits women 
to many departments, but not to full undergraduate work 
leading to the bachelor's degree) 



IO EDUCATION OF WOMEN [328 

ford junior university, opened in 1891, and, in the middle 
west, Chicago university, opened in 1892. To show the 
differing attitude toward coeducation of the different sec- 
tions of the United States, I have arranged the 480 coedu- 
cational colleges and separate colleges for men given in the 
U. S. education report for 1897-98 in a table on page 
9. In matters like women's education, which are power- 
fully affected by prejudice and conservative opinion, we find 
not only a sharp cleavage in opinion and practice between 
the west and the east of the United States, but also dis- 
tinct phases of differing opinion, corresponding in the 
main to the old geographical division of the states into 
New England, middle, southern and western. 1 

In the western states it will be observed there are, excluding Roman 
Catholic colleges and seminaries, out of 195 colleges 182 coeducational 
and only 13 colleges for men only. All of these except 3 are denomina- 
tional ; 6 belong to the Lutheran, 1 to the Dutch Reformed, 1 to the Ger- 
man Evangelical, 1 to the Episcopalian, and 1 to the Congregationalist. 
The other 3 are, as we might expect, in the most eastern and the earliest 
settled of the western states; one in Ohio, Western reserve, which teaches 
women in a separate women's college; one in Indiana, Wabash college, 
one of the three most important colleges in Indiana; and one in Illinois, 
Illinois college. Roman Catholic institutions apart, in 14 states and all 
3 territories every college for men is open to women (the one university 
of the territory of New Mexico, not included in the U. S. education 
report, is open to women). In the southern states and southern middle 
states there are, excluding Roman Catholic colleges and seminaries, out 
of 161, 125 coeducational and only 36 colleges for men only. Among these 
36, however, are the most important educational institution in Maryland, 
the Johns Hopkins university; the most important in Georgia, the Uni- 

1 In discussing coeducation I shall, therefore, disregard the divisions into north 
Atlantic, south Atlantic, north central, south central and western, employed by 
the U. S. census and the U. S. bureau of education. The New England, middle 
and southern states are all, of course, eastern, and, with the exception of Ver- 
mont, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri, are all seaboard states, 
Pennsylvania being counted as a seaboard state on account of its close river con- 
nection with the sea. It will be noted that the inland southern states are rather 
western than eastern in their characteristics. The northern middle states belong 
on the whole by their sympathies to New England, the southern middle to the 
southern states. Missouri, having been a slave state and settled largely by 
southerners, is still southern in feeling. The District of Columbia also may con- 
veniently be counted with the southern states. 






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229] EDUCATION OF WOMEN II 

versity of Georgia; in Louisiana the two most important, the Louisiana 
state university and Tulane university, and in Virginia the very import- 
ant University of Virginia. 1 Roman Catholic institutions apart, all 
the colleges in the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida and West 
Virginia are coeducational. In New England and the northern mid- 
dle states out of 64 colleges, excluding Roman Catholic colleges and 
seminaries, only 29, or less than half, are coeducational. The col- 
leges for men only include (with the exception of Cornell) all the 
largest undergraduate colleges in this section — Harvard, Yale, Colum- 
bia, Princeton, Pennsylvania. Maine and Vermont are liberal to women, 
2 colleges (3 if we count the limited coeducational college of Colby) in 
Maine and 3 in Vermont being coeducational, but the total number of 
students in college in these states is very small (in Maine only 843 men 
and 189 women; in Vermont only 301 men and 99 women). The leading 
colleges of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania are closed, and in Massachusetts only 2 are open and 7 
closed. 8 

Of the four hundred and eighty colleges for men enumer- 
ated by the commissioner of education 336, or 70 per cent 
(or, excluding Catholic colleges, 80 per cent), admit women. 
It would be misleading, however, to count among Ameri- 
can institutions for higher education, properly so-called, 
most of the coeducational colleges and separate colleges 
for men included in this list, and it would be equally 
misleading to compare the number of women studying in 
such colleges in the United States with the number of 
women engaged in higher studies in England, France and 
Germany. 3 In order to obtain a better idea of opportunities 

1 Two of the throe next largest colleges in Virginia — Richmond and Roanoke — 
admit women, but the advance in women's education in that state has been very 
recent. Until the establishment of the State normal school in 1883 there was not 
a scientific laboratory in the state accessible to women; in 1893 the Randolph- 
Macon Woman's college opened with several laboratories, see Prof. Celestia 
Parrish, Proceedings 2d Capon Springs conference for education in the south, 
1899, p. 68. I am much indebted to the author of this paper for valuable data 
in regard to coeducation in the south. 

8 The Massachusetts institute of technology is classified by the U. S. ed. reps, 
among technical schools. 

3 The commissioner of education does not feel himself at liberty to discriminate 
among the colleges chartered by the different states, but it is well known that in 
most states the name of college, or preferably that of university, and the power 
to confer degrees are granted to any institution whatsoever without regard to 
endowment, scientific equipment, scholarly qualifications of the faculty or ade. 



12 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [330 

for true collegiate work open to women at the present time 
in the United States I have selected from these four hun- 
dred and eighty colleges and from the numerous colleges for 
women classified elsewhere, a list of fifty-eight colleges 
properly so-called, employing for the purpose the four 
means of classification most likely to commend them- 
selves to the impartial student of such things. 1 Of these 

quate preparation of the students. The majority of the so-called colleges and 
universities of the south and west are really secondary schools. In most of them 
not only are the greater part of the students really pupils in the preparatory or 
high school department, but most of the students in the collegiate departments 
are at graduation barely able to enter upon the sophomore or second year work of 
the best eastern colleges. Throughout this monograph I have used the word col- 
lege in speaking of institutions for undergraduate education, except when quoting 
their official titles, and this whether the college in question is, or is not, included 
in a larger institution providing also three years of graduate instruction. The 
terms college and university are used in America without any definite understand- 
ing, even among colleges and universities themselves, as to how they shall be 
differentiated. Probably the most commonly accepted usage is to call an institu- 
tion a university if it has attached to it various departments, or schools, without 
regard to the standing of these departments, the preparation of the students enter- 
ing them, or the work done in them. In this sense all the state universities of the 
west are called universities because, although many of them are really high 
schools, they have attached to them schools of pharmacy, veterinary science, 
agriculture, and sometimes medicine or law. It is in this sense that many insti- 
tutions for negroes are called universities, because they include various depart- 
ments of industrial art as well as a high school department. Until very recently 
the requirements for admission to the departments of law, medicine, dentistry, 
etc., have been so low that it has been a positive disadvantage to have such schools 
attached to the college department, and when lately the graduates of Harvard col- 
lege decided not to allow the graduates of its affiliated schools to vote with them 
for representatives on the board of trustees, they claimed with justice that the 
illiberal education of the majority of these graduates would tend to lower the 
standard of Harvard college. The use of the word university should be strictly 
limited to institutions offering at least three years of graduate instruction in one 
or more schools. 

1 In this list of fifty-eight colleges I have included : first, the twenty-four col- 
leges (indicated in the list by " a ") whose graduates are admitted to the Associa- 
tion of collegiate alumnse; second, the twenty-three colleges (24 are included in 
the Federation, but Barnard has ceased to be a graduate school, see page 28) 
included in the Federation of graduate clubs (indicated by "b"); third, the fifty- 
two colleges (indicated by " c ") included in the 1899-1900 edition of Minerva, the 
well-known handbook of colleges and universities of the world published each 
year by Truebner & Co.; and fourth, the colleges which, according to the U. S. 
education report for 1897-98, have at least $500,000 worth of productive funds 
(indicated by " d "), and also three hundred or more students (indicated by " e "). 
In the case of state universities the money they receive annually from national and 
state appropriations may reasonably be regarded as a sort of supplementary 
endowment ; I have, therefore, included the state universities of Maine, Iowa and 



33 1] 



EDUCATION OF WOMEN 13 



fifty-eight colleges four are independent colleges for women 
and three women's colleges affiliated to colleges for men ; 
of the remaining 51, 30, or 58.8 per cent, are coedu- 
cational, and a nearer examination makes a much more 
favorable showing for coeducation. Of the 21 colleges 
closed to women in their undergraduate departments five 
have affiliated to them a women's college through which 
women obtain some share in the undergraduate instruc- 
tion given, the affiliated colleges in three cases being of 

West Virginia, whose productive funds do not amount to $500,000. This list of 
fifty-eight colleges, arranged according to the different sections of the country, 
and as far as possible in the order of the numbers in their undergraduate depart- 
ments, is as follows: New England and 3 northern middle states: Harvard (bcde), 
Yale (bcde), Cornell (abcde-coed.), Massachusetts institute of technology (acde- 
coed.). Smith (acde-woman's college), Princeton (bcde), Pennsylvania (bcde), Colum- 
bia (bcde), Brown (bcde), Wellesley (abce-woman's college), Vassar (acde-woman's 
college), Syracuse (acde-coed.), Dartmouth (cde), Boston (acde-coed.), Amherst 
(cde), Radcliffe (abce-affiliated), Williams (cde), Lehigh (cde), Maine (e-coed.), 
Wesleyan (acde-coed.), Vermont (c-coed.), Lafayette (c), Bryn Mawr (abed- 
woman's college), New York University (cd), Barnard (a-affiliated), Hamilton (c), 
Colgate (cd), Clark (bed-no undergrad. department). Southern and 2 southern middle 
states: Missouri (bede-coed.), Texas (cde-coed.), Columbian (bee-coed.), West Vir- 
ginia (e-coed.), Tulane (cd), Vanderbilt (bed-coed.), Virginia (c), Johns Hopkins 
(bed), Washington (St. Louis) (cd-coed.), Georgetown (c-Catholic), Catholic uni- 
versity (cd-no undergrad. department). Western states: Minnesota (abcde-coed.), 
Michigan (abcde-coed.), Calif ornia (abcde-coed.), Wisconsin (abcde-coed.), Chicago 
(abcde-coed.), Leland Stanford (abcde-coed.), Nebraska (ace-coed.), Ohio state 
university (de-coed.), Indiana (cde-coed.), Illinois (ce-coed.), Kansas (ace-coed. ), 
Ohio Wesleyan (cde-coed.), Iowa (e-coed.), Northwestern (acde-coed.), Oberlin 
(acde-coed.), Cincinnati (cd-coed.), Colorado (c-coed.), Western reserve (bed), 
College for Women of western reserve (a-affiliated). 

The only attempt hitherto made in America to discriminate between colleges 
of true college grade and others has been made by the Association of collegiate 
alumna. This association was organized in 1882 for the purpose of uniting women 
graduates of the foremost coeducational colleges and colleges for women only into 
an association for work connected with the higher education of women. In the 
early years of the association there was appointed a committee on admissions, and 
the admission of each successive college in the association has been carefully con- 
sidered, both with regard to its entrance requirements, the training of its faculty 
and its curriculum. The Association of collegiate alumnae concerns itself, of 
course, only with colleges admitting women, but there is no doubt that the 
fifteen coeducational colleges and seven colleges for women only admitted to 
the association would, in the estimation of every one familiar with the subject^ 
rank among the first fifty-eight colleges of the United States. 

The Federation of graduate clubs is an association of graduate students of 
those colleges whose graduate schools are important enough to entitle them to 
admission to the federation. The colleges in the Federation of graduate clubs 
are the only colleges in the United States that do true university work. 



14 



EDUCATION OF WOMEN 



[332 



GROWTH OF COEDUCATION 



Coeducational 30-7% 
&2 



1870 



For men only 69-3% 



Coeducational 5!'3°/c 



880 



for men only 48 '7% 




Coeducational 65 5 % 



890 



for men only 54-5% 




Coeducational 70-% 



1898 



For men only 30-% 



HI 


HI 


W///WA 


WZW//V, 


wMm 


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W0A 









I have prepared the diagram for 1870 from the U. S. ed. rep. for 1870, pp. 
506-516, and the diagram for 1897-98 from the U. S. ed. rep., pp. 1848-1867, and 
from the table, opposite page 9 of this monograph. The diagrams for 1880 and 
1890 are copied from the report for 1889-90, p. 764. For assistance in the prepara- 
tion of this and other diagrams, and in working out the percentages given here, 
and elsewhere, in this monograph I am much indebted to Dr Isabel Maddison. 

If Catholic colleges are excluded, as in the map opposite page 10, coeducational 
colleges formed, in 1898, 80 per cent, and colleges for men only 20 per cent of the 
whole number — a still more favorable result for coeducation. 



333] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 1 5 

enough importance to appear in the same list. Of these 
five, four (all but Harvard) admit women without restric- 
tion to their graduate instruction, and in addition Yale, 
the University of Pennsylvania and New York university 
make no distinction between men and women in graduate 
instruction. The Johns Hopkins university maintains a 
coeducational medical school. In this list then of fifty- 
eight, which includes all the most' important colleges in the 
United States, there are, apart from the two Catholic col- 
leges, only ten (Dartmouth, Amherst, Williams, Clark, 
Princeton, Lehigh, Lafayette, Hamilton, Colgate, Virginia, 
all situated on the Atlantic seaboard) to which women are 
not admitted in some departments. Princeton is the only 
one of the large university foundations that excludes women 
from any share whatsoever in its advantages. The diagram 
on page 14 shows the steady progress of coeducation from 
1870 to 1898. 1 

All the arguments against the coeducation of the sexes 
in colleges have been met and answered by experience. It 
was feared at first that coeducation would lower the standard 
of scholarship on account of the supposed inferior quality of 
women's minds. The unanimous experience in coeducational 
colleges goes to show that the average standing of women is 
slightly higher than the average standing of men. 2 Many 

1 In only two instances, so far as I know, has coeducation once introduced been 
abandoned or restricted in any way. The private college of Adelbert of Western 
reserve, coeducational from 1873, opened a separate woman's college and excluded 
women in 1888. As the college department was very small and the state of Ohio 
in which the college was situated the most eastern in feeling of all western states, 
the change was seemingly to be attributed to a bid for students through under- 
graduate novelty. The Baptist college of Colby, in Maine, coeducational from 
1871, has taught women in separate classes in required work since 1890. Women 
are not allowed to compete with men for college prizes or for membership in the 
students' society, which elects its members on account of scholarship. Complete 
separation, which was at first planned, has proved impracticable and from the 
beginning of the sophomore year women and men recite together in all elective 
work. 

2 In an investigation made several years ago in the University of Wisconsin, 
which has been open to women since 1874, it was found that the women ranked in 
scholarship very considerably beyond the men. In the University of Michigan, 
where women have been educated with men since 1870, President Angell has 
repeatedly laid stress on their excellent scholarship. When in 1893-94 a committee 



1 6 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [334 

reasons for the greater success of women are given, such as 
absence of the distraction of athletic sports, greater dili- 
gence, higher moral standards, but the fact, however it may 
be explained, remains and is as gratifying as astonishing to 
those intersted in women's education. The question of health 
has also been finally disposed of ; thousands of women have 
been working side by side with men in coeducational institu- 
tions for the past twenty-five years and undergoing exactly 
the same tests without a larger percentage of withdrawals on 
account of illness than men. The question of conduct has 
also been disposed of. None of the difficulties have arisen 
that were feared from the association of men and women of 
marriageable a ore. Looking at coeducation as a whole it is 
most surprising that it has worked so well. 1 Perhaps the 
only objection that may be made from men's point of 
view to coeducation in America is that it has succeeded 
only too well and that the proportion of women students is 
increasing too steadily. Not only is the number of coedu- 
cational colleges increasing but the number of women rela- 
tively to the number of men is increasing also. In 1890 
there were studying in coeducational colleges 16,959 men 
and 7,929 women ; or women, in other words, formed 31.9 
per cent of the whole body of students. In 1898 there were 
28,823 men and 16,284 women studying in coeducational 
colleges, women forming 36.1 per cent of the whole body 
of students. Between 1890 and 1898 men in coeduca- 
tional colleges have increased 70.0 per cent, but women 
in coeducational colleges have increased 105.4 per cent. 2 

of the faculty of the University of Virginia asked the officers of a large number of 
coeducational colleges especially in regard to this point the testimony received 
was very remarkable. In England it should be noted that the question of the 
success of women in collegiate studies has been put beyond a doubt by the pub- 
lished class lists of the competitive honor examinations of Oxford and Cambridge, 
In the discussions in regard to granting women degrees at Cambridge, it was 
freely admitted that women's minds were " splendid for examination purposes." 

1 For a discussion of coeducation in schools and colleges in 1892, see U. S. educa- 
tion report for 1891-92, pp. 783-862. 

2 U. S. education report 1889-90, pp. 761, 1582-1599, and 1897-98, p. 1823; account 
is taken of students of true college grade only in the college proper. Through- 
out this monograph I have corrected the figures of the U. S. ed. reps, which are 



335] EDUCATION OF WOMEN I 7" 

There is every reason to suppose that this increase of 
women will continue. Already girls form 56.5 per cent of 
the pupils in all secondary schools and 13 per cent of the girls 
enrolled and only 10 per cent of the boys enrolled graduate 
from the public high schools. It is sometimes said that 
men students, as a rule, dislike the presence of women, and 
in especial that they are unwilling to compete for prizes 
against women for the very reason that the average stand- 
ing of women is higher than their own. If there is any 
force in this statement, however, it would seem that men 
should increase less rapidly in coeducational colleges than 
in separate colleges for men. The reverse, however, is 
the case. During the eight years from 1890 to 1898 men 
have increased in coeducational colleges 70.0 per cent, but 
in separate colleges for men only 34.7 per cent. 1 This is all 
the more remarkable, because in the separate colleges for 
men are included the large undergraduate departments of 
Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia and the University of 
Pennsylvania. It is women who have shown a preference 
for separate education ; women have increased more rapidly 
in separate colleges for women than in coeducational colleges. 
It will be observed, however, that the separate colleges for 
women, like the separate colleges for men included in my 
list of fifty-eight, are in the east ; it is in the east only that 
any preference for separate education is shown by either 
sex. 2 

affected by the erroneous assumption that the undergraduate departments of 
Brown, Yale, Rochester, New York Univ., Pennsylvania, Tulane and Western 
Reserve are coeducational. In the University of Chicago women formed, in 
1898, 54.5 per cent of all regular, and 70 per cent of all unclassified, students ; 
in Boston university in the regular college course there were, in 1899, 299 women 
as against 192 men. 

1 In 1889-90 there were 19,245 men studying in 146 colleges for men only ; in 
1898-99 there were 25,915 men studying in 143 colleges for men only, an increase 
of only 34.7 per cent. (In enumerating students I have regarded the limited 
coeducational college of Colby as coeducational.) Women, however, have 
increased in women's colleges 138.4 per cent. 

2 The objection of men students in the east to coeducation seems to be mainly 
in the apprehension that the presence of women may interfere with the free social 
life which has become so prominent a feature of private colleges for men in the 
east. These colleges are, for the most part, situated either in small country towns, 



1 8 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [336 

Independent colleges for women — Since independent col- 
leges for women of the same grade as those for men are 
peculiar to the United States, I shall treat them some- 
what more fully. 1 The independent colleges here taken 
into account are the eleven colleges included in division 
A 2 of the U. S. education reports. 3 The independent 

or in the suburbs of a city, in communities which have grown up about the college, 
and their students live largely in college dormitories; the conditions, therefore, 
are exceedingly unlike those prevailing in non-residential colleges and also unlike 
those prevailing in the world at large. These exceptional conditions are a source 
of pleasure and, in many respects, of advantage to the student. Undoubtedly 
there is in coeducational colleges less unrestraint ; young men undoubtedly care 
much for the impression that they make on young women of the same age, and 
there is more decorum and perhaps more diligence in classrooms where women 
are present. The objection to coeducation on the part of women students is, to 
some extent, the same ; separate colleges for women in like manner are, as a rule, 
academic communities living according to regulations and customs all their own ; 
women also feel themselves more unrestrained when they are studying in women's 
colleges. Then, too, coeducation in the east is still regarded as in some 
measure an experiment, to the success of which the conduct of each individ- 
ual woman may, or may not, contribute, and the knowledge of this tends to 
increase the self-consciousness of student life. 

1 In the case of the colleges in groups I and II these statistics have been 
obtained through the kindness of the presidents of the colleges concerned; 
they are for the year 1900, except the numbers of instructors and students which 
are obtained from the catalogues for the year 1898-99; in enumerating the 
instructors, presidents, teachers of gymnastics, elocution, music and art have 
been omitted. Instructors away on leave of absence are not counted among 
instructors for the current year. 

5 Women's colleges were first classified in division A and division B in 1887. 
In these reports there appeared sporadically in division A Ingham university, 
at Leroy, New York, and Rutgers female college in New York city. Nei- 
ther of these had any adequate endowment and neither ever obtained more 
than 35 students. Ingham university closed in 1893, Rutgers female college in 
1895. 

3 The women's colleges, so called, included in division B of these reports, are in 
reality church and private enterprise schools, as a rule of the most superficial 
character, without endowment, or fixed curriculum, or any standard whatsoever of 
scholarship in teachers or pupils. What money there is to spend is for the most 
part used to provide teachers of music, drawing and other accomplishments, and 
the school instruction proper is shamefully inadequate. Few if any of these 
schools are able to teach the subjects required for entrance to a college properly 
so called; the really good girls' schools are, as a rule, excluded from this list by 
their honesty in not assuming the name of college. The U. S. education report 
for 1886-87 gives 152 of these colleges in division B, the report for 1897-98, 135. 
When it is said that separate colleges for women are decreasing, the statement is 
based on this list of colleges in division B, which are not really colleges at all; 
and when it is said that women students are not increasing so rapidly in separate 
colleges for women as in coeducational colleges, it is the students in these mis- 



$37^ EDUCATION OF WOMEN 19 

colleges for women fall readily into three groups : I. The 
so-called " four great colleges for women," Vassar, Smith, 
Wellesley, Bryn Mawr. It will be seen by referring to the 
classification on page 12 that these four colleges are 
included among the fifty-eight leading colleges of the 
United States ; they are all included in the twenty-two col- 
leges admitted to the Association of collegiate alumnae ; 
two of them, Bryn Mawr and Wellesley, are included in the 
twenty-three colleges belonging to the Federation of gradu- 
ate clubs ; they are all included in the list of fifty-two lead- 
ing colleges of the United States given in the handbook of 
Minerva ; they are all, except Bryn Mawr, included in the 
list given by the U. S. education report for 1 897-98 * of 
forty-six colleges in the United States having three hundred 
students and upward ; three of them, Bryn Mawr, Smith and 
Vassar, are included among the fifty-two colleges of the 
United States possessing invested funds of $500,000 and 
upward, and two of them, Vassar and Bryn Mawr, are 
included among the twenty-nine colleges of the United 
States possessing funds of $1,000,000 and upward; three 
of them, Smith, Wellesley and Vassar, rank among the 
twenty-three largest undergraduate colleges in the United 
States ; one of them, Smith, ranks as the tenth undergradu- 
ate college in the United States. 

called colleges who are referred to; for precisely the reverse is true of students 
in genuine colleges for women. It is happily true that since better college edu- 
cation has been obtainable, women have been refusing to attend the institutions 
included in class B. Between 1890 and 1898 women have increased only 4.9 per 
cent in the college departments of such institutions, whereas, in these same eight 
years, they have increased 138.4 per cent in women's colleges in division A. The 
value of statistics of women college students is often vitiated by the fact that 
women studying in institutions included in division B are counted among college 
students. Many of the colleges for men only and of the coeducational colleges 
included in the lists of the commissioner of education are very low in grade, but 
few of them are so scandalously inefficient as the majority of the girls' schools 
included in division B. I have, therefore, in my statistics taken no account 
whatever of women studying in institutions classified in division B. 

1 See pp. 1821, 1822, 1888, 1889. Bryn Mawr had not 300 undergraduate students 
in 1897-98, but the next year, 1898-99, passed the limit. I have excluded Western 
reserve as it is not coeducational in its undergraduate department, and, in 1899, 
had only 182 men in its men's college and 183 women in its women's college. 



20 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [338 

Vassar college, Poughkeepsie, New York 1 — Founder, Matthew 
Vassar ; intention, "to found and equip an institution which 
should accomplish for young women what our colleges are accom- 
plishing for young men ; " opened, 1865 ; preparatory department 
dropped, 1888 ; presidents, three (men) ; 45 instructors (16 Ph. D.s.) 
— 35 women, 2 without first degree ; 10 men ; 584 undergrad. s., 1 1 
grad. s., 24 special s. ; productive funds, $1,050,000 ; a main building 
with lecture rooms, library and accommodation for 345 students, and 
two other residence halls accommodating 189 students; a science 
building ; a lecture building ; a museum with art, music and labora- 
tory rooms ; an observatory ; a gymnasium ; a plant house ; a presi- 
dent's house; five professors' houses; total cost of buildings, 
$1,044,365 ; vols, in library, 30,000; laboratory equipment, $33,382 ; 
acres, 200; music and art depts., but technical work in neither 
counted toward bachelor's degree ; tuition fee, $100 ; lowest charge, 
tuition, board and residence, including washing, $400. 

Wellesley college, Wellesley, Massachusetts — Founder, 
Henry F. Durant ; intention, "to found a college for the glory 
of God by the education and culture of women," opened 1875 ; 
preparatory department dropped, 1880; requirement from stu- 
dents of one hour daily domestic or clerical work dropped, 1896 ; 
presidents, five (all women); 69 instructors (13 Ph. D.s.) — 64 
women, 16, apart from laboratory assistants without first degree ; 
5 men; 611 undergrad. s., 25 grad. s., 21 special s. ; productive 

1 To any one familiar with the circumstances it does not admit of discussion that 
in Vassar we have the legitimate parent of all future colleges for women which 
were to be founded in such rapid succession in the next period. It is true that in 
1855 the Presbyterian synod opened Elmira college in Elmira, New York, but it 
had practically no endowment and scarcely any college students. Even before 
1855 two famous female seminaries were founded which did much to create a 
standard for the education of girls. In 1821 Mrs. Emma Willard opened at Troy 
a seminary for girls, known as the Troy female seminary, still existing under the 
name of the Emma Willard school. In 1837 Mary Lyon opened in the beautiful 
valley of the Connecticut Mt. Holyoke seminary, where girls were educated so 
cheaply that it was almost a free school. This institution has had a great 
influence in the higher education of women; it became in 1893 Mt. Holyoke 
college. These seminaries are often claimed as the first women's colleges, but 
their curriculum of study proves conclusively that they had no thought whatever 
of giving women a collegiate education, whereas, the deliberations of the board 
of trustees whom Mr. Vassar associated with himself show clearly that it 
was expressly realized that here for the first time was being created a 
woman's college as distinct from the seminary or academy. In 1861 the move- 
ment for the higher education of women had scarcely begun. It was not until 
eight years later that the first of the women's colleges at Cambridge, England, 
opened. 



339] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 21 

funds, $7,000 ; * a main building with library lecture rooms and 
accommodation for 250 students; a chemical laboratory ; an obser- 
vatory ; a chapel ; an art building ; a music building ; 8 halls of 
residence, accommodating 348 students (new hall being built) ; 
total cost of buildings, $1,106,500; vols, in library, 49,970; 
laboratory equipment, $50,000; acres, 410; music and art depts., 
but technical work in neither counted toward bachelor's degree ; 
tuition fee, $175 ; lowest charge, tuition, board and residence (beds 
made, rooms dusted by students), $400. 

Smith college, Northampton, Massachusetts — Founder, 
Sophia Smith ; intention, to provide " means and facilities for 
education equal to those which are afforded in our colleges for 
young men;" opened, 1875; no preparatory department ever 
connected with the college ; president, one (man) ; 49 instructors (13 
Ph. D.s.) — 27 women, 9 without first degree ; 12 men ; 1,070 under- 
grad. s., 4 grad. s. ; since 1891 no special s. admitted; productive 
funds, $900,000; two lecture buildings; a lecture and gymnastic 
building ; a science building ; a chemical laboratory ; an observa- 
tory ; a gymnasium; a plant house; a music building; an art 
building; 13 halls of residence accommodating 520 students; a 
president's house ; total cost of buildings $786,000 ; vols, in library, 
8,000 (70,000 vols, in library in Northampton also used by the stu- 
dents) ; laboratory equipment, $22,500; acres, 40; music and art 
depts., technical work in both, amounting to between one-sixth 
and one-seventh of the hours required for a degree, may be counted 
toward bachelor's degree ; tuition fee, $100; lowest charge, tuition, 
board and residence (beds made, rooms dusted by students), $400. 
Bryn Mawr college, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania — Founder, 
Joseph W. Taylor; intention, to provide "an institution of learn- 
ing for the advanced education of women which should afford them 
all the advantages of a college education which are so freely offered 
to young men;" opened, 1885; no preparatory department ever 
connected with the college ; presidents, two (one man, one woman) ; 
38 instructors (29 Ph. D.s. 1 D. Sc.) — 15 women, 23 men; 269 
undergrad. s., 61 grad. s., 9 hearers ; productive funds, $1,000,000 ; 
a lecture and library building ; a science building; a gymnasium ; 
an infirmary ; five halls of residence and two cottages, accommodat- 
ing 323 students ; a president's house ; 6 professors' houses ; total 

1 The founder of Wellesley expected to leave the college a large endowment, but 
his fortune was dissipated in unfortunate investments. The splendid grounds 
and many halls of residence of the college constitute a form of endowment, other- 
wise its lack of productive funds would have excluded it from class I. 



22 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [34° 

cost, $718,810; vols, in library, 32,000 ; laboratory equipment, 
$47,998; acres, 50; no music department; no technical instruction 
in art ; tuition fee, $125 ; lowest charge, tuition, board and resi- 
dence, $400. 

II. The women's colleges not included in the list of the 
fifty-eight most important colleges in the United States 
given on page 12, but of exceedingly good academic stand- 
ing as compared with the greater number of the separate 
colleges for men and the coeducational colleges included in 
the four hundred and eighty enumerated by the commis- 
sioner of education. 

Mt. Holyoke college, South Hadley, Massachusetts — Founder t 
Mary Lyon ; seminary opened, 1837; chartered as seminary and 
college, 1888 ; seminary department dropped and true college organ- 
ized, 1893; presidents, two (both women); 37 instructors (7 Ph. 
D.s.) — all women; 5, apart from laboratory assistants, without first 
degree; 426 undergrad. s., 3 grad. s., 9 special s., 3 music s.; pro- 
ductive funds, $300,000; a lecture building; a science building; 
a museum and art gallery ; a library ; a gymnasium ; a rink ; an 
observatory; an infirmary; a plant house; 9 residence halls 
accommodating 478 students ; total cost of buildings, $625,000 ; 
vols, in library, 17,700; laboratory equipment, $33,000; acres, 160; 
music and art depts., technical work in both, amount limited by 
faculty, may be counted towards bachelor's degree ; tuition fee, 
$100; lowest charge, tuition, board and residence (beds made, 
rooms dusted, by students, and in addition one-half hour of 
domestic work required), $250. 

Woman's college of Baltimore, city of Baltimore, Maryland — 
Founded and controlled by Methodist Episcopal church ; opened, 
1888; preparatory department dropped, 1893; presidents, two 
(men); 21 instructors (10 Ph. D.s.) — 1 1 women, 1 without first degree; 
10 men, 1 without first degree; 259 undergrad. s. ; o grad. s. ; 15 
special s. ; productive funds, $334,994; a lecture building and three 
houses adapted for lecture purposes; a gymnasium; a biological 
laboratory ; 3 residence halls holding 230 ; total cost of buildings, 
$505,703 ; vols, in library, 7,800 ; laboratory equipment, $47,000 ; 
acres (in city), 7 ; music and art depts., but technical work in 
neither counted towards bachelor's degree; tuition fee, $125 ; low- 
est charge, tuition, board and residence (beds made, rooms dusted 
by students), $375. 



341] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 23 

Wells college, Aurora, New York — Founders, Henry Wells 
and Edwin B. Morgan; seminary opened, 1868; chartered as col- 
lege, 1870; preparatory dept. dropped, 1896; presidents, two 
(men); 13 instructors (4 Ph. D.s.) — 10 women, 3 without first 
degree ; 3 men ; 59 undergrad. s. ; o .grad. s. ; 27 special s. ; 4 
music s. ; productive funds, $200,000 ; a main building with lec- 
ture rooms and accommodations for 100 students ; a science and 
music building ; a president's house ; total cost of buildings, 
$195,000; vols, in library, 7,300; laboratory equipment, $20,200; 
acres, 200; music and art depts., technical work in neither counted 
towards bachelor's degree ; tuition fee, $100 ; lowest charge, tui- 
tion, board and residence (beds made by students), $400. 

III. Elmira college, the Randolph-Macon Woman's col- 
lege, Rockford college and Mills college are here relegated 
to a third group because of certain common characteristics. 
Their endowment is wholly inadequate, averaging consid- 
erably less than $50,000 apiece, reaching $100,000 only in 
the case of the Randolph-Macon Woman's college. In each 
of them a disproportionate number of students is studying 
in the music or art department ; special students form too 
large a proportion of the whole number of students ; the 
number of professors is too small to permit college classes to 
be conducted by specialists ; the college classes are too 
small ; true college training cannot be obtained in very small 
classes, and moreover, in view of the increasing number of 
women now going to college, when a college for women 
does not grow steadily it is reasonable to assume that there 
must be some good reason for its lack of growth. 

Elmira college, situated at Elmira, New York, has, apart from 
the president, 10 academic instructors (7 women, 2 without first 
degree; 3 men); 5 teachers of music, 2 of art. There are studying 
in the college 70 regular college students, 17 specials and 61 special 
students in music. 

The Randolph-Macon Woman's college, situated at Lynch- 
burg, Virginia, has, apart from the president, 12 academic instruc- 
tors (2 Ph. D.s.) — 7 women, 2 without first degree; 5 men; 9 
instructors in music. Of the 226 students, 1 55 are regular college 
students ; 44 registered for degree but spending one-fifth of time in 

1 The numbers of students are for the year 1899-1900. 



24 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [342 

music or preparatory work ; 16 special students; 6 students of art; 
49 preparatory students ; 46 students of music. 

Rockford college, Rockford, Illinois — Opened as seminary, 
1849; chartered as college, 1892; 13 academic instructors (2 Ph. 
D.s.) — all women, 3 without first degree; 4 teachers of music, I of 
art ; 35 college s. ; 7 special s. ; 70 s. in music only. 

Mills college, California — Opened as seminary, 1871 ; char- 
tered as college, 1885; 11 instructors (9 women, 3 without first 
degree; 2 men); 8 teachers of music; 22 college s. ; 135 pupils in 
preparatory department. 

In addition to the existing colleges belonging to these 
groups, a separate college for women, Trinity, meant to be 
of true college grade, will soon be opened in Washington 
under the control of the Roman Catholic church. 

It is often assumed by the adversaries of coeducation that 
independent colleges for women may be trusted to intro- 
duce a course of study modified especially for women, 
but the experience, both of coeducational colleges that 
have devised women's courses and of women's colleges, 
demonstrates conclusively that women themselves refuse to 
regard as satisfactory any modification whatsoever of the 
usual academic course. At the opening of Vassar college 
itself it is clear that the trustees and faculty made an honest 
attempt to discover and introduce certain modifications in 
the system of intellectual training then in operation in the 
best colleges for men. They planned from the start to 
give much more time to accomplishments — music, draw- 
ing and painting — than was given in men's colleges, and 
the example of Vassar in this respect was followed ten years 
later by Wellesley and Smith. These accomplishments have 
gradually fallen out of the course of women's colleges ; 
neither Vassar nor Wellesley allows time spent in them to 
be counted toward the bachelor's degree. Smith alone of 
the colleges of group I still permits nearly one-sixth of the 
whole college course to be devoted to them. Bryn Mawr, 
which opened ten years later than Smith or Wellesley, 
from the beginning found it possible to exclude them from 
its course. 



343] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 25 

In like manner Vassar, Smith and Wellesley in the begin- 
ning found it necessary to admit special students — students, 
that is to say, interested in special subjects, but without 
sufficient general training to be able to matriculate as col- 
lege students ; but their admission has been recognized as 
disadvantageous, and has gradually been restricted. In 
1870 special students, as distinguished from preparatory 
students, formed 19.6 per cent of the whole number of the 
students of Vassar; in 1899 they formed only 3.9 per cent, 
and only 3.3 per cent of the whole number of Wellesley 
students. Smith since 1891 has declined to admit them 
at all, and Bryn Mawr never admitted them. 1 

Again, Wellesley and Vassar in the beginning organized 
preparatory departments with pupils living in the same halls 
as the college students and taught in great part by the same 
teachers. The presence of these pupils tended to turn the 
colleges into boarding schools, and the steady and rapid 
development of Vassar as a true college began only after the 
closing of its preparatory department in 1888 ; until this 
time the number of students in the college proper had been 
almost stationary ; Wellesley closed its preparatory depart- 
ment in 1880; Smith never organized one; Bryn Mawr 
never organized one ; Mt. Holyoke, the Woman's college 
of Baltimore, and Wells college have all closed their pre- 
paratory departments within the last seven years. 2 

1 To the women's colleges of group III they are admitted still in large numbers, 
and they still form 35.1 per cent of all the undergraduate students in the affiliated 
college of Radcliffe, and 35.7 per cent of all the undergraduate students in the 
affiliated college of Barnard; in part, perhaps, because these colleges are largely 
dependent upon their tuition fees, and in part too, no doubt, because the 
presence of special students is less disadvantageous where there is no dormitory 
life. 

3 Colleges for women draw their students from private schools to a much greater 
extent than do coeducational colleges; and it was the very great inefficiency of these 
schools that induced the earlier colleges for women to organize preparatory 
departments of their own. The entrance examinations of the women's colleges 
are the only influence for good that has ever been brought to bear upon the 
feeble teaching of these schools. In 1874, before the numbers of women wish- 
ing to prepare for college were great enough to influence the private schools, 
a plan for raising their standard was devised by the Woman's education 
association of Boston, at whose request Harvard university for 7 years con- 



26 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [344 

It seems to have been at first supposed that the same 
standards of scholarship need not be applied in the choice 
of instructors to teach women as in that of instructors to 
teach men, that women were fittest to teach women, and that 
the personal character and influence of the woman instructor 
in some mysterious way supplied the deficiency on her part 
of academic training. For a long time not even an ordinary 
undergraduate education was required of her, and there are 
still teaching in women's colleges too many women without 
even a first degree. But it has been found on the whole 
that systematic mental training is best imparted by those 
who have themselves received it ; the numbers of well- 
trained women are increasing; and the prejudice against 
the appointment of men where men are better qualified has 
almost disappeared. 1 

ducted a series of examinations modeled on the Oxford and Cambridge higher 
local examinations which have been such an efficient agency in England. Com- 
mittees of women were organized in different cities, and an attempt was made 
to induce girls' schools to send up candidates for these examinations. In 7 years, 
however, only 106 candidates offered themselves for the preliminary examination, 
and only 36 received a complete certificate. In 1881 the entrance examinations 
of Harvard college were substituted for these special women's examinations, in 
the hope that the interest in reaching the standard set by Harvard for its entering 
class of men might add to the number of candidates; but even after this change 
was made comparatively few candidates took the examinations, and in 1896 the 
effort was discontinued; the Harvard examinations have been used from that 
time onward simply as the ordinary entrance examinations of Radcliffe college. 
In Great Britain the Cambridge higher local examinations are taken annually by 
about 900 women. There was needed some such pressure as is brought to bear 
by pupils determined to go to college to induce private schools to add college 
graduates to their staff of teachers. The requirements for admission to Bryn 
Mawr college have to my personal knowledge been a most important factor in 
introducing college-bred women as teachers into all the more important private 
girls' schools of Philadelphia and in many private schools elsewhere; and every 
college for women drawing students from private schools has the same experi- 
ence. On the other hand, every relaxation in the requirements for admission, 
such as the practice of admitting on certificate adopted by Vassar, Wellesley 
and Smith, tends to deprive girls' schools of a much needed stimulus. Radcliffe 
and Barnard, like Bryn Mawr, insist upon examination for admission and decline 
to accept certificates. 

: Until Bryn Mawr opened in 1885 with a large staff of young unmarried men, 
it had been regarded as almost out of the question to appoint unmarried men in 
a women's college; now they are teaching in all colleges for women. The same 
instructors pass from colleges for men to colleges for women and from colleges 
for women to colleges for men, employing in each the same methods of instruc- 



345] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 2 J 

It has been recognized that the work done in women's 
colleges is most satisfactory to women when it is the same 
in quality and quantity as the work done in colleges for men, 
and it has been recognized also that they need the same 
time for its performance. Domestic work, therefore, which 
by the founder of Wellesley was regarded as a necessary 
part of women's education, is at present, I believe, required 
nowhere except on the perfectly plain ground of economy. 
The hour of domestic service originally required of every 
student in Wellesley was abandoned in 1896; a half-hour is 
still required at Mt. Holyoke, but tuition, board and resi- 
dence are less expensive there. The time given to domestic 
work is obviously so much time taken from academic work. 
In the matter of discipline the tendency has been toward 
ever-diminishing supervision by the college authorities. 
Vassar and Wellesley began with the strict regulations of a 
boarding school ; it was regarded as impossible that young 
women living away from home should be in any measure 
trusted with the control of their own actions. Smith from 
the first allowed more liberty, in part because many of her 
students lived in boarding houses outside the college. In 
all three colleges the restrictions laid upon the students 
have been gradually, lessened, and at Vassar there is at 
present a well-developed system of what is known as " lim- 
ited self-government," according to which many matters of 
discipline are intrusted to the whole body of students. 
Bryn Mawr was organized with a system of self-government 
by the students perhaps more far-reaching than was then in 
operation in any of the colleges for men ; the necessary 
rules are made by the Students' association, which includes 
all undergraduate and graduate students, and enforced by 
an executive committee of students who in the case of a 
serious offense may recommend the suspension or expulsion 

tion. Some years since one of the professors at Smith college received at the 
same time offers of a post at the Johns Hopkins, at Columbia, and at Bryn Mawr; 
and among the professors the most successful in their teaching at Princeton, Chi- 
cago and Columbia are men whose whole experience had been gained in teaching 
women at Bryn Mawr. 



28 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [346 

of the offender, and whose recommendation, when sustained 
by the whole association, is always accepted by the college. 
The perfect success of the system has shown that there is no 
risk in relying to the fullest extent on the discretion of a 
body of women students. 

Affiliated colleges 1 — There are five 8 affiliated colleges in 
the United States — Radcliffe college, Barnard college, the 
Women's college of Brown university, the College for Women 
of Western reserve university, and the H. Sophie Newcomb 
memorial college for women of Tulane university. 3 The 
affiliated college in America is modeled on the English 
women's colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, with such modi- 
fications as are made necessary by the wholly different 
constitution of English and American universities. These 
modifications, however, it must in fairness be explained, are 
so essential as to make of it a wholly different institution. 4 

1 The following data have been furnished me by the courtesy of the presidents 
or deans of the colleges concerned, except the data of the H. Sophie Newcomb 
memorial college, for which I am indebted to Professor Evelyn Ordway. These 
data are for the year 1900; the numbers of instructors and students have been 
obtained from the catalogues for 1898-99. 

5 In one instance only — that of Evelyn college in New Jersey — has an affiliated 
college, once established, been compelled to close its doors. Evelyn, however, 
partook of the nature of a private enterprise school, and was begun on an unaca- 
demic basis in 1887. A certain number of Princeton professors consented to 
serve on the board of trustees and give instruction there, but it was, in reality, a 
young ladies' finishing school with a few students (in 1891, 22; in 1894, 18; in. 
1897, 14) pursuing collegiate courses. Music and accomplishments were made 
much of, and in 1897 the college came to a well-merited end. 

3 Radcliffe and Barnard are the only two of the affiliated colleges that appear in 
the U. S. education reports in division A of women's colleges. The students of 
the other three are reported under Brown, Western reserve and Tulane respec- 
tively, thus giving these colleges a false air of being coeducational in their under- 
graduate departments. The endowment and equipment of these three affiliated 
colleges, although entirely independent of the colleges to which they are affili- 
ated, are given nowhere separately. 

4 It is difficult for those interested in women's education in England to under- 
stand the existence in America of independent colleges for women, and if Ameri- 
can education were organized like English education they would, indeed, have no 
reason to exist. In an English university, consisting, as it does, of many separate 
colleges whose students live in their separate halls of residence, are taught 
by their own teachers, hear in common with the students of other colleges 
the lectures offered by the central university organization, and compete against 
each other in honor examinations conducted by a common board of univer- 
sity examiners, the colleges for women — at Cambridge, Girton and Newn- 



347] 



EDUCATION OF WOMEN 29 



Radclifife college, Cambridge, Massachusetts J — Affiliated to 
Harvard university, union dissoluble after due notice ; opened by 
the Society for the collegiate instruction of women in 1879; incor- 
porated as Radcliffe college with power to confer degrees in 
1894; board of trustees and financial management separate from 
Harvard ; B. A. and M. A. degrees conferred by Radcliffe ; Ph. D. 
degree as yet conferred neither by Radcliffe nor Harvard; degrees, 
instructors, and academic board of control, subject to approval of 
Harvard ; no instructors not instructors at Harvard also ; under- 
graduate instruction at Harvard repeated at Radcliffe at discretion 

ham, and at Oxford, Somerville hall, Lady Margaret hall and St. Hugh's hall 
— are organized in precisely the same way as colleges for men. They may, 
or may not, be as well equipped as the best men's colleges, but the difference is a 
matter of endowment, not of university organization ; there are differences also 
between the various colleges for men. Examinations, again, play a far more 
important part in English than in American education. There are in Great Brit- 
ain only a few examining and degree-giving bodies, for whose examinations all 
the various colleges prepare their students. The degrees mean that certain 
examinations have been passed, and have a definite and universally acknowledged 
value. A degree given by an American college means that the person receiving 
it has lived for some time in a community of a certain kind, enjoying certain 
opportunities of which he has conscientiously availed himself. For this reason 
no one of the 491 colleges of the United States enumerated in the U. S. education 
report for 1897-98 bestows its degree in recognition of examinations passed in 
any other college. For this reason Harvard college has had logic on its side in 
declining to confer upon the students completing their undergraduate course in 
Radcliffe college the Harvard B. A. They have not lived in the same community, 
nor yet had all the opportunities of the Harvard student. The certificate received 
by the student of Girton or Newnham represents exactly the same thing as the 
Cambridge degree; the B. A. of Radcliffe does not represent the same thing as the 
Harvard B. A. What is represented by the degrees of different colleges in the 
United States may, or may not, be equal, but never is the same. Nevertheless 
Columbia, Brown, Tulane and Western reserve confer their degrees upon the 
women graduates of their affiliated colleges for women. 

1 The first American affiliated college was the so-called Harvard annex, which 
was brought into existence by the devoted efforts of a small number of influential 
professors of Harvard college, who voluntarily formed themselves into a 
" Society for the collegiate instruction of women," and repeated each week to 
classes of women the lectures and class work they gave to men in Harvard 
college. The idea first occurred to Mr. Arthur Oilman in 1878. Girton college, 
Cambridge, England, after which the annex was modeled, had then been in suc- 
cessful operation for nine years. Mrs. Louis Agassiz, the widow of the famous 
naturalist, agreed to become the official head of the undertaking, and she asso- 
ciated with herself other influential Boston and Cambridge women. Mr. Arthur 
Gilman became the secretary of the society. The president of Harvard college 
declared that, so far as the university was concerned, the professors were free 
to teach women in their leisure hours if they chose. The annex was opened 
for students in 1879 i n a rented house near the Harvard campus with 25 
students. 



to 



EDUCATION OF WOMEN [348 



of instructors; since 1893 women admitted to graduate and semi- 
graduate courses given in Harvard, at discretion of instructor, 
subject to approval of the Harvard faculty; in 1899, 64 such 
courses open to Radcliffe students ; 238 undergrad. s. ; 54 grad. s. ; 
129 special s. ; productive funds about $430,000; a lecture and 
library building; a gymnasium ; 4 temporary buildings used for 
lectures and laboratories ; a students' club house ; no residence hall, 
but one about to be built; total cost of buildings about $110,000; 
vols, in library, 14,138; access to Harvard library and collections; 
scientific laboratories of Harvard not available ; cost of laboratory 
equipment not ascertainable, inadequate ; acres (in city) about 3 ; 
tuition fee, $200. 

Barnard college, New York city — Affiliated to Columbia uni- 
versity, union dissoluble by either party after year's notice ; 
opened in 1889; status very much that of Radcliffe until Janu- 
ary, 1900, when women graduates were admitted without restric- 
tion to the graduate school of Columbia, registering in Columbia, 
not as heretofore in Barnard, and Barnard was incorporated as an 
undergraduate women's college of the university, its dean voting 
in the university council, and the president of Columbia becoming 
its president and a member of its board of trustees ; Barnard's 
faculty consists of the president of the university, the dean of Bar- 
nard, and instructors, either men or women, nominated by the dean, 
approved by Barnard trustees and president of Columbia and 
appointed by Columbia; courses for A. B. degree and all examina- 
tions determined and conducted by Barnard faculty, subject to 
provisions of university council for maintaining integrity of 
degree; all degrees conferred by Columbia; after July I, 1904, no 
undergraduate courses in Columbia, except in the Teachers' col- 
lege, will be open to Barnard seniors as heretofore, complete 
undergraduate work will be given separately at Barnard, not neces- 
sarily by same instructors 5131 undergrad. s. ; 76 grad. s. ; 73 special 
s. ; productive funds, $150,000; one large building containing lec- 
ture rooms, laboratories and accommodation for 65 students, cost, 
$525,000; vols, in reading room, 1,000; access to Columbia, 
library ; scientific laboratories of Columbia not available ; cost 
of laboratory equipment $9,250; land (in city), 200x160 feet; tui- 
tion fee, $150. 

Women's college of Brown university, Providence, Rhode 
Island — Affiliated to Brown university; university degrees and 
examinations opened to women, and their undergraduate instruc- 
tion informally begun in 1892; women's college established by 



349] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 3 1 

Brown university as a regular department of the university in 1897 
under control of the university trustees ; advisory council of five 
women appointed by trustees to advise with president of university 
and dean of women's college ; funds of the women's college held 
and administered separately by trustees ; all degrees conferred by 
Brown ; women and men examined together ; required courses 
given in Brown repeated to women by same instructors ; all instruc- 
tion given by Brown instructors; all graduate work in Brown 
open to graduate women without restriction since 1892 ; women 
recite with men in many of the smaller elective undergradu- 
ate courses ; 140 undergrad. s. ; 38 grad. s. ; 25 special s. ; a lec- 
ture hall costing $38,000 ; no residence hall ; access to Brown 
library ; scientific laboratories of Brown not available ; very 
inadequate laboratory equipment ; no productive funds ; tuition 
fee, $105. 

College for women of Western reserve university, Cleveland, 
Ohio — Affiliated to Western reserve university; established by 
Western reserve in 1888; degrees conferred by Western reserve; 
graduate department of Western reserve open to graduate women 
without restriction ; separate financial management ; separate 
faculty 21 (9 Ph. D.s.) — 14 men, 7 women ; 165 undergrad. s. ; 18 
special -s. ; productive funds, about $250,000 ; a lecture hall, a 
residence hall accommodating 40 students; total cost of buildings, 
including land, about $200,000; 3 laboratories of men's college 
available at certain times; access to Western reserve library; 
tuition, $85 ; lowest charge, board, room rent and tuition (beds 
made by students), $335. 

H, Sophie Newcomb memorial college for women, New 
Orleans, Louisiana — Affiliated with Tulane university, but situ- 
ated in another part of the city ; founder, Mrs. Josephine Louise 
Newcomb; opened 1886; under control of board of trustees of 
Tulane ; graduate department of Tulane university open to gradu- 
ate women without restriction since 1890; separate financial man- 
agement; separate president and faculty ; 8 instructors (1 Ph.D.) — 
5 women, 2 without first degrees ; 3 men, 1 without first degree ; 
51 undergrad. s. ; 34 special s. (10 in gymnastics) ; 54 s. of art ; 80 
pupils in preparatory dept. ; art dept. ; productive funds, $400,000 ; 
a lecture building, a chapel, an art building, a pottery building, two 
residence halls accommodating 75 students, a high school building; 
total cost of buildings about $225,000 ; vols, in library about 6,000 ; 
tuition, $100; lowest charge, board, room rent (two in one room, 
beds made by students) and tuition, $280. 



32 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [35° 

In the smaller group, which includes the College for women 
of Western reserve university and the H.Sophie Newcomb 
memorial college, the affiliated college tends to become an 
entirely separate institution ; in its instructors and instruc- 
tion it differs widely from the institution to which it is affili- 
ated ; it is, in fact, a different college called into existence by 
the same authorities. In the larger group, which includes the 
Women's college of Brown, Barnard and Radcliffe, the affili- 
ated college tends to blend itself with the institution to which 
it is affiliated in a new coeducational institution. The ideal 
in view is a complete identity of instructors and instruction 
and the law of economy of force forbids attaining this ideal 
by the duplication of the whole instruction given. It is less 
wasteful to double the number of hearers in any lecture 
room than to repeat the lecture. It is in the Women's col- 
lege of Brown that we find the closest affiliation and, 
accordingly, the nearest approach to coeducation. The 
corporation of Brown furnished the land on which Pem- 
broke hall, the academic building of the Women's college, 
was erected, and accepted the gift of the building when 
it was completed ; Brown has from first to last openly 
assumed responsibility for its affiliated college in fact as 
well as name. In the graduate department of Brown there 
is, as has been said, unrestricted coeducation ; and in many 
of the smaller undergraduate elective courses women are 
reciting with men. In the graduate department of Columbia 
there is now unrestricted coeducation. It is in the case of 
Radcliffe that there is least approach to coeducation. What 
has made possible the policy pursued at Radcliffe has been 
the self-sacrificing zeal of many eminent Harvard professors, 
willing at any cost of inconvenience to give to women what 
could seemingly on no other terms be given ; but the sacri- 
fice is too great, and in the modern world too unnecessary; 
it is at present almost everywhere possible for the professor 
interested in educating women to lighten his own labors by 
admitting them to the same classes with men. Only the 
affiliated colleges of the second group present in their inter- 



35 1] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 33 

nal organization a type essentially different from that of the 
independent college — a type intermediate between the inde- 
pendent and the coeducational. 

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 

Graduate instruction in the faculty of philosophy — True uni- 
versity instruction begins after the completion of the college 
course, and very little such instruction is given by any 
American university 1 except in the so-called graduate schools 
belonging to the twenty-three colleges in the United States 
included in the Federation of graduate clubs. 2 In the follow- 
ing 16 of these 23 graduate schools women are admitted 
without restriction and compete with men for many of the 
scholarships and honors : Yale, Brown, Cornell, Columbia, 
New York university, Pennsylvania, Columbian, Vanderbilt, 
Missouri, Western reserve, Chicago, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, California, Leland Stanford Junior ; Bryn Mawr 
and Wellesley admit women only ; Harvard admits them 
to certain courses through the mediation of Radcliffe. 
There remain, apart from the Catholic university, only 3 
graduate schools excluding women : Clark, Princeton and 
the Johns Hopkins university; and in the Johns Hopkins 
they are admitted to at least one university department — 
that of the medical school. 3 

1 The medical school of the Johns Hopkins university is a true university school, 
admitting only holders of the bachelor's degree; the law school of Harvard uni- 
versity is practically a university school, although seniors in Harvard college are 
received as students. 

2 Out of the 58 most important American colleges enumerated on page 12 only 
23, it will be remembered, appear in the lists of the Federation of graduate clubs. 
Unfortunately it must not be inferred that all these 23 colleges are doing true 
professional work and offering graduate students a three years' course leading to 
the degree of Ph. D. In some of them there are provided only courses leading to 
the degree of A. M., which, like the degree of A. B., indicating general culture. 
The affiliated college of Radcliffe appears in the list of graduate clubs, although 
it can scarcely be said to exist independently as a separate graduate school, being 
virtually the portal by which women are admitted to a limited amount of graduate 
work at Harvard. In 1899-1900 only 12 graduate lecture courses and 3 research 
courses were repeated at Radcliffe. 

3 The graduate courses of Clark (which has no undergraduate department) are 
few in number and attended by only 48 men ; the exclusion of women is, there- 
fore, very surprising especially as the principal subjects of instruction, pedagogy, 



34 



EDUCATION OF WOMEN [Z5 2 



In 1898-99 there were studying in these 23 gradu- 
ate schools 1,021 women, forming 26.8 per cent of the 
whole number of graduate students. 1 In 1889-90 the U. 
S. education report estimates that there were 271 women 
graduate students out of a total of 2,041 graduate stu- 
dents, or women formed 13.27 per cent of all graduate 
students ; in 1897-98 the report for that year estimates that 
there were 1,398 women out of a total of 5,816 graduate 
students, or women formed 24.04 per cent of all students — 
a remarkable increase as compared to the increase of men 
graduate students in 8 years. 

Graduate fellowships and scholarships — In 1899 there were 
open to women 319 scholarships varying in value from $100 
to $400 (50 of these exclusively for women) and 2 foreign 
scholarships (1 exclusively for women) ; 81 residence fellow- 
ships of the value of $400 or over (18 of these exclusively 
for women) ; 24 foreign fellowships of the value of $500 
and upwards (12 of these exclusively for women). 2 

experimental psychology and the like, are of peculiar interest to women. The 
exclusion of women from all but the medical department of the Johns Hopkins 
university is really of serious import, because the Johns Hopkins university, judged 
not by numbers but by scholarly research and publication, the number of Ph. D. 
degrees conferred, and the important college and university positions filled by its 
graduates, has long been, and perhaps is still, the most important graduate school 
in the United States. Its attitude toward women is to be accounted for in part 
by its location, and in part by the fact that its management is in the hands of a 
self-perpetuating board of twelve trustees appointed originally by the founder, 
and without exception Baltimoreans, so that no pressure can be brought to bear 
upon the corporation from more progressive sections of the country. 

1 These figures are taken from the Graduate handbook for 1899, published by the 
Federation of graduate clubs. Of these the greatest number studying in any one 
institution in the west was to be found in the University of Chicago, and the next 
greatest in the University of California; the greatest number studying in any one 
institution in the east was to be found at Barnard-Columbia, and the next great- 
est at Bryn Mawr. There were studying in the graduate departments of the Uni- 
versity of Chicago (including summer students) 276 women; in the University of 
California, 90 ; in Barnard-Columbia, 82; in Bryn Mawr, 61; in Radcliffe-Harvard, 
58; in Yale, 42; in Cornell, 36; in the University of Pennsylvania, 34. The posi- 
tion of Bryn Mawr in this series seems to show conclusively that an independ- 
ent woman's college maintaining a sufficiently high standard of instruction may 
compete successfully for students with much larger and older coeducational 
foundations. 

2 See Fellowships and graduate scholarships, published by the Association of 
collegiate alumnae, Richmond Hill, N. Y., Ill Series, No. 2, July, 1899. 



353] 



EDUCATION OF WOMEN 



35 



Comparative table of the progress of coeducation and increase of 
women students from 1890 to i8g8 and 1899 in theology, law, medi- 
cine, dentistry, pharmacy, schools of technology and agriculture. 





1890 x 


1S99 2 


i8qo x 


18983 




IS) 






u> 






c 


c 


c 


• a 




u 












0) 


V y, 


4> 






bO 


OJ 







OJ >-i 


<a 







B 


£s 


s 


B 2 
° S 




8 s 




"o " 


8* 

— c 

u 


<+-* v 


V 


S2 


►■s 


*~ 


?T3 




— c 


**> 


^ 


M 

4) 




U 3 


94S 


M" 




3 


-a 

S 
3 


2-3 
c 

Ph 


S 6 

3 


.81 

s 
3 


■M O 

c 

u 
u 

V 

Ph 


S3 

s 

3 



Ph 


S3 hi 

B 
3 


5^ 

Ph 




N 






97 


68 


41.2 


No women 


198 






reported 


reported 


2.4 




No women 
reported 


22 


64 


74-4 


No women 
reported 


147 






1-3 


Medicine (regular and irregular) 4. . 


67 


46 


40.7 


69 


80 


53-7 


854 


5-5 


1397 


6.0 




14 
13 


13 
16 


48.1 
55- 2 




44 
48 


78.6 

92-3 


53 
60 




162 


2.4 




4 






4-7 


Schools of technology and agricul- 












ture endowed with national land 
























14 


12 


46.2 


16 


48 


75- 


774 


12.5 


2 281 


16. i 







1 The numbers of coeducational and other professional schools are estimated from 
the U. S. ed. rep. for 1889-90. 

2 Through the kindness of Mr. James Russell Parsons, Jr., author of the mono- 
graph on professional education in the United States, published as one of this 
series, I am able to insert the figures for 1899, see p. 21. By personal inquiry 
I have been able to add four to his list of coeducational schools of theology. 

8 The number of professional students for the year 1898 is taken from the U. S. 
ed. rep. for 1897-98. 

4 For the sake of clearness I have omitted from the above table the 7 separate 
medical schools for women, although I have counted their students in the total 
number of women medical students, both in 1890 and 1898. In 1890 there were 
studying in the 6 regular medical women's colleges 425 women, as against 648 
women in coeducational regular medical colleges; in 1898 there were studying 
in them 411 women, as against 1045 in coeducational colleges, a decrease of 
3.3 per cent, whereas women students in coeducational medical colleges have 
increased 16.3 per cent. I limit the comparison to regular medical schools 
because women have increased relatively more rapidly in irregular medical 
schools and there is only one separate irregular medical school for women. It is 
sometimes said that women prefer medical sects because the proportion of women 
studying in irregular schools is relatively greater than the proportion studying in 
regular schools; but in 1898, 85.7 per cent of the irregular schools were coeduca- 
tional and only 46.6 per cent of regular schools, a fact which undoubtedly increases 
the proportion of students studying in irregular schools. 

6 The statistics for the schools of technology and agriculture are taken from the 
U. S. education report for 1889-90, pp. 1053-1054, and from the report for 1897-98, 
pp. 1985-1988. I have excluded schools of technology not endowed with the 
national land grant. In 1890 there were 27 of such schools (5 of them coeduca- 
tional); in 1898 their number had fallen to 17 (3 of them coeducational). Very 
few women are studying in these schools; in 1898 women formed only 0.2 per 
cent of all students studying in them. 



36 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [354 

Theology, law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, veterinary 
science, schools of technology and agriculture — Ten years ago 
there were very few women studying in any of these schools. 
The wonderful increase both in facilities for professional 
study and in the number of women students during the last 
eight years may be seen by referring to the comparative 
table on page 35. 

It is evident to the impartial observer that coeducation is to 
be the method in professional schools. Except in medicine, 
where women were at first excluded from coeducational study 
by the strongest prejudice that has ever been conquered in any 
movement, no important separate professional schools, indeed 
none whatever, except one unimportant school of pharmacy 
have been founded for women only. 1 It is evident also that 
the number of women entering upon professional study is 
increasing rapidly. If we compare the relative increase of 
men and of women from 1890 to 1898 we obtain the follow- 
ing percentages : increase of students in medicine, men, 
5 1. 1 per cent, women, 64.2 per cent ; in dentistry, men, 150.2 
per cent, women, 205.7 per cent ; in pharmacy, men, 25.9 per 
cent, women, 190 per cent; in technology and agriculture, 
men, 119.3 per cent, women, 194.7 per cent. 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

There are many questions connected with the college edu- 
cation of American women which possess great interest 
for the student of social science. 

Number of college women— In the year 1897-98 2 there 
were studying in the undergraduate and graduate depart- 
ments of coeducational colleges and universities 17,338 
women, and in the undergraduate and graduate depart- 
ments of independent and affiliated women's colleges, divis- 
ion A, 4,959 women, women forming thus 27.4 per cent of 

1 A private law school for women existed for some years in the city of New York, 
founded by Madame Kempin, a graduate of the University of Zurich. At the 
request of the Women's legal education society it was incorporated with the New 
York University law school. 

2 See U. S. ed. rep. 1897-98, p. 1825, corrected according to note 1, page 15 of this 
monograph. 



355] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 37 

the total number of graduate and undergraduate students. 
The 22 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate 
alumnae, which are, on the whole, the most important colleges 
in the United States admitting women, have conferred the 
bachelor's degree on 12,804 women. If we add to these 
the graduates of the Women's college of Brown univer- 
sity, 102 in number, and the graduates of the 14 additional 
coeducational colleges included in my list of the 58 most 
important colleges in the United States, we obtain, including 
those graduating in June, 1899, a total of 14,824 women 
holding the bachelor's degree. 1 There is thus formed, even 
leaving out of account the graduates of the minor colleges, 
a larger body of educated women than is to be found in 
any other country in the world. These graduates have 
received the most strenuous college training obtainable by 
women in the United States, which does not differ materially 
from the best college training obtainable by American men 
(indeed, women graduates of coeducational colleges have 
received precisely the same training as men), and may fairly 
be compared with the women who have received college and 
university training abroad. In other countries women uni- 
versity graduates, or even women who have studied at 
universities, are very few ; 2 in America, on the other hand, 

1 The number of women graduates has been obtained in every case through the 
courtesy of the presidents of the colleges concerned. In some cases the women 
graduates have had to be selected from the total number of graduates and 
counted separately for the purpose. As the figures have never been printed 
before, I give them below: 22 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumna : — 
-coeducational colleges: Boston, 522 graduates; California, 440; Chicago, 267; Cor- 
nell, 517; Kansas, 259; Leland Stanford, Jr., 289, Massachusetts institute tech- 
nology, 45; Michigan, 940; Minnesota, 458; Nebraska, 263 ; Northwestern, 317; 
Oberlin, 1,486; Syracuse, 508; Wesleyan, 118; Wisconsin, 620. Independent col- 
leges: Vassar, 1,509; Wellesley, 1,727; Smith, 1,679; Bryn Mawr, 321. Affiliated 
colleges: Radcliffe, 278; Barnard, 106; College for women of Western reserve, 135. 
Additional colleges, 15 in number: Women's college of Brown, 102; Cincinnati, 99; 
Columbian, 60; Colorado, about 70; Illinois, 131; Indiana, 282; Iowa, 340; Maine, 
28; Missouri, no record; Ohio State university, 150; Ohio Wesleyan, 615; Texas, 60 
Vanderbilt, 11; Washington (St. Louis), 55; West Virginia, 17. Total, 14,824 
women graduates. 

2 The number of women studying in universities in Germany in 1898-99 was 
approximately 471, probably mainly foreigners (statistics given in the Hochschul 
Nachrichten, Minerva, etc.); in France in 1896-97, approximately 410, of whom 83 



3§ EDUCATION OF WOMEN [356 

the higher education of women has assumed the proportions, 
of a national movement still in progress. We may perhaps 
be able to guide in some degree its future development, but 
it has passed the experimental stage and can no longer be 
opposed with any hope of success. Its results are to be 
reckoned with as facts. 

Health of college women * — Those who have come into con- 
tact with some of the many thousands of healthy normal 

were foreigners (Les University's francaises, by M. Louis Liard; vol. 2 of Special 
Reports on Educational Subjects, Education department, London, 1898) ; in 
England and Wales in 1897-98, approximately 2,348. (See catalogues of different 
colleges.) The total number of women graduates in England and Wales who have, 
received degrees, or their equivalent, from English and Welsh universities is 
about 2,180. 

1 Two statistical investigations of the health of college women have been under- 
taken; one in America in 1882, which tabulated various data connected with the- 
health, occupation, marriage, birth rate, etc., of 705 graduates of the 12 American 
colleges belonging at that time to the Association of collegiate alumnse (Health 
statistics of women college graduates; report of a special committee of the Associ- 
ation of collegiate alumnse, Annie G. Howes, chairman; together with statistical 
tables collated by the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of labor. Boston: Wright 
and Potter Printing Co., 18 Post Office Square. 1885), and one in England in 
1887 (Health statistics of women students of Cambridge and Oxford and of their 
sisters, by Mrs. Henry Sidgwick, Cambridge university press, 1890). The English 
statistics dealt with 566 women students (honor students who had taken tripos 
examinations and final honors, and women who had been in residence three, two 
and one year) of Newnham and Girton colleges, Cambridge, and of Lady Margaret 
and Somerville halls at Oxford. It was found that in England 75 per cent of the 
honor students were at the time of the investigation in excellent or good health. 
It was found that in America 78 per cent of the graduates were at the time of the 
investigation in good health and 5 per cent in fair health. In estimating the 
result of this investigation it is difficult to find a standard of comparison. There- 
is no way of knowing what percentage of good health is to be expected in the 
case of the average woman who has not been to college. It is stated in the Ameri- 
can health investigation, page 10, that Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, while obtaining 
data for her monograph on the question of rest for women, found that of 246 
women only 56 -f- per cent were in good health. The American statistics were 
compared with the results obtained in an investigation of the condition of 1,032 
working women of Boston, made by the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of 
labor; the comparison showed that the health of college women was more satis- 
factory than the health of working women. The English statistics were com- 
pared with the health statistics of 450 sisters or first cousins who had not received 
a college education, and it was found that, at all periods, about 5 per cent less of 
honor graduates were in bad health than of sisters and cousins. The compara- 
tive tables showed that the married graduates were healthier than their married 
sisters, that there were fewer childless marriages among them, that they had a 
larger proportion of children per year of married life, and that their children, 
were healthier. 



357] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 39 

women studying in college at the present time, or who have 
had an opportunity to know something of the after-lives of 
even a small number of college women, believe that experi- 
ence has proved them to be, both in college, and after leav- 
ing college, on the whole, in better physical condition than 
other women of the same age and social condition. Since, 
however, people who have not the opportunity of knowledge 
at first hand continue to regard the health of college women 
as a subject open for discussion, a new health investigation, 
based on questions sent to the 12,804 graduates of the 22 
colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnae, is 
now in progress. The statistical tables will be collated a 
second time by the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of 
labor and sent to the Paris exposition as part of the educa- 
tional exhibit of the Association of collegiate alumnae. 1 

Marriage rate of college women — Here again no positive 
conclusions can be reached until we know what is the usual 
marriage rate of women belonging to the social class of 
women graduates. Everything indicates that the time of 
marriage is becoming later in the professional classes and 
that the marriage rate as a whole is decreasing. An inves- 
tigation undertaken simultaneously with the new health 
investigation by the Association of collegiate alumnae will 
enable us to speak with certainty in regard to the marriage 
rate of a laree number of college women and their sisters. 2, 

1 The health, marriage rate, birth rate, etc., of woman graduates will be com- 
pared in every case with the corresponding statistics for the women relatives 
nearest in age who have not received a college education; an attempt will also be 
made to obtain corresponding statistics for the nearest men relatives who are 
college graduates. 

5 The health investigation of English women students showed that the average 
age of marriage for students was 26.70 as against 25.53 f° r sisters, and that 10.25 
per cent of the students were married and 19.33 per cent of the sisters, or, omit- 
ting the students who had just left college when the returns were sent in, about 
12 per cent of students. The rate of marriage of students after their college 
course was completed and of their sisters seemed to be the same, the difference in 
the total number of marriages being apparently accounted for by causes existing 
before the termination of the college course, " possibly the desire to go to college, 
or to remain in college may be among them, but having been in college is not one 
of them." (See summary of results by Mrs. Sidgwick, page 59.) Mrs. Sidgwick 
concludes as a result of the investigation that not more than one-half of English 



4Q 



EDUCATION OF WOMEN 



L358 



Marriage rate of college women 



Opened in 



Percentage of 

graduates 
married 



Vassar 

Kansas 

Minnesota 

Cornell 

Syracuse 

Wesleyan 

Nebraska . . 

Boston 

Wellesley 

Smith 

Radcliffe 

Bryn Mawr , 

Barnard 

Leland Stanford Junior 
Chicago 



1865 

1866 
1868 

1870 

1871 

1873 

1875 

1879 
1885 
1889 
1891 
1892 



35 
3i 
24 



31-0 



24 


3 


22 


2 


18 


4 


16 


5 


15 


2 


IO 


4 


9 


7 


9 


4 



It will be seen that independent, affiliated and coeducational colleges fall 
into their proper place in the series, thus showing conclusively that the method 
of obtaining a college education exercises scarcely any appreciable influence on 
the marriage rate. 

The marriage rate of Bryn Mawr college, calculated in January, 1900, will also 
serve as an illustration of the importance of time in every consideration of the 
marriage rate : graduates of the class of 1889, married, 40.7 per cent; graduates of 
the first two classes, 1889-1890, married, 40.0 per cent; graduates of the first three 
classes, 1889-1891, married, 33.3 per cent; graduates of the first four classes, 1889- 
1892, married, 32.9 per cent; graduates of the first five classes, 1889-1893, married, 
31.0 per cent; graduates of the first six classes, 1889-1894, married, 30.0 per cent; 
graduates of the first seven classes, 1889-1895, married, 25.2 per cent; graduates 
of the first eight classes, 1889-1896, married, 22.8 per cent; graduates of the first 
nine classes, 1889-1897, married, 20.9 per cent; graduates of the first ten classes, 
1889-1898, married, 17.2 per cent; graduates of the first eleven classes, 1889-1899, 
married, 15.2 per cent. 



358 a] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 40 a 

It must be borne in mind that the element of time is 
very important, and in the case of women the later and 
therefore younger classes are all larger than the earlier 
ones. (See table, page 40.) 

Occupations of college women — It is probable that about 
50 per cent of women graduates teach for at least a cer- 
tain number of years. Of the 705 women graduates whose 
occupations were reported in the Association of collegiate 
alumnae investigation of 1883 50.2 percent were then teach- 
ing. In 1895 of 1,082 graduates of Vassar 37.7 per cent 
were teaching ; 2.0 per cent were engaged in graduate study 
and 3.0 per cent were physicians or studying medicine. In 
1898 of 171 graduates (all living) of Radcliffe college, includ- 
ing the class of 1898, 49.7 per cent were teaching ; 8.7 per 
cent were engaged in graduate study ; .6 per cent were 
studying medicine ; 17.5 per cent were unmarried and with- 
out professional occupation. In 1899 of 316 living gradu- 
ates of Bryn Mawr college, including the class of 1899, 39.0 
percent were teaching; 11.4 were engaged in graduate 
study ; 6 per cent were engaged in executive work (includ- 
ing 4 deans of colleges, 3 mistresses of college halls of 
residence) ; 1.6 per cent were studying or practising medi- 
cine, and 26.6 per cent were unmarried and without profes- 
sional occupation. 1 

Coeducation vs. separate education — It is clear that coedu- 
cation is the prevailing method in the United States; it is 
the most economical method ; indeed it is the only possible 

women of the social class of women students or their sisters marry. The Ameri- 
can investigation of 1883 showed that 27.8 per cent of the American college gradu- 
ates, their average age being 28 1-2 years, were at that time married, and that, 
judging by the indications of the marriage percentages among older graduates, 
about 50 per cent were likely sooner or later to be married. In an investigation 
of the marriage of Vassar graduates made in 1895, and not including the graduates 
of that year, it was found that rather under 38 per cent of the whole number of 
students, and about 63 per cent of the first four classes, were married, see 
Frances M. Abbott: A Generation of college women, The Forum, vol. XX, p. 378. 
Out of the total number of 8,956 graduates, including those graduating in June, 
1899, of the 16 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnae that 
have kept accurate marriage statistics, 2,059 are married, or 23.0 per cent. 

1 Mrs. Sidgwick's investigation showed that 77 per cent of all English students 
reporting, and 83 per cent of honor students, had engaged in educational work. 



4-Ob EDUCATION OF WOMEN [358 b 

method in most parts of the country. Now that it has been 
determined in America to send girls as well as boys to college, 
it becomes impossible to duplicate colleges for women in every 
part of this vast country. If, as is shown by the statistics 
given in the successive reports of the commissioner of edu- 
cation, men students in college are increasing faster far than 
the ratio of the population, and women college students 
are increasing faster still than men, 1 it will tax all our 
resources to make adequate provision for men and women 
in common. Only in thickly-settled parts of the country, 
where public sentiment is conservative enough to justify the 
initial outlay, have separate colleges for women been estab- 
lished, and these colleges, without exception, have been 
private foundations. Public opinion in the United States 
almost universally demands that universities supported by 
public taxation should provide for the college education of 
the women of the state in which they are situated. The 
separate colleges for women speaking generally are to be 
found almost exclusively in the narrow strip of colonial states 
lying along the Atlantic seaboard. The question is often 
asked, whether women prefer coeducation or separate educa- 
tion. It seems that in the east they as yet prefer separate 
education, and this preference is natural. 2 College life as 

1 Between 1890 and 1898 women undergraduate students have increased 111.8 
per cent, and men undergraduate students have increased 51.2 per cent. 

2 In the college departments of coeducational colleges the average number of 
women studying is 48.4, whereas in the college departments of independent women's 
colleges the average number of women studying is 331. 91, and in affiliated col- 
leges 192.8. In 1897-98 II. 4 per cent of all the women studying in coeducational 
colleges obtained the bachelor's degree, whereas 13.4 per cent of all the women 
studying in independent women's colleges obtained the bachelor's degree, which 
indicates probably that women prefer women's colleges for four years of resi- 
dence. In the same year 13.3 per cent of all men undergraduate students obtained 
the bachelor's degree. The average number of graduates of the 4 women's col- 
leges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnae is 1,309 per college, the 
average age of the colleges being 23 years; the average number of graduates of 
the 15 coeducational colleges belonging to the Association of college alumnae is 
only 469.9, although the average age of the colleges is 27.7 years. During the S- 
years from 1890 to 1898, women undergraduate students have increased in coedu- 
cational colleges 105.4 per cent, whereas they have increased in women's colleges,; 
.division A, 138.4 per cent. Precisely the reverse is true of men students (see 
pp. 14 and 15, including foot notes). 



358 c] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 40 C 

it is organized in a woman's college seems to conservative 
parents less exposed, more in accordance with inherited tradi- 
tions. Consequently, girls who in their own homes lead 
guarded lives, are to be found rather in women's colleges 
than in coeducational colleges. From the point of view of 
conservative parents, there is undoubtedly serious objection 
to intimate association at the most impressionable period of 
a girl's life with many young men from all parts of the country 
and of every possible social class. From every point of view 
it is undesirable to have the problems of love and marriage 
presented for decision to a young girl during the four years 
when she ought to devote her energies to profiting by the 
only systematic intellectual training she is likely to receive 
during her life. Then, too, for the present, much of the cul- 
ture and many of the priceless associations of college life are 
to be obtained, whether for men or women, only by residence 
in college halls, and no coeducational, or even affiliated, col- 
leges have as yet organized for their students such a com- 
plete college life as the independent woman's college. So 
long as this preference, and the grounds for it, exist, we must 
see to it that separate colleges for women are no less good 
than colleges for men. In professional schools, including the 
graduate school of the faculty of philosophy, coeducation is 
even at present almost the only method. There are in the 
United States only 4 true graduate schools for men closed 
to women, and only 1 independent graduate school main- 
tained for women offering three years' consecutive work 
leading to the degree of Ph. D. There is every reason to 
believe that as soon as large numbers of women wish to 
enter upon the study of theology, law and medicine, all the 
professional schools now existing will become coeducational. 
A modified vs. an unmodified curriculum — The progress of 
women's education, as we have traced it briefly from its 
beginning in the coeducational college of Oberlin in 1833, 
and the independent woman's college of Vassar in 1865, has 
been a progress in accordance with the best academic tradi- 
tions of men's education. In 1870 we could not have pre- 



40d EDUCATION OF WOMEN [358 d 

dieted the course to be taken by the higher education of 
women ; the separate colleges for women might have devel- 
oped into something wholly different from what we had been 
familiar with so long in the separate colleges for men. A 
female course in coeducational colleges in which music and 
art were substituted for mathematics and Greek might have 
met the needs of the women students. After thirty years 
of experience, however, we are prepared to say that what- 
ever changes may be made in future in the college curriculum 
will be made for men and women alike. After all, women 
themselves must be permitted to be the judges of what kind 
of intellectual discipline they find most truly serviceable. 
They seem to have made up their minds, and hereafter may 
be trusted to see to it that an inferior education shall not 
be offered to them in women's colleges, or elsewhere, under 
the name of a modified curriculum. 



8 
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 



BY 

B. A. HINSDALE 

Sometime Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan 



THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 



The agencies of an institutional character for training 
teachers in the United States are the following: Normal 
schools and colleges, teachers' training classes, teachers' 
institutes, summer schools, university extension lectures, 
teachers' reading circles, chairs of education in colleges and 
universities, and teachers' colleges. None of these agencies 
go far back in our history ; all of them, on the contrary, 
sprang directly or indirectly out of the educational revival 
that began to show marked power in the most progressive 
countries early in the present century. We shall under- 
stand the origin and development of these agencies the 
better if we first glance at the preparation of teachers in the 
period preceding this revival. 

The first thing to be considered is the fact that the train- 
ing of teachers, as the phrase is now understood, had pre- 
viously been wholly neglected throughout the country. 
Teachers had no other preparation for their work than their 
natural aptitude for the art, their knowledge of the subjects 
which they taught, and such practical lessons as they learned 
in their school rooms. As respects their academic prepa- 
ration, they presented, as a class, a very motley appearance, 
as a cursory view of the schools of the country will abun- 
dantly show. 

New England was much better supplied with schools of 
all kinds than any other section of the country. Here were 
found four of the nine colleges that existed at the time of 
the revolutionary war ; here permanent grammar schools 
and academies existed in larger numbers than elsewhere ; 
and here were the only systems of public schools that had 
been founded. The teacher was always highly respected by 
the Puritans ; but some of the accounts of teachers and 



4 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [362 

schools that have come down to us bear a striking resem- 
blance to the descriptions of the state of education existing 
in Switzerland and France in the youth of Pestalozzi. In 
the early time we read of one town, for example, that 
required its schoolmaster to perform the following duties in 
addition to taking charge of the school : to act as court 
messenger, to serve summonses, to conduct certain ceremo- 
nial services of the church, to lead the Sunday choir, to ring 
the bell for public worship, to dig graves, and to perform 
other occasional duties. 1 Matters improved as time went 
on, but Horace Mann wrote of Massachusetts as late as 
1837 : " Engaged in the common schools of the state there 
are now, out of the city of Boston, but a few more than a 
hundred male teachers who devote themselves to teaching 
as a regular profession. The number of females is a little, 
though not materially, larger. Very few even of these have 
ever had any special training for their vocation. The rest 
are generally young persons, taken from agricultural or 
mechanical employment, which have no tendency to qualify 
them for the difficult station ; or they are undergraduates of 
our colleges, some of whom, there is reason to suspect, think 
more of what they are to receive at the end of the stipulated 
term, than what they are to impart during its continuance." 2 
The winter schools were taught by men, the summer schools 
by women, the men being much the better fitted for the 
office of instruction. 

In the middle states education had never taken on a 
strong institutional form. The four colleges of that section 
— Philadelphia, New Jersey, Queen's and King's — were 
much younger and weaker than Harvard and Yale ; acade- 
mies and grammar schools were less firmly established than 
east of the Hudson river, while common schools were wholly 
of a voluntary or parochial character. Private schools and 
domestic instruction were mainly relied on. The old Dutch 
schoolmasters of the Hudson and the Delaware performed 

'Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, p. 12. 
8 Life and Works of Horace Mann, vol. II, p. 425. 



363] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 5 

quite as many offices as ever the New England schoolmas- 
ters performed. They were forereaders and foresingers in 
the churches, comforters of the sick, and church clerks, not 
to mention other services, as well as pedagogues. 1 Presi- 
dent Dwight, of Yale college, visiting the city of New 
York early in this century, gives this account of the majority 
of the schools that he found there : " An individual, some- 
times a liberally educated student, having obtained the 
proper recommendations, offers himself to some of the 
inhabitants as a schoolmaster. If he is approved and pro- 
cures a competent number of subscribers, he hires a room 
and commences the business of instruction. Sometimes he 
meets with little, and sometimes with much encourage- 
ment." 2 And so it was, for the most part, throughout the 
middle states. 

At the south schools were still less firmly rooted. Here 
was found, before the revolutionary war, but a single col- 
lege, William and Mary, and academies of a permanent 
character were infrequent. In the later colonial days, and 
perhaps afterwards, it was common for southern gentlemen 
to send abroad for university educated men, who were duly 
installed as teachers in their families. Thus George Mason, 
the distinguished Virginia statesman of the revolutionary 
era, sent to Scotland for two teachers in succession for his 
sons. 3 At an earlier time it was still more common in the 
southern states for heads of families to buy teachers in the 
market as the Romans bought them in the days of Cicero ; 
such teachers being commonly redemptioners, men who had 
sold their services for a term of years to a merchant or ship- 
master in payment for their transportation to America, but 
sometimes, also, convicts who had been expatriated. It was 
common, too, at the south, and in a less degree in the mid- 
dle states, for leading families to send their sons abroad to 

1 History of the school of the collegiate reformed Dutch church in the city of 
New York, etc. H. W. Dunshee, New York, 1883, passim. 

2 Travels in New England and New York, 4 vols. London, 1823, vol. IV, p. 443. 
8 The Life of George Mason, etc. Kate Mason Rowland, N. Y. London, 1892, 

vol. I, pp. 96, 97. 



6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [364 

be educated. Thus the father and two elder brothers of 
Washington were sent to Appleby school in England. 
Foreign trained teachers were much more common at the 
south than at the north. Andrew Bell, author of the Mad- 
ras system of education, taught in Virginia through the 
period of the revolutionary war. 1 The Scotch-Irish race, 
both in and out of the country, furnished a large number of 
teachers, some of whom were as vagrant in their habits as 
the wandering scholars of the sixteenth century. " The 
whole southern country," writes one who has carefully studied 
the subject, "was opened to the wandering teachers, all the 
way from an educational tramp and a drunken importation 
from a British university, to now and then, probably, a com- 
petent teacher." Such men as these were met with every- 
where, but more commonly at the south and west. 

Following the revolution, as the different sections of the 
union became more closely knit together, New England, 
which had a surplus of teachers, such as they were, began to 
send her overplus beyond her borders. Other states at the 
north followed her example. Probably the practice ante- 
dated the war ; but now the " Yankee " schoolmaster became 
better known in the south and west than ever the Scotch 
professor had been known in continental countries in the 
middle ages. It may be worth recalling that it was one 
of these New England schoolmasters, Eli Whitney, who 
invented the cotton gin, which gave such an impulse to 
cotton production and cotton manufacture. William Ellery 
Channing taught as a private instructor in Richmond, Vir- 
ginia, in 1 798-1 800; William H. Seward taught part of the 
year 1819 in Georgia; Salmon P. Chase carried on his select 
classical seminary in Washington in 1827-28, while studying 
law in the office of William Wirt ; and at a later day James 
G. Blaine taught for a time in the Western Military institute 
at the Blue Lick Springs, Kentucky. Women, as well as 
men, went to the south to teach. Probably most of these 

1 The Life of Rev. Andrew Bell, etc. By Robert Southey, London, 1844, vol. 
I, chap. II. 



365] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 7 

teachers returned north again after a period of service ; but 
some remained and became identified with the country. 
Thus the gentleman quoted from above testifies : " In my 
wanderings through the older Atlantic states, I have come 
upon a good many old men and women who left New 
England as teachers and married and settled among the 
people." 1 It must be added that at the south, and in the 
middle states in less degree, men of superior education 
looked with little favor upon teaching as a vocation, being 
more interested in the professions or in public life. 

The general situation in the first quarter of the present 
century may be summed up as follows : The teachers of the 
best academies, grammar schools, and select schools were 
educated men, a large majority of them trained in the col- 
leges of the country, but some in the universities of the old 
world, particularly of England and of Scotland. Not unfre- 
quently these teachers were ministers of religion actually in 
charge of parishes or churches. In fact, it had always been 
common for ministers to teach, if not formal schools, then 
private pupils in their own studies. Next to this group the 
best educated teachers, as a class, were college students and 
young men preparing for professional life — the law, medicine, 
or the ministry — who had resorted to teaching for the time as 
a means of supplying themselves with needed funds. John 
Adams, after graduating from Harvard college in 1755, 
taught for a time in the grammar school at Worcester, Mas- 
sachusetts. Some of these persons, by reason of aptitude, 
enthusiasm, and scholarly attainments, were excellent teach- 
ers. The third group to be mentioned was composed of 
persons who had studied in the academies and grammar and 
select schools but had not attended institutions of a higher 
grade. These were found not only in the elementary schools 
but in the grammar schools and academies themselves. 
Schools of this grade, it may be explained, performed a 
double function ; they sent young men to the colleges, but 
a much larger number directly into practical life. Much of 

1 Dr. A. D. Mayo, in private letter. 



8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [366 

the instruction that they furnished, especially the inferior 
schools, was of a strictly elementary character. The fourth 
group, found in the common schools, were fitted, so far as 
they were fitted at all, some in the grammar school and 
academies, but many more in just such schools as they taught 
themselves. Sometimes, however, a college student, or even 
graduate, was found in one of the common schools. 

In America, as in Europe, the education of women had 
been greatly neglected. In the first half of the eighteenth 
century fewer than forty per cent of the women of New 
England who signed legal papers wrote their names ; the 
others made their mark. 1 Mrs. John Adams, writing of the 
middle of the century, said female education in the best 
families went no further than writing and arithmetic ; in 
some few and rare instances music and dancing. It was 
fashionable, she said also, to ridicule female learning. 2 
Girls were not admitted to the public schools of Boston until 
1769. When the first quarter of this century was well 
turned some change for the better was apparent ; but even 
then, there were slight manifestations of that splendid out- 
burst of interest in women's education which was carried in 
the bosom of the great democratic movement. All this was 
the more unfortunate because a large proportion of the teach- 
ers, at least in the northern states, were women, who were, 
generally speaking, grossly incompetent and miserably paid. 

Still it must not be supposed that, down to the educational 
revival, no attention was given to the qualification and 
preparation of teachers. That were a great mistake ; the 
maintenance of colleges and academies was often advocated 
on the ground that they would furnish teachers for the com- 
mon schools. Dr. Franklin, for example, in urging the 
claims of the Academy of Philadelphia, now the University 
of Pennsylvania, remarked upon the great need of school- 

1 The Evolution of the Massachusetts public school system, G. H. Martin, New- 
York, 1894, p. 75. 

s The Familiar letters of John Adams and his wife Abigail Adams during the 
revolution, with a memoir of Mrs. Adams by Charles Francis Adams. New- 
York, 1876, pp. xxi, 339. 



367] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 9 

masters, and said the academy would be able to furnish 
teachers of good morals well prepared to teach children 
reading, writing, arithmetic, and the grammar of their 
mother tongue. 1 But nothing was said or done, so far as 
known, relative to instructing prospective teachers in the 
science and the art of teaching. 

It is clear, therefore, that, at the opening of this century, 
there was urgent need of a general educational revival 
throughout the country, and particularly of a revival, or cre- 
ation, of interest in the training of teachers. Both of these 
needs were the more pressing because population was largely 
increasing, owing partly to its growing density in the old 
states, but more to its rapid extension into the new regions 
of the west. There was, in fact, no other part of the union 
where the schoolmaster so much needed to be abroad as on 
the western frontiers. 

In fact, the two elements that have just been mentioned 
could not be separated. In America, as in Europe, the 
demand for better teachers was a marked feature of the 
great democratic movement towards popular education ; per- 
haps it may be called the feature of this movement. Early 
in this century calls began to be heard in various parts of 
the United States, at first in slow and then in rapid suc- 
cession. These calls were not made according to a pro- 
gram ; there was no central propaganda ; in fact, there 
was little direct connection between the early discussions 
and efforts to do something in different parts of the country. 
On the other hand, these discussions and efforts sprang 
from the forces or causes that produced the great educa- 
tional uprising in this country and in other countries. Men 
will differ as to the relative power of these forces, or perhaps 
even as to the number ; but the best judges, it is believed, 
will hardly dispute the assertion that, in America at least, 
the democratic spirit was the most far reaching and effica- 
cious of such causes. " Schools must be provided for the 

1 History of education in Pennsylvania, etc. J. P. Wickersham, Lancaster, Pa., 
1886, p. 606. 



IO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [368 

people ", " the property of the state must educate the youth 
of the state ", " the schools must have better teachers ", 
became national watchwords. 1 



I NORMAL SCHOOLS 

The highly mechanical method of teaching that bears the 
names of Bell and Lancaster, called also mutual and moni- 
torial instruction, demanded much skill in its conductors. 
Among other places, this method took root in the city of 
Philadelphia, and there, in 1818, it called into existence the 
model school, which was, no doubt, the first school estab- 
lished in the country for the training of teachers ; it did not, 
however, outlive the movement of which it was a part. 

The first permanent normal schools were the three founded 
at Lexington, Barrie, and Bridgewater, Massachusetts, in 
1839-40. They were an outgrowth of the interest in popu- 
lar education and especially of interest in schools for pre- 
paring common school teachers, which had been increasing 
for years, and particularly after German influence began to 
be felt upon American education, that is, about 1820. These 
primitive schools were in all respects on a small scale — 
studies, teachers and pupils. Candidates to be admitted 
were required to be, if males, seventeen years old, if females, 
sixteen years. They were required to declare an intention 
to become school teachers ; they also took an entrance 
examination, and submitted evidence of intellectual capacity 
and moral character. The minimum term of study was 
fixed at one year, and at its expiration the pupil, if deserv- 
ing, was promised a certificate of qualification. The official 
course of study, prepared by the state board of education, 
said the studies first to be attended to should be those which 
the law required to be taught in the district schools, viz.: 

1 The writer has given a much fuller account of the state of schools in the 
United States previous to 1837 i n nis work entitled " Horace Mann and the com- 
mon school revival in the United States." New York, 1898, chaps. I, II. See 
also chapters on various aspects of our educational history by Dr. A. D. Mayo, in 
the reports of the commissioner of education, 1895, 1896, 1897. Also chap. XXIX 
of the last named report. 



369] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS II 

orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography 
and arithmetic. When these were thoroughly mastered, 
those of a higher order might be progressively taken. Per- 
sons wishing to remain at the school more than one year, in 
order to increase their qualifications for teaching a public 
school, might do so, having first obtained the consent of 
the principal ; and to meet their needs, a further course of 
study was marked out. The whole course, properly arranged, 
was as follows : 

(1) Orthography, reading, grammar, composition and 
rhetoric, logic ; (2) writing, drawing ; (3) arithmetic, men- 
tal and written, algebra, geometry, bookkeeping, navigation, 
surveying ; (4) geography, ancient and modern, with chro- 
nology, statistics, and general history ; (5) physiology ; (6) 
mental philosophy ; (7) music ; (8) constitution and history 
of Massachusetts and of the United States ; (9) natural 
philosophy and astronomy ; (10) natural history; (11) the 
principles of piety and morality common to all sects of 
Christians; (12) the science and art of teaching, with refer- 
ence to all the above named studies. A portion of the 
Scriptures should be read daily in every normal school. 

A selection from the above studies should be made by 
those who were to remain at the school but one year, accord- 
ing to the particular kind of school it might be their inten- 
tion to teach. To each normal school an experimental or 
model school was attached, where the pupils could reduce to 
practice the knowledge that they acquired of the science and 
art of teaching. Every school was put in the immediate 
charge of a principal aided by needed assistants. 1 

Such was the program. Perhaps it is to-day most interest- 
ing when viewed as a gauge of the time, or as a base line 
from which to measure progress. 

These primitive schools were the joint product of private 
and public liberality ; both citizens and the legislature 
shared in founding them ; moreover, they were an experi- 

1 The Common school journal, edited by Horace Mann, secretary of the Massa- 
chusetts board of education, vol. I, pp. 32-38. 



12 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [370 

ment, the legislature refusing at first to commit itself to 
their maintenance beyond the period of three years ; but 
they so commended themselves to the public that they were 
soon regularly incorporated into the state system of public 
instruction. Furthermore, not only have these schools 
greatly grown, in number of pupils and teachers, in appli- 
ances and breadth of studies, and in influence, but others 
have been added to the list until Massachusetts has now 
nine state normal schools. 

The northern and western states have generally adopted 
the normal school idea. In the west they spring out of the 
soil and grow up side by side with the other institutions of 
civil society. Nor is this all. At the close of the civil war 
there was not a single normal school in the southern states ; 
since that time, however, they have been generally intro- 
duced as an indispensable feature of the common school 
system. The places and times at which some of the leading 
schools were established will illustrate the progress of the 
movement. 

Albany, N. Y., 1844. Framington, Maine, 1864. 

New Britain, Connecticut, 1850. Winona, Minnesota, 1864. 

Ypsilanti, Michigan, 1852. Chicago (Cook county), 111., 
Boston, Massachusetts, 1852. 1867. 

Normal, Illinois, 1857. Plattville, Wisconsin, 1866. 

Millersville, Pennsylvania, 1859. Nashville, Tennessee, 1875. 

Oswego, New York, i860. Cedar Falls, Iowa, 1876. 

Emporia, Kansas, 1864. Terre Haute, Indiana, 1870. 

New York now has twelve public normal schools, Penn- 
sylvania thirteen, Massachusetts nine, West Virginia, North 
Carolina, Missouri, and Wisconsin seven each. No other 
state has more than six, and a few have none. Ohio, how- 
ever, is the only great state that has no state normal school. 

Perhaps no school in this list has exerted a greater influ- 
ence than the Oswego school. This influence has been 
largely due to the practical application that was here made 
of Pestalozzian ideas and methods, and to the great ability 
and elevation of character of its founder, Dr. E. A. Sheldon. 



37l] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 1 3 

This development has been due partly to the quickening 
example of Massachusetts, but far more to the general preva- 
lence of the same causes that acted in that state. A high 
educational authority has said that " all normal school work 
in the country follows substantially one tradition, and this 
* * * traces back to the course laid down at Lexington 
in 1839." 1 There is truth in this view, but the operation of 
the same general causes was, no doubt, a more powerful 
factor than direct imitation. 

We come now to the question, What and how much are 
the students in the normal schools doing ? Only a general 
answer can be given. 

Candidates for admission to the Massachusetts schools 
must be graduates of approved high schools, or must have 
received an equivalent education. The general two years' 
course designed for intending teachers below the high school 
comprises, (i) psychology, history of education, principles 
of education, methods of instruction and discipline, school 
organization, and the laws of Massachusetts ; (2) methods 
of teaching English, mathematics, science, vocal music, 
physical culture, and manual training ; (3) observation in 
the model school and in other public schools. The Bridge- 
water school has a regular four years' course embracing, in 
addition to the foregoing studies, work of a more academic 
character, as instruction in Latin and French, Greek and 
German, English literature, history, etc. This course looks 
to the preparation of grammar school principals and a grade 
of high school teachers. Bridgewater also offers a three 
years' course, a cross between the other two, while provision 
is also made for advanced instruction for college graduates 
and other approved candidates in all the schools. Diplomas 
are given to graduates from all courses. 2 

1 Dr. W. T. Harris, oration delivered at Framingham, Mass., 1888. See Pro- 
ceedings of the semi-centennial celebration of the founding of state normal 
schools in this country. 

'See Sixty-second annual report of the board of education, Massachusetts, 
1897-98, passim/ also reports of the various normal schools, particularly that of 
the school at Bridgewater for 1898-99. 



14 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [372 

The other state normal schools, while conforming in the 
main to the Massachusetts type, present numerous variations. 
The common standard for admission is not as high by at 
least two years of high school study. Often, however, there 
will be found a greater variety of instruction than the Mass- 
achusetts schools furnish, and partly for the very reason 
that the standard is not as high. On the whole, for some 
years past there has been a marked tendency to raise the 
standard of admission and to strengthen and diversify courses 
of study. Advanced courses for normal school graduates 
and other candidates having an equivalent education are 
well nigh universal. Furthermore, the best schools in their 
best courses give an amount of instruction that will carry 
the student nearly, if not quite, to the middle of a good 
college course. Naturally, therefore, many students pass 
from the normal schools to the colleges and universities. 
Special courses for college graduates are often met with, 
designed to give, in a single year, a professional preparation 
for teaching. 

Some schools have assumed the higher name of college, 
in connection with the assumption of some higher function. 
Thus, the Michigan state normal college gives the degree 
of bachelor of pedagogics to students who complete satis- 
factorily its four years' course of study. It also confers the 
corresponding master's degree upon those bachelors who 
comply with some further conditions, none of which, how- 
ever, involve the element of residence. 

The Normal college of the city of New York, which has 
as its main function the training of teachers for the schools 
of that city, offers two main courses of instruction, the nor- 
mal course of four years and the academic course of five 
years. A special diploma is granted to those students who 
complete the normal course ; moreover, such graduates may 
obtain the degree of bachelor of arts or bachelor of science, 
if they successfully pursue a two years' graduate course in 
literature or science. The academic course, which con- 
tains Greek, is crowned with the degree of bachelor of arts, 



2,7 Z] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS I 5 

and graduates in this course may receive the degree of mas- 
ter of arts provided they afterwards pursue graduate studies 
for at least two years. The degree of bachelor of pedagogy 
or doctor of pedagogy may be conferred on any graduate in 
either of these courses who has made a study of the science 
and the art of teaching for a period of at least two years 
after graduation. Graduation from an approved high 
school, or an equivalent amount of education, is the educa- 
tional qualification for admission. 

One of the prominent institutions of this class is the 
New York state normal college at Albany. This institution 
is an outgrowth of the first New York normal school, founded 
in 1844, the reorganization taking place in 1890. It is a pro- 
fessional school exclusively, not duplicating the instruction 
given in literary colleges. The purely professional work in 
both courses, the English and classical, is the same, and 
graduates from both receive life certificates to teach in the 
public schools of the state ; graduates in the higher course 
also receive the degree of bachelor of pedagogy. Gradu- 
ates from fifty colleges and universities have sought instruc- 
tion in the college. 

The two oldest public normal schools of Illinois are called 
normal universities. The name, however, is purely historical, 
and has no educational significance whatever. 

The cities have followed the states in founding normal 
schools, often called, however, training schools. The prin- 
cipal reason for maintaining such schools is the urgent need 
for trained teachers for the local system of schools, which can- 
not be otherwise supplied. Other reasons, as the desire on 
the part of local authorities to round out the system with a 
professional school, and the wish of parents to have their 
daughters prepared for teaching, also exert some influence. 
Many of the public normal schools fall into this class. 
Nearly all the large cities, and many of the small ones, have 
their own independent schools. Greater New York has sev- 
eral of them. These schools commonly make graduation 
from the local high school, or an equivalent education, a 



1 6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [374 

qualification for admission, and they graduate their students 
after a one year's or a two years' course. In 1895 the legis- 
lature of New York passed an act which authorizes the 
cities of the state and villages employing superintendents 
of schools, to establish and maintain one or more schools 
or classes for the professional instruction and training of 
teachers in the principles of education and in the method 
of instruction, for not less than thirty-eight weeks in each 
school year. Such schools receive assistance from the 
state funds ; the requirements for admission and the course 
of study are fixed by the state superintendent of public 
instruction, under whose general direction such schools are 
carried on ; graduation from an approved high school or 
academy has been made the test of admission. The results 
have been so encouraging that the superintendent pronounces 
the law the most important statute relating to its subject 
which has been enacted in any state in the union. 1 

With the single exception of the Philadelphia model 
school, the first schools of the country to train teachers were 
private schools, created and carried on by their owners and 
managers, as means of livelihood and instruments of doing 
good. Nor has the establishment of public schools driven 
the private ones out of the field. On the contrary, the 
private schools have greatly increased in number, and have 
assumed the name normal. Some of them are the property 
of corporations, some of private owners. A few rival the 
public schools in number of students and teachers and in 
equipment. They are more numerous, but have not so large 
an aggregate attendance, as the accompanying statistics will 
show. 

The Peabody Normal college, Nashville, Tennessee, has a 
unique history among American schools for the training of 
teachers. It takes its name from the distinguished philan- 
thropist George Peabody, a name well known in both worlds, 
and derives the larger part of its support from the education 
fund that Mr. Peabody created in 1867-69, committing it to 

1 Report of the superintendent of public instruction. New York, 1898, vol. I, xxv. 



375] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 1 7 

a board of trust, with instructions to apply the income, at 
their discretion, for the promotion and encouragement of 
intellectual, moral, or industrial education among the young 
of the more destitute portions of the southern and south- 
western states of the American union. This board soon 
made choice of the preparation of teachers as the best means 
of carrying out the founder's wishes. In connection with 
the trustees of the university of Nashville, an old institution 
of learning that had fallen into decay, the board founded, in 
1875, the normal school, which has since expanded into the 
college. The state of Tennessee has since come to the 
assistance of the two boards of trustees. The general agent 
of the Peabody fund says of it : " Giving to all the southern 
states the benefit of improved normal instruction widened 
the college from a local state institution into a college for 
the south." And again : " In establishing the college there 
there was no intent to favor Tennessee above other southern 
states. The training of teachers for alb the southern states 
was the object. As the munificence of Mr. Peabody was 
the stimulus and the means for establishing systems of public 
schools in the states, so the normal college has pointed the 
way and aroused the effort for the organizing of more local 
but indispensable normal schools." r The college is the 
literary department of the university of Nashville, and con- 
fers, in addition to the degree of licentiate of instruction, the 
usual degrees conferred by the literary and scientific colleges. 
The Peabody trustees, besides their other contributions to 
the support of the college, provide a liberal system of 
scholarships for the assistance of students who wish to pre- 
pare themselves for teaching. 

In the normal schools of the country women hold the same 
relative preponderance as students that they hold in the com- 
mon schools as teachers, as the statistics clearly show. 2 It 

1 A Brief sketch of George Peabody and a history of the Peabody education 
fund through thirty years, by J. L. M. Curry, Cambridge, 1898. 

2 In 1896-97 the numbers of male and female teachers in the common schools of 
the country, as reported by the bureau of education, were as follows: Males, 
131,381 ; females, 271,949. 



1 8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [376 

is interesting to observe, however, that they are far more 
numerous, relatively as well as absolutely, in the public nor- 
mal schools than in the private ones, which is owing, for the 
most part probably, to the fact that tuition is free in the one 
case and not in the other. 

Kindergarten teachers are frequently trained for their 
work in normal schools, and occasionally manual training 
teachers as well. Mention may be made in particular of the 
Chicago Kindergarten college, which aims to extend help to 
kindergartners, primary teachers, mothers, or other persons 
intrusted with the education of little children. The work 
is distributed among seven different departments, of which 
the teachers' department stands first, followed immediately 
by the mothers' department. The teachers' department pro- 
vides both central and branch classes. The regular teachers' 
course is three years, the educational qualification for admis- 
sion to it being a high school education or its equivalent. 

Numerous and well attended as normal schools have 
become, they still come very far short of supplying the com- 
mon schools with a sufficient number of professionally 
trained teachers. In this connection it must be considered 
that a great army of teachers is required to carry on the 
common schools of the country, and that a great majority of 
this army serve for short periods. In 1896-97 the total 
number was 403,333, and it increases by an increment of 
many thousand every year. Assuming that ten per cent 
pass out of the service every year, which is a very moderate 
estimate, we see that more than 40,000 recruits are needed 
annually to keep the ranks full, to -say nothing of meeting 
the growth of the country. But this number is more than 
three times the number of normal graduates in 1897-98, and 
more than one-half the total number of students in all the 
training schools and classes in the country. No state 
makes a better showing than Massachusetts ; but in 1897-98 
only 38.5 per cent of her teachers in public schools had 
received normal instruction, and only 33.5 per cent were 
normal graduates. Of those who had not received such 



377] 



THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 



19 



instruction, the secretary of the state board of education 
says a few have probably been appointed without reference 
to their fitness for their work ; some have had a little pre- 
liminary training in schools for the purpose ; some began to 
teach before normal preparation had attracted the attention 
of school committees that it has done in recent years, while 
some are college graduates. 1 Unfortunately, we do not 
possess the statistics that would enable us to make a similar 
showing for the whole country. 2 

STATISTICS OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES FOR 

1897-98 3 





Public normal 
schools 


Private normal 
schools 


Total 


Number of normal schools 


167 

1,863 

46,245 

12,578 

33,667 

8,188 

1,543 

6,645 

566,684 

$19,980,222 

336,185 

1,472,865 

417,866 

2,566,132 

514,562 

57,648 

307,409 
3,445,751 


I 7 3 

1,008 

21,293 

IO,597 
10,696 

3, 67 
1,689 

1,378 

194,460 

$5,047,507 

240,203 

2,3H,594 

19,696 

648,459 

38,759 

I9L995 
898,909 


345 

2,871 
67,538 
23,175 
44,363 
11,255 
3,232 
8,023 

761,144 

$25,027,729 

576,388 

3,784,459 

417,866 

2,585,828 

1,163,021 
96,407 

499,404 
4,344,660 


Teachers instructing normal students. . . . 

Students in teachers' training courses 

Male students 


Female students 


Number normal graduates 


Male graduates 


Female graduates 


Volumes in libraries 


Value of buildings, grounds, apparatus.... 
Value of benefactions received in 1897-98. 


Appropriated by states, counties and cities 
for buildings and improvements, 1897-98. 

Received from productive funds 

Received from other sources and unclassi- 
fied 







1 Sixty-second annual report of the board of education, Massachusetts, 1897-98, 
p. 148. 

2 President J. G. Schurman, of Cornell university, has calculated from data fur- 
nished by the report of the commissioner of education that in 1891-92 the total 
increase of teachers in the schools was less than two per cent, but that nearly 
seventeen per cent of the whole number of teachers were inexperienced beginners. 
Assuming that these per Cents are typical, he infers that the average length of the 
professional career of the American teacher is between seven and eight years. 
From data furnished by the same authority, he calculates that only fifteen per 
cent of the teachers then in the schools had passed through a normal school. — 
The Forum, Vol. XXI, pp. 174, 179. 

3 This table is furnished by the commissioner of education in advance of its 
publication in his report for the year 1897-98. 



20 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [2>?8 

Dr. W. T. Harris has shown that in the past seventeen 
years the enrollment in normal schools reported by states or 
cities has increased from about 10,000 to something over 
40,000. The attendance on normal schools formed and 
supported by private enterprise has increased from about 
2,000 to 24,000, though the increase has been very slow in 
the last three years. In 1880 there were 240 normal stu- 
dents in each million of inhabitants; in 1897 there were 976 
in each million. 1 

The American normal schools answer, in general, to the 
normal schools of France and Italy, the training colleges of 
England, and the teachers' seminaries of Switzerland and 
Germany. They differ, however, from all these schools in 
important particulars. For instance, they offer at least 
three points of contrast to the German teachers' seminaries. 

First, in respect to the instruction furnished. While the 
German schools confine themselves exclusively to training 
intending teachers, including, to be sure, much academic 
instruction, American schools generally do a large amount 
of miscellaneous teaching. To a great extent they parallel 
the high schools and to some extent even the elementary 
schools. In the second place, this wide range of work 
accounts in part for the much greater size of the American 
schools. In 1888 only five of the 115 normal schools of 
Prussia had upwards of a hundred pupils, while one had 
less than fifty ; but several of our state schools count more 
than a thousand pupils. It must always be borne in mind 
that a large proportion of these American pupils are in no 
proper sense normal pupils. In the third place, there is nec- 
essarily a great disparity in the size of the respective facul- 
ties. An ordinary Prussian normal school requires but nine 
teachers, including the two in the practice school, while our 
normal school staffs often number fifty or more persons. 

It is clear, therefore, that we have not yet realized the 
pure normal school type as Germany, for example, has done, 
Nor can it be doubted that our schools as institutions for 

The Educational review, January, 1899, p. 8. 



379] 'the training of teachers 21 

training- teachers have often suffered greatly from their over- 
grown numbers and large classes. In Prussia, once more, 
the average number of pupils per teacher is not more than 
twelve. It is accordingly to be hoped that in the future we 
may realize the normal school idea in purer form than in the 
past. 1 

11 teachers' training classes 
For the school year 1896-97 there reported to the Bureau 
of Education 1,487 institutions which enrolled 89,974 nor- 
mal students, or students pursuing courses designed for the 
professional training of teachers. Those students who were 
pursuing in these schools other courses of study are not 
included in this total. The following table will show how 
the students were distributed : 

Schools Number Students 

Public normal schools , , 164 43,199 

Private normal schools 198 24,181 

Colleges and universities 196 6,489 

Public high schools .... 507 9,001 

Private high schools and academies 422 7,064 



Nothing need be added to what was said in the former 
division of this monograph concerning the normal schools. 

But the normal students, so called, in the colleges and 
universities are a less definite body of persons. The nor- 
mal work that many of them do does not differ in character 
from that done in the proper normal schools ; a smaller 
number are taking the strictly professional courses leading 

1 On normal schools in the United States, see the following authorities: Henry 
Barnard, Normal schools and other institutions, agencies, and means designed 
for the professional instruction of teachers, Hartford, 1851. J. P. Gordy, Rise 
and growth of the normal school idea in the United States, Washington, 1891. 
G. H. Martin, The Evolution of the Massachusetts system of public instruction, 
New York, 1894, Lecture IV. B. A. Hinsdale, Horace Mann and the common 
school period in the United States, New York, 1898, chapter VI. S. S. Randall, 
History of the common school system of the State of New York, New York, 1871, 
passim. J. P. Wickersham, History of education in Pennsylvania, etc., Lancaster, 
Pa., 1894, passim. A. P. Hollis, The contribution of the Oswego normal school 
to educational progress in the United States, Boston, 1898. Proceedings of the 
semi-centennial celebration of the state normal school at Framingham, 1889, 
particularly the oration delivered by Dr. W. T. Harris. 



22 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS' [38° 

up to the academic degrees, which will be explained in 
another place ; some are members of what may be called 
teachers' training classes. The training work done in the 
institutions of this class is of very different degrees of 
quality ; some of it, perhaps, amounting to nothing more 
than attendance upon one or two courses of lectures, while 
some of it is of strictly university grade. The statistics 
given under this head are the least value of all, partly on 
account of the facts just stated, and partly because the 
returns are not complete. 

The normal students in high schools and academies, more 
than 16,000 in number, are, generally speaking, in training 
classes. They may be divided into three groups. 

First, many of these students in the private schools, and 
no doubt some in the public ones, have had nothing more 
than a fair elementary education, if indeed some of them 
have had as much education as that. They are looking for- 
ward to teaching, most of them in the district schools, and 
have come into the high schools and academies where they 
are found to enlarge their knowledge of the branches that 
they expect to teach and to receive some professional instruc- 
tion in addition. 

Secondly, some instruction in the principles of education and 
its history is often made an elective study in the last year of 
the high school or academy course for those students who 
are looking forward to teaching. The elementary schools 
look for many of their teachers to the graduates of the 
high schools and academies, particularly the public high 
schools, and even the limited amount of training that 
they receive fits them in a measure for teaching. 

Thirdly, classes are sometimes formed in these schools 
consisting of graduates who wish, or are required, to fit them- 
selves more thoroughly for the teacher's work. Such classes 
do not differ from the city training schools, only they are 
less fully developed. They may be called rudimentary 
training schools. 

The training class is an old device for preparing elementary 



38 1 J THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 23 

teachers. Thus New York early sought to solve the teacher 
problem for the common schools by providing instruction 
for teachers in the academies of the state, under the man- 
agement of the regents of the university. This experiment 
did not prove to be as successful as had been hoped, and the 
state supplemented it by adopting the normal school policy. 
The earlier plan was never abandoned, however, but in 
1889 the supervision of training classes was transferred to 
the department of public instruction. In the year 1888-89 
sixty institutions were authorized to organize and to carry 
on such classes. In 1895 the legislature passed the law 
referred to under the last heading, which has put the train- 
ing classes on a new footing both as respects management 
and instruction. 

With a single exception the leading features of this act 
have already been given. The omitted feature is that no 
person shall be employed or licensed to teach in the ele- 
mentary schools of any city or village authorized by law to 
employ a superintendent of schools (that is, cities and vil- 
lages having 5,000 inhabitants or more) who has not taught 
successfully at least three years, or in lieu of such experience, 
graduated from a high school or other school of equal or 
higher rank, having a course of study of not less than 
three years approved by the state superintendent of pub- 
lic instruction, and subsequently received at least as much 
professional training as that furnished by one of these train- 
ing schools or classes ; local boards were left free to place 
their requirements as much higher as they see fit. 

The terms of admission to the trainings classes are the 
same as those for the training - schools organized under the 
same law. The course of instruction embraces the leading 
common branches, the history of education, school manage- 
ment and school law, and the art of questioning. Instruc- 
tion in the school studies includes both subject-matter and 
method, together with some work in the observation and 
practice school. In his report for 1897-98, the state super- 
intendent says that in no branch of the work under his direc- 



J24 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS . [382 

tion have more gratifying results been secured than in the 
training classes. For that year there were organized eighty- 
three such classes, enrolling 1,278 students. The same year 
fourteen cities organized training schools under the law with 
an attendance of 523. T 

in teachers' institutes 

The teachers' institute, which is an original American 
institution for training teachers, has grown up side by side 
with the normal school. The commonly accepted account 
of its origfin is that it dates from conventions of teachers 
held in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1839 an< ^ 1840, under the 
leadership of Dr. Henry Barnard. That it met a popular 
need is shown by its rapid spread. The first institute in 
New York, and the first anywhere to bear the name, was 
held in 1843 ; the first in Massachusetts and Ohio, 1845 ; 
the first in Michigan and Illinois, in 1846 ; the first in Wis- 
consin, in 1848, and the first in Iowa, the year following. 
The institute system soon embraced the whole northwest, 
and it was established in the south along with common 
schools after the civil war. 

At first the institute was a purely voluntary agency. 
There were no funds for its support, save such as the teach- 
ers attending and public-spirited citizens supplied. Often 
citizens showed such interest in the work that they freely 
opened their houses to receive the teachers, not as boarders 
but as guests. But such an instrument of power could not 
long remain outside the limits of the law. Massachusetts 
appropriated money for institutes in 1846; New York and 
Ohio, in 1847; Pennsylvania, in 1855. In course of time 
the institution was firmly imbedded in state school laws, and 
at present most of the states, if not all of them, give it some 
legal recognition and financial support. Tuition is free, 
unless, indeed, as is often the case, the teachers voluntarily 

1 On teachers' training classes in the state of New York, see S. S. Randall, 
History of the common school system of the State of New York, N. Y., 1871, 
passim, and reports of the state superintendent of public instruction, 1889-90, 
and 1897-98, passim. 



383] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 25 

contribute out of their own pockets fees, in order to extend 
the length of the session or to provide better instruction 
than would otherwise be possible. 

Institutes are of numerous types, presenting such diver- 
gencies that it is difficult to define the species. There are 
state institutes and county institutes ; district, city, and town 
institutes. However, the best known type takes its name 
from the county, which is the civil division that, as a rule, 
furnishes the best unit of organization and management. 
This type alone presents many varying features. Some 
county institutes continue but a day or two ; some, several 
weeks. Some are conducted by state authorities, as the 
superintendent of public instruction or his assistants ; some 
by local authorities, as county superintendents, or officers of 
teachers' institute associations. Some are carried on much 
like a school, with text books, set lessons, and recitations, 
together with lectures ; some depend upon lectures alone. 
Some are graded with a view to securing instruction especially 
adapted to the different classes of teachers ; others are wholly 
unclassified and the attendants all receive the same instruc- 
tion. Sometimes two or more counties are thrown together 
in one district, it may be for a year only, in order to secure, 
through the concentration of funds and influence, a longer 
term and better advantages. State institutes, which are 
infrequent, commonly look more to the needs and interests 
of the better teachers of the state. City institutes are con- 
ducted with special reference to local needs. 

Dr. Barnard called his conventions of teachers only as a 
temporary expedient. In his first circular announcing his 
purpose, he proposed to give those teachers an " opportu- 
nity to revise and extend their knowledge [i] of the studies 
usually pursued in district schools and [2] of the best methods 
of school arrangements, instruction and government under 
the recitations and lectures of experienced and well-known 
teachers and educators." On these two lines the institute 
has continued to move ; that is, it has combined, with fluctu- 
ating emphasis, the two ideas of general and special prepa- 



26 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [384 

ration for teachers. Commonly the revision and extension 
of studies comes through the instruction in methods, as 
instructors or lecturers draw freely upon subject-matter for 
the purpose of illustration ; but sometimes formal instruc- 
tion is given in the more difficult parts of the several sub- 
jects taught in the schools, as geography, grammar, history, 
and the like. The professional instruction relates to the 
science, the art, and the history of teaching, and school 
organization, management, and economy. Mention should 
be made, however, of what may be called the culture aspect 
of the institute — the lectures and other exercises that bring 
forward literary, historic, scientific, and other similar sub- 
jects. The institutes of the states taken together would 
furnish a wide range of instruction and culture. In those of 
Massachusetts for 1897-98, there were presented seventy- 
three distinct topics, which no doubt considerably overlapped. 

Putting all the facts together, we may give this definition 
of a teachers' institute : A school for teachers having" a short 
and a vaguely defined course of study, and having as its 
main object the instruction of teachers, and particularly non- 
professional teachers, in the elements of their art and their 
stimulation to excellence in scholarship and teaching. 

The institutes are held in all seasons of the vear, summer 
being, perhaps, the preferred time. In Pennsylvania and 
New York, in both of which states the work is well organ- 
ized, they come in the months October-December and 
March-May. 

So long as attendance was purely voluntary the results 
were gratifying but not satisfactory ; often, but not uni- 
versally, the principle of legal compulsion has therefore 
been invoked. In 1867 Pennsylvania passed a law requir- 
ing acting teachers to attend their respective institutes. 
A similar provision is in force in the state of New York. 
When attendance is compulsory, the teacher's salary goes 
on, the same as though she were on duty in the school 
room ; at least if the institute is held in the school term. 
In such cases the local school authorities are required to 



385] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 2 J 

close the schools, but when attendance is optional, they fol- 
low their own counsel in the matter. 

Statistics of teachers' institutes are not found in the recent 
annual reports of the Bureau of Education. For the year 
1886—87 the commissioner reported 2,003 institutes, with an 
enrolled attendance of 138,986 persons. It would not be 
wide of the mark, perhaps, to say that the annual attendance 
equals one-half the total number of teachers in the schools. 

Institute instruction is a more difficult art than class-room 
instruction. It combines the best elements of the lecture 
and the recitation. It is not surprising therefore that the 
institute has created a class of professional instructors or 
lecturers. The agents of the Massachusetts board of educa- 
tion devote much time to the institutes, while New York 
supports a special institute faculty. There has also appeared 
a class of lecturers, some with and some without other edu- 
cational connections, who move in much wider circles, visit- 
ing institutes in widely separated states. Still, taking the 
country together, the main reliance is upon men and women 
who are regularly engaged in school work, as superintend- 
ents, and principals of schools and professional teachers. Col- 
lege and normal school professors are also frequently drawn 
into the service. In fact, if the annals of the institute were 
written in full, they would contain the names of many of the 
most eminent scholars and teachers, men of letters and men 
of science, of the last sixty years. Instruction in the methods 
of the institute is often given in normal schools. 

The so-called summer institutes, extending over a period 
of from four to six weeks, which call together large numbers 
of enthusiastic teachers and very able corps of instructors, 
and which are becoming more common every year, do not 
differ materially from the summer schools soon to be men- 
tioned, in character. They are, however, carried on under 
state auspices, while those schools are local or private 
enterprises. 

At first the institute was regarded as a merely temporary 
expedient : it has already continued sixty years. Again, 



28 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [j86 

while it was called into existence only as a means of helping 
persons who were already engaged in teaching, it has, unfor- 
tunately, sometimes been made an agent for preparing intend- 
ing teachers for their work. Still, representative educators 
have never for a moment regarded it as a substitute for the 
school, either general or special. Pressed into a service for 
which it was never intended, it has been the source of some 
evil ; but the balance is overwhelmingly on the other side. 
It has been useful in ways that the founders did not antici- 
pate or fully anticipate. It has given teachers higher ideals 
of education and teaching, enlarged their acquaintance with 
educational men and with one another, created professional 
spirit, and generated enthusiasm. It has also been an impor- 
tant means of developing educational intelligence and inter- 
est in society. Upon the whole, there is reason to think 
that the teachers' institute possesses lasting usefulness ; in 
other words, that it fills a place in our school economy that 
no other agent can fill, and that it will become one of our 
permanent educational institutions. 1 

IV THE SUMMER SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS 

In its more popular form, the summer school for teachers 
is a sort of cross between the normal school and the teach- 
ers' institute. Three types may be recognized. 

The first type to be mentioned is seen in the schools that 
form part of the summer assemblies sometimes called 
" Chautauquas," which combine popular entertainment, rec- 
reation and diversion, and social intercourse with serious 
instruction and ethical and religious culture. 

The next type is the familiar summer school, seen at the 
normal schools, colleges, and universities. Such schools 

'Authorities on teachers' institutes. — Henry Barnard, normal schools, etc., 
Hartford, 1851; The American journal of education, vol. Ill, p. 673, XIV, p. 253, 
XV, p. 276, 405, XXII, p. 557. J. H. Smart, Teachers' institutes, Washington, 
1887. S. S. Randall, History of the common school system of the state of New- 
York, N. Y., 1871, passim. J. P. Wickersham, History of education in Pennsyl- 
vania, Lancaster, Pa., 1884, passim. James P. Milne, Teachers' institutes, Syra- 
cuse, N. Y., 1894. B. A. Hinsdale, Horace Mann and the common school revival 
in the United States, pp. 136-138. 



387] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 29 

have been stimulated by the example of Chicago university 
in offering to students regular summer terms. At some of 
the normal schools the summer school has already become 
a regular summer session ; moreover, there are indications 
that some of the colleges and universities will do the same 
thing ; in fact, the University of Wisconsin has already taken 
the step. 

Schools of the third type are organized and carried on at 
chosen seats by private individuals or by associations of 
individuals. These schools combine both business and edu- 
cational features. They are generally found at places offer- 
ing attractive features as summer resorts, and so offer to 
their patrons the combined attraction of an outing and a 
term of school. Perhaps the best known of all these insti- 
tutions is that of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, founded 
in 1878 and chartered three years later. It is also called an 
institute. It has twenty academical departments, counts 
forty instructors on its staff, and enrolls annually five hun- 
dred students. In the twenty-one years of its history it has 
taught 9,000 or 10,000 persons. 

Irrespective of type these schools commonly offer to their 
patrons both general and special advantages ; in other 
words, they teach both academical and pedagogical subjects, 
and also introduce cultural elements of a considerably diver- 
sified character. While they offer attractions to other per- 
sons, and actually enroll some of them in their classes, the 
great functions of these schools is to fit teachers and intend- 
ing teachers for their work. Their faculties contain many 
instructors and lecturers of marked ability and high stand- 
ing in the world of letters, education, or science. All things 
considered, serious instruction has not perhaps anywhere 
been offered to teachers in a more attractive form than in 
the best of these summer schools. These schools, no doubt, 
approach nearer than any other agencies for fitting teachers 
in the United States to the great summer meetings held for 
the same purpose at Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh. 1 

1 Balfour Graham, The Educational systems of Great Britain and Ireland, 
Oxford, 1898, pp. 252, 253. 



3<D THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [3&8 



V UNIVERSITY EXTENSION COURSES 

University extension is an importation from England. 
Here, as there, the idea is to carry the university to the 
student rather than to bring the student to the university. 
However, the "university" that is so carried is sometimes 
nothing more than a secondary school. The method involves 
a local center, a local committee of managers, local arrange- 
ments, including the guaranteeing of a certain sum of money, 
and an instructor. The university sends the instructor, who 
gives a course of lectures on a subject previously agreed 
upon ; a class follows each lecture, essays are prepared and 
corrected, and needed books are supplied. In its purity the 
method involves a final examination and the granting of 
certificates to deserving students. For some reason the 
results of university extension in the United States have 
been less satisfactory than in England. Ostensibly, the 
movement takes no account of teachers as teachers ; and the 
only reason for including it in this survey is the fact that 
teachers are generally very prominent on the local commit- 
tees and in attendance upon the classes. This fact has been 
recognized by the occasional presentation of instruction suit- 
able to their particular needs ; pedagogical courses are some- 
times met with on extension programs. 

VI TEACHERS' READING CIRCLES 

The teachers' reading- circle movement is believed to have 
originated in Ohio. Mrs. D. L. Williams, a veteran teacher 
of that state, threw out the primal idea in a paper read 
before the State teachers' association in July, 1882. She 
said she had for many years entertained the theory that a 
course of reading, partly professional and partly general, 
and reaching through several years, might be instituted 
under the management of the association that would be of 
extreme value, particularly to young teachers, and added 
that since the Chautauqua literary course had proved such 
an eminent success, she had more confidence than ever in 



389] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 3 1 

the feasibility of the plan. The suggestion was immediately 
caught up by the association, steps being taken at once that 
led to the immediate organization of a course of reading. 
The next year the Ohio teachers' reading circle was fully 
organized. The constitution embraced a board of control 
to conduct the general business in connection with the state 
association, a course of professional and literary reading, the 
issuing of certificates of progress to the members, and the 
granting of diplomas upon the completion of the course, 
which was to extend over four years. In 1884 a member- 
ship of more than 2,000 was reported, and in 1887 the first 
class was graduated. 1 

Such was the beginning of a movement that has extended 
to many states of the Union. Naturally enough, the results 
that have been obtained in different states and communities 
vary considerably in respect to efficiency and value. It is 
generally conceded, however, that the Indiana circle has 
been conducted quite as successfully as any other of the 
state circles, if not indeed more successfully than any other, 
and this fact will be a sufficient justification for some 
remarks of a more specific character. 

This circle, which was organized in December, 1883, 
derives its constitution from the State teachers' association. 
The executive management is placed in the hands of a board 
of directors, one of whom is the state superintendent of 
public instruction ; of the six other members, one must be a 
county superintendent, one a city superintendent, and four 
practical teachers, all elected by the state association for a 
term of three years. It is the duty of the board to plan a 
course of reading from year to year to be pursued by the 
public school teachers of the state ; to select the books to be 
read ; to provide for examinations on the courses, and to 
prepare questions for the same ; to issue certificates to such 
teachers as pass the annual examination satisfactorily, and 
to issue diplomas to such teachers as pass the examination 

1 The Ohio educational monthly, August, 1882, pp. 316, 323; August, 1883, 
PP- 307, 308, 309. 



32 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [S9° 

for four successive years. The board reports to the state 
association at its annual meeting. The annual membership 
is about fifteen thousand, twelve thousand teachers and 
three thousand intending- teachers. 

The Indiana teachers' reading circle has been a powerful 
influence in the education of the state. Several circum- 
stances have contributed to its success. One of these has 
been the wise management of the board of directors, which 
has uniformly commanded the respect and confidence of 
teachers. The circle has been strengthened by the official 
recognition of its work by the state board of education. 
This the board does by accepting the examinations of the 
reading circle in literature and the science of teaching in 
lieu of examinations in those subjects by the regular exam- 
ining authorities. The character of the reading that is done 
can best be shown by transcribing the list of books from the 
beginning. 

1884-85 — Brooks' Mental Science; Barnes' General History; 

Parker's Talks on Teaching. 
1885-86 — Brooks' Mental Science; Smith's English Literature; 

Hewitt's Pedagogy. 
1886-87 — Hailman's Lectures on Education; Green's History of 

the English People ; Watts on the Mind. 
1887-88 — Lights of Two Centuries; Sully's Handbook of 

Psychology. 
1888-89 — Compayre^s History of Education; The Marble Faun; 

Heroes and Hero Worship. 
1889-90 — Compayr^'s Lecture on Teaching; Steele's Popular 

Zoology. 
1890-91 — Wood's How to Study Plants; Boone's Education in 

the United States ; with review of previous psycho- 
logical studies. 
1891-92 — Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching; Hawthorne's 

Studies in American Literature. 
1892-93 — Fiske's Civil Government in the United States; 

Holmes' Autocrat of the Breakfast Table. 
1893-94 — DeGarmo's Essentials of Method; Orations of Burke 

and Webster. 
1894-95 — Tompkins' Philosophy of Teaching; Select Letters and 

Essays of Ruskin. 



39 J ] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 33 

1895-96 — McMurry's General Method; Studies in Shakespeare. 
1896-97 — Guizot's History of Civilization; Tompkins' Literary 

Interpretations. 
1897-98 — Bryan's Plato the Teacher; Hinsdale's Teaching the 

Language-Arts. 
1898-99 — Henderson's Social Elements ; Bryan's Plato's Republic. 

The Indiana circle embraces no important feature that 
is not found in other states ; such special prominence as 
it enjoys is due solely to good organization and wise 
management. 1 

It must not be supposed that where this work is carried 
on efficiently it is left solely to teachers in their individual 
capacity ; on the other hand, local classes or circles are 
formed, with prescribed reading for prescribed periods, which 
hold frequent meetings, conducted by a local leader, often 
the superintendent' of schools. Enterprising educational 
journals contribute their help to the work by publishing in 
their successive issues articles that elucidate the books to be 
read. 

The future of the teachers' reading circle is not, perhaps, 
fully assured. It is conceded that it has done much good in 
arousing interest in the better culture of teachers, in organ- 
izing courses of reading and study, and in giving the whole 
work unity and consistent direction. Still, the question is 
sometimes asked whether it would not now be better to leave 
the whole matter to local initiative and direction, or to 
entrust the powers now exercised by the state board of con- 
trol or directors to local superintendents and their advisers. 
There is good reason to think that the answers which are 
given to this question are influenced not a little by the char- 
acter of the work that has been done in the communities or 
states from which the answers come. 

VI CHAIRS OF EDUCATION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 

The growing interest in training teachers was not long in 
reaching the colleges and universities. The effect was first 

1 Report of the superintendent of public instruction of the state of Indiana, 
1898, pp. 449-462. 



34 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [392 

seen in the academical sphere, but it soon declared itself in 
the professional sphere. 

A course of instruction in the science of teaching- was one 
of the features of the " new system " that President Way- 
land sought to establish at Brown university in 18.50, but that 
system was not permanently successful owing to lack of the 
necessary funds to support it. Horace Mann caused the 
study of the theory and practice of teaching to be made a 
part of the regular course in Antioch college, Ohio, on the 
opening of that institution in 1853, but as an elective study. 
From 1856 to 1873 a normal school formed a department of 
the University of Iowa, and was then incorporated into the 
institution as a chair of didactics. In 1867 the legislature 
of Missouri authorized and required the curators of the State 
university to establish a professorship in that institution, to be 
devoted to the theory and practice of teaching and to call 
some suitable person to discharge its duties. The chair 
does not appear, however, to have been firmly established, 
although some instruction was given for several years in the 
subject, until 1891. 

But it was at the University of Michigan that the teach- 
ing of education in an American college or university was 
first put on a solid basis. In 1874 President Angell, of that 
institution, incorporated the following paragraph in his 
annual report to the board of regents : 

" It cannot be doubted that some instruction in pedagog- 
ics would be very helpful to our senior class. Many of 
them are called directly from the university to the manage- 
ment of large schools, some of them to the superintendency 
of the schools of a town. The whole work of organizing 
schools, the management of primary and grammar schools, 
the art of teaching and governing a school, — of all this it 
is desirable that they know something before they go to 
their new duties. Experience alone can thoroughly train 
them. But some familiar lectures would be of essential 
service to them." 

In June, 1879, tne regents, on the recommendation of the 



393] • THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 35 

president and faculty, established a chair of the science and 
the art of teaching, the objects of which were declared to be 
five in number : To fit university students for the higher 
positions in the public school service ; to promote educa- 
tional science ; to teach the history of education and of edu- 
cational doctrine ; to secure to teaching the rights, preroga- 
tives, and advantages of a profession ; to give a more perfect 
unity to the state educational system by bringing the secon- 
dary schools into closer relation with the university. At the 
time the Bell chairs of education in the Universities of 
Edinburgh and St. Andrews were the only similar ones in 
English speaking countries. 

At first only two courses of instruction were offered : A 
practical course, embracing school supervision, grading, 
courses of study, examinations, the art of instructing and 
governing, school architecture, school hygiene, school law, 
etc. ; and an historical, philosophical, and critical course, 
embracing the history of education, the comparison and 
criticism of the systems of different countries, the outlines 
of educational science, the science of teaching, and the criti- 
cal discussion of theories and methods. Two lectures a 
week were given in each course. Before this time, how- 
ever, the university had given to students, on their passing 
examinations in certain subjects, a teacher's diploma, which 
was, however, merely a certificate to the student's compe- 
tency to teach those subjects. One of the two courses in 
education was now added to the requirements for this 
diploma. The field of instruction has continued to broaden 
and the courses to differentiate, until, in the year 1 889-1 900 
ten different, courses are offered, viz. : One in the art and 
one in the science of teaching ; one in school supervision 
and one in the comparative study of educational systems ; 
one in child study and one in the sociological aspects of 
education ; and four in the various phases of the history 
of education. The total amount of work offered, given in 
one semester, now amounts to twenty-four hours. 

Besides these courses in education, teachers' courses are 



36 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [394 

offered in several departments of the university, as Greek, 
Latin, German, mathematics, history, etc. These courses 
are of two types, their character being sometimes deter- 
mined by subject matter alone, but sometimes by the 
method of presentation together with the subject matter. 
In the first case, the professor gives merely a course that 
he thinks the intending teacher should have, properly to 
qualify him to teach the subject ; in the second case, the 
professor also seeks to present, or at least to illustrate, the 
method of teaching the subject in the school, commonly 
dwelling more or less upon the peculiar difficulties that it 
presents. 1 

This somewhat extended account of what has been accom- 
plished at the University of Michigan will not be thought 
out of place, when it is remembered that the example thus 
set has proved to be stimulating to other institutions of 
learning. The same original causes that acted in Michigan 
have also acted in other states. Since 1879 numerous chairs 
of education have been established in colleges and universi- 
ties, and additional chairs are being founded every year. 
Education has come to be recognized as a fit, if not, indeed, 
a necessary subject of college and university instruction. 
Along this line of educational development the state univer- 
sities of the northwestern and western states have been the 
pioneers, owing in great part to the fact that these universi- 
ties are organic parts of state school systems, and in part to 
the fact that these sections of the country take kindly to 
new educational ideas. 

The courses offered by these chairs or departments of edu- 
cation are purely elective ; they count towards the student's 
degree the same as courses in philosophy, history, or politi- 
cal economy. The theory is that courses in education are 
just as informing and disciplinary to the student as courses 

1 Contributions to the science of education. By William H. Payne, New York, 
1886. Chap. XV, " Education as a university study," and Appendix, " The Study 
of education in the university of Michigan." "Study of education at the uni- 
versity of Michigan," B. A. Hinsdale, in The Educational review, vol. VI. 



395] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 37 

in' cognate subjects. Not unfrequently, the institution gives 
a teacher's diploma to the student who complies with certain 
requirements. At the University of Michigan these require- 
ments are the following : A university degree, eleven hours 
of work in the department of the science and the art of 
teaching, and a teacher's course in some other department 
of the university. Not unfrequently, too, this diploma, 
either directly or indirectly, is legally valid as a certificate to 
teach in the public schools of the state. 

At different institutions the pedagogical work, while con- 
forming to a common type, has naturally been developed in 
somewhat different directions. What is more, the services 
of a single professor have not always proved to be sufficient 
to do all the work that is called for ; but this phase of the 
subject may perhaps be treated to better advantage under 
the next division of the general subject. 

VII teachers' colleges 
Three hundred years ago Richard Mulcaster, master of 
Merchant tailors' school, London, proposed a teachers' col- 
lege as a department of a university. " I conclude, there- 
fore," he said, " that this trade requireth a particular college, 
for these four causes. First, for the subject, being the mean 
to make or mar the whole fry of our state. Secondly, for 
the number, whether of them that are to learn, or of them 
that are to teach. Thirdly, for the necessity of the profes- 
sion, which may not be spared. Fourthly, for the matter of 
their study, which is comparable to the greatest possessions, 
for language, for judgment, for skill how to train, for variety 
in all points of learning, wherein the framing of the mind 
and the exercising of the body craveth exquisite considera- 
tion, besides the staidness of the person." z This good seed, 
however, fell into barren soil. Prof. S. S. Laurie renewed 
the suggestion in a somewhat different form in the address 
that he delivered in 1876 on assuming the duties of the 

1 Positions wherein those primitive circumstances be examined which are neces- 
sary for the training of children, etc. London, 1851, chap. xli. 



38 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [396 

chair of the theory, history, and art of education in the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh. Vindicating the establishment of this 
chair, he said : " It makes it possible to institute for the first 
time in our universities a faculty of education, just as we 
may be said already to have a faculty of law, theology and 
of engineering." 1 No foreign country has yet taken steps 
in this direction, and it has been left to the United States 
first to realize the suggestion of a faculty of education, or, 
more accurately perhaps, of a college for teachers. 

Instruction in the science and the art of teaching was 
included in the university scheme that was proposed for 
Columbia college in 1858, but then without avail. Again, 
President Barnard urged the same plan, which he now 
worked out much more fully, upon the trustees of the same 
college in 1881 and 1882. The next step forward was the 
organization in New York city, in 1888, of Teachers college, 
which was chartered the following year. While this college 
was organized outside of the Columbia system, it was still 
under the control, in great part, of Columbia men, and was 
loosely affiliated with the college. The last step in the evo- 
lution came in 1898, when Teachers college was made an 
integral part of the educational system of Columbia uni- 
versity. 2 The president of Columbia is president also of 
the college, and the university professors of philosophy and 
education and of psychology are members of its faculty, 
while the college is represented in the university council 
by its dean and an elected representative. The college, 
however, continues its own separate organization, having its 
own independent board of trustees, which is charged with 
the sole financial responsibility of its management. 

Teachers college is the professional school of Columbia 
university for the study of education and the training of 
teachers, ranking with the schools of law, medicine, and 

1 The Training of teachers, etc., London, 1882. See inaugural address delivered 
on the occasion of the founding of the chair of the institutes and history of edu- 
cation in the University of Edinburgh, S. S. Laurie. 

8 See an Article " The Beginnings of Teachers College," by Dr. Nicholas Murray 
Butler, in Columbia university quarterly, September, 1899. 



397] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 39 

applied science. The university accepts courses in education 
as part of the requirement for the degrees of A. B., A. M., 
and Ph. D. ; while graduate students who prefer to devote 
their entire time to professional study may become candi- 
dates for the higher diploma of the college. The college 
diploma is conferred upon students who have successfully 
completed some one of the general courses, and a depart- 
mental diploma upon those who have fitted themselves for 
particular branches of school work. Undergraduate students 
of Columbia and Barnard colleges may, if they desire, obtain 
the diploma of Teachers college at the same time that they 
receive the degree of bachelor of arts. The Horace Mann 
school, fully equipped with kindergarten, elementary, and 
secondary classes, is maintained by Teachers college as a 
school of observation and practice. 

These are the undergraduate courses : Secondary course 
leading to the degree of A. B. and the college diploma; 
general course leading to the college diploma in elementary 
teaching ; general course leading to the college diploma in 
kindergarten teaching. Then there are several courses lead- 
ing to the college diploma in art, domestic art, domestic 
science, and manual training. Candidates for the first of 
these courses must be either college graduates or candidates 
for the degree of A. B. in Columbia university. There is a 
combined course of study prescribed for the degree of A. B. 
in Columbia university and the diploma of Teachers col- 
lege ; but particulars must here be omitted. Graduate 
work is also well developed. For the year 1898-99 the 
teaching staff counted more than sixty persons. 

New York university school of pedagogy, established in 
1890, aims to furnish graduate work equal in range to other 
professional schools. The school is an organic part of the 
university, having its own dean and faculty. More definitely, 
its aim is declared to be to furnish thorough and complete 
professional training for teachers. The plan of the school 
places it upon the same basis as that of the best schools of 
law, medicine, and theology. The work is of distinctively 



4Q 



THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [398 



university grade, and graduates of colleges and normal 
schools, and others of equal experience and maturity, may 
find in this school opportunity for the thorough study of 
higher pedagogy. In 1898-9, the instruction was distrib- 
uted in four major and eight minor courses, viz. : History 
of education ; physiological and experimental psychology ; 
analytical psychology ; history of philosophy ; physiological 
pedagogics ; elements of pedagogy ; comparative study of 
national school systems ; aesthetics in relation to education ; 
sociology in relation to education ; institutes of pedagogy ; 
ethics, school organization, management, and administra- 
tion. Special facilities for research are offered in the semi- 
naries. The degree of master of pedagogy is conferred 
upon candidates who have completed five of the foregoing 
courses, three of them majors ; the degree of doctor of 
pedagogy, upon candidates who have completed the four 
major and five of the minor courses. The school does not 
attempt undergraduate work. There is no practice teach- 
ing, but opportunity is given for the critical observation of 
selected schools. The staff includes ten persons. 

Clark university, opened in 1889, has given much atten- 
tion to education from the first, and the subject has now 
been made a sub-department in the department of psy- 
chology, in which a minor may be taken for the degree of 
doctor of philosophy. The work is intended to meet the 
needs of those intending to teach some other specialty 
than education but who wish a general survey of the his- 
tory, present state, methods, and recent advances in the 
field of university, professional, and technical education, 
and of those who desire to become professors of pedagogy, 
or heads of instruction in normal schools, superintendents, 
or to become professional experts in the work of education. 
The program for the year 1899 included (1) child study, edu- 
cational psychology, and school hygiene ; (2) principles of 
education, history of education and reforms, methods, devices, 
apparatus, etc. ; (3) organization of schools in different 
countries, typical schools and special foundations, motor 



399] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 4 1 

education, including manual training, physical education, 
etc., moral education, and ideals. Great stress is placed on 
original investigation. The president, Dr. G. Stanley Hall, 
has been from the first the leader of the child study move- 
ment in the United States. " The Pedagogical Seminary," 
edited by him, is the organ of the educational department of 
the university. It is an international record of educational 
research and literature, institutions and progress, and is 
devoted to the highest interests of education of all grades. 
One of its most valuable features is its digests of meritorious 
contributions to educational literature. 

The department of pedagogy in the University of Chicago 
has as its primary aim to train competent specialists for the 
broad and scientific treatment of educational problems. 
The courses fall under three heads : Psychology and related 
work, educational theory, and the best methods of teaching 
the various branches. Stress is laid upon the relation of 
pedagogy to other subjects, and courses are offered in the 
proper departments in which the methodology of such sub- 
jects is employed. For the year 1898—99 such courses were 
offered in history, sociology, and anthropology, in the Eng- 
lish, German, and Latin languages and literatures, in mathe- 
matics, and in geology. The courses in educational theory 
are preceded by the introductory courses in psychology, 
ethics, and logic, given in the department of philosophy. 

The University of Chicago has also established a college 
for teachers on a somewhat novel plan. This institution, 
which was founded in October, 1898, is an outgrowth of the 
class study department of the extension division of the uni- 
versity. It is a " downtown " college, and aims to provide 
instruction of high grade for busy people ; or, more defi- 
nitely, " for any and all persons qualified to do the work, 
who are so engaged by other imperative duties as to make 
continuous attendance at the other colleges of the university 
impracticable." * The work of the new college is of the same 

1 " The University of Chicago College for Teachers," in University record, 
vol. Ill, No. 31. 



42 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [4OO 

grade as that of the other colleges of the university. Stu- 
dents may take much or little, according to their ability and 
wishes, but when the requirements have been met, the work 
is crowned with a deeree. The school aims at scientific,, 
cultural, and disciplinary results. It distinctly denies that it 
is in any sense a normal school. Moreover, while it is not 
exclusively a teachers' school, the college, nevertheless, 
emphasizes instruction suitable to the special needs of teach- 
ers sufficiently to justify its name. The distinctively peda- 
gogical teaching, like all the teaching, looks to knowledge 
and scientific training rather than to practical applications. 
At the close of its first year of life the outlook is an encour- 
aging one. 

The University of Wisconsin school of education is an 
expansion of the former department of education. The four 
main lines of instruction are the history, the philosophy, the 
science, and the practice of education. The school aims to 
afford practical and healthful instruction to intending teach- 
ers, professors, principals, and superintendents, and to those 
students who desire to pursue studies and investigations in 
the science of education. 

A wealthy and public-spirited lady of Chicago, Mrs. 
Emmons Blaine, has declared her purpose to establish and 
endow a teachers' college of high grade in that city, and the 
initial steps have already been taken to carry out her plan. 

The institution will be under the direction of Francis W. 
Parker, formerly of the Chicago Normal School. 

Besides the agencies for the training and cultivation of 
teachers that have been enumerated, there are still others 
that may be described collectively as miscellaneous in their 
character. Particular reference may be made to the numer- 
ous associations, societies, institutes, and clubs for teachers 
of various degree that overspread the land. No other 
country in the world, it is probable, is so well furnished with 
these purely voluntary means of education. They con- 
tribute not a little to the knowledge and cultivation of 



40l] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 43 

teachers as well as to the elevation of educational ideals and 

the formation of popular opinion. Then there are the 

teachers' libraries, local and general. The organization of 

such libraries has sometimes been carried to such perfection 

that books of both a special and a general character are 

practically sent to the teacher's own door. New York, for 

instance, provides at state cost for the necessary expenses 

of a state school library for the benefit and free use of the 

teachers of the state, to be circulated under such rules and 

regulations as the state superintendent may establish. This 

law puts at the use of the teachers of the state an excellent 

collection of books on the simple and easy condition that 

they shall pay the postage on their return to the state capital. 

The certification or licensing of teachers in the public 

schools of the United States may almost be called a burning 

question. To protect the schools or the public against 

unworthy persons without burdening deserving teachers, is 

the problem to be solved. Much of the difficulty attending 

the solution of the problem arises from the highly complex 

form of the American government, and the emphasis that is 

everywhere placed upon local as opposed to central authority. 

Education is a state, not a national function ; moreover, the 

states, in accordance with the popular genius, vest this power 

primarily in local authorities, sometimes town or city boards, 

but more frequently county boards of examiners. In recent 

years many of the states have set up state examining boards, 

empowered to issue state certificates valid either for life or 

for a term of years. None of the states, however, have 

abandoned the- earlier local boards, which still examine the 

great majority of school teachers. In Massachusetts, which 

is one of the states that have never adopted the new plan, 

there are three hundred and thirty-three boards authorized 

to grant certificates, not one of which, however, is legally 

valid beyond the town or city in which it is issued. Many 

teachers, and these generally the best teachers, naturally 

look upon the existing system as being unreasonable and 

burdensome, and insist that a wider validity shall be given 



44 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [402 

to their certificates when they have once proved their ability 
to teach. Sometimes the evils of the system are mitigated 
and the system so rendered less intolerable through the legal 
or practical recognition of the principle of comity, whereby 
the attestation of one examining authority is accepted by 
other such authorities. Still no satisfactory solution has 
yet been reached. 

At a meeting of college and university professors of educa- 
tion held in Washington, D. C, in July, 1898, a committee 
was appointed to investigate and report upon the certifica- 
tion of college and university graduates as teachers in the 
public schools. This committee has finished its work and 
published its report, which consists, in part, of an exposition 
of the existing - laws and usages so far as the certification 
of such graduates is concerned, and in part of the recom- 
mendations of the committee. It will be germane to the 
subject of this monograph to include in it the salient features 
of this report. 

The committee declares unqualifiedly in favor of the states' 
making special legal provision for certificating college and 
university graduates in the public schools, whereby they 
shall be exempted, as far as may prove to be consistent with 
the best interests of the schools, from the ordinary examina- 
tions. This exemption should be made only in the cases 
of graduates who have complied substantially with the fol- 
lowing requirements : 

(1) The graduate shall have received a good college edu- 
cation terminating in a bachelor's degree. (2) He must, 
also, have pursued a limited number of studies, not more 
than two or three, of a congruous nature with more than 
ordinary thoroughness — that is, have had .a degree of 
specialization. (3) His certificate should not cover all the 
studies of the high school course, but only those to which 
he has devoted special attention, as just explained. (4) The 
next condition is that the graduate shall have pursued, in 
the college or university, or in some school having college 
or university affiliations, the study of education. (5) He 



403] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 45 

should also take one or more teachers' courses in the branches 
of knowledge which he has studied most thoroughly, such 
courses to include not merely the academical elements of the 
subject, but also its pedagogical elements. (6) The com- 
mittee also recommend that the candidate shall, if possible, 
have had some instruction in the school of observation or 
practice. The final conclusion is that the college or uni- 
versity graduate who has fulfilled these conditions and who 
has good health, good morals, and good personal cultivation 
should, without examination external to the college or uni- 
versity, be certificated to teach for a period of at least three 
years ; and if at the close of this probationary term he has 
shown himself to be a successful teacher, then he should be 
certificated for life, provided he expects to continue in the 
work. In the case of graduate students the committee urges 
that they also should be certificated without formal exami- 
nation if they make education either a major or minor study 
and also take one or more teachers' courses as in the case of 
the ordinary graduate. 

Perhaps the most important paragraph of the report relates 
to the study of education, and may be thus summarized : 
This study should be elective, and should count towards a 
student's degree as other elective work counts ; education, as 
a study, is just as informing and disciplinary as history, phil- 
osophy, sociology, or politics ; the minimum to be required 
should be about twelve hours a week for one semester. It 
should begin in the second semester of the junior year, 
or not later than the first semester of the senior year, and 
continue to the end of the course. Part of the work should 
be prescribed and part elective ; the prescribed work to 
include one scientific and one practical course. The scien- 
tific course should be built up on the basis of some knowl- 
edge of physiology, psychology, logic, ethics, aesthetics, and 
sociology, and should present an outline view of the facts 
and principles of education ; the practical course should 
embrace general methodology, some leading special metho- 
dologies, as the language-arts, history, science, school 



46 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [404 

hygiene, school practice, and management, the common facts 
of school law, the general features of an American state 
school system, etc. The electives would naturally be made 
from a group of subsidiary courses bearing some of the fol- 
lowing titles : The history of education in its various phases ; 
a comparative study of educational systems ; study of chil- 
dren ; the sociological relations of education ; the relations 
of pedagogy to other sciences and arts ; school superintend- 
ence ; the history of school studies and their value as edu- 
cational instruments, etc. The particular election or elec- 
tions would depend on the student, his preparation and his 
plans for the future. 1 

At present this is an ideal scheme, although most of its 
features are met with in different institutions ; but it does 
not seem extravagant to expect that it will influence future 
practice. It may be added that the committee thinks that the 
realization of inter-state comity on a large scale must depend 
upon the improvement and elevation of existing standards. 

It is not altogether easy to conceive the enormous growth 
that education has made in the United States since the 
beginning of the educational revival. Unfortunately, we 
have no statistics that exhibit it on a national scale. We 
shall, however, close the century with an annual common 
school expenditure of more than $212,000,000, with more 
than 426,000 teachers, and with more than 15,500,000 pupils 
in the schools. There is no question as to the greatest 
defect of this education. We must accept in good spirit the 
judgment of the German critic, Dr. E. Schlee, delivered the 
year of the Columbian exposition. 2 " If in every office the 
chief factor is the man, and in school the teacher, we have 
come to the weakest point in the American school system- — 
professional teachers are wanting. That is to say, most 
teachers are deficient in the requisite scientific and peda- 
gogical preparation for their vocation." But it must be 
remembered that this great system is the work of but sixty 

1 The report is found in the School review, Chicago, June, 1899. 

2 Report of commissioner of education, 1S92-93. Part II, chap. III. 



405] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 47 

years. It has been impossible to train teachers as fast as 
the schools required them ; the need has constantly outrun 
the public ability, and still more, perhaps, the public ideals. 
Under the circumstances, no people could have made the 
supply equal the demand. Still, much has been done to 
prepare teachers for their work, if not as much as should 
have been done. The agencies that have been employed, 
and are still employed, are of a miscellaneous character, 
evincing plainly enough the versatility, not to say shiftiness, 
of the American mind. The system is marked perhaps by 
what John Stuart Mill once called "the fatal belief" of the 
American public " that anybody is fit for anything." The 
national inventiveness appears particularly in the efforts that 
have been made to supply the deficiencies of non-professional 
teachers. The success that has attended these efforts has 
tended to produce satisfaction with mere ' temporary expe- 
dients. Necessity has been the mother of inventions that 
continued after the necessity had ceased. The fundamental 
lack is education — solid, sound, thorough education. Of 
agencies that minister to discursive culture, we have more 
than enough. Still, what is said above of teachers' institutes 
may be said of these agencies taken together- — they have 
done far more good than evil. 

Our system undoubtedly appears very imperfect and inade- 
quate to foreign critics who are acquainted with the more 
highly organized systems of France and Germany ; but it is 
not invidious to say that such critics are not always well pre- 
pared to appreciate all the features of our civilization. In 
the present instance, they may safely accept our assurance 
that, however impossible our system might be in continental 
countries, in America it works much better than they can 
readily conceive. This is not said to conceal defects, which 
are freely admitted, but only to secure recognition for unde- 
niable merits. Whether new features will be added to the 
system, or whether old ones will be lopped away, are ques- 
tions that the future must answer. For the present, it is 
reassuring to know that the conviction is constantly gaining 



48 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [406 

ground that, whatever is done at its circumference, the system 
must be strengthened at its center. The most competent 
judges will not dissent from the proposition, that the bright- 
est promise of the future is seen in the work, present and 
prospective, of the colleges and universities of the country. 

At the close of this monograph, it may not be amiss to 
remark that it presents only a general survey of its subject. 
All classes of institutions that deserve recognition have, it is 
believed, been characterized ; but the characterizations have 
necessarily been brief. In selecting the institutions that 
have been specifically named, the sole purpose has been to 
select those that are typical of their classes. The further 
observation may be added that, of the 436 universities and 
colleges reporting to the commissioner of education tech- 
nical, professional, and special courses of study for the year 
1896-97, 220 reported courses in pedagogy. 

Additional authorities — An historical account of the State 
Normal College at Albany, N. Y., etc. ; Circular of the 
New York State Normal College, Albany, 1899; Columbia 
University in the city of New York, Teachers college, 
announcements, 1898-99, and 1 899-1 900, and President's 
Report, 1898-99; Columbia University in the city of New 
York, Division of Philosophy and Psychology, announce- 
ment, 1898-99; New York University, School of Pedagogy, 
announcements for the tenth year, beginning Sept. 27, 
1899, etc - I The School of Pedagogy, New York University, 
its aims and opportunities to pupils ; Manual of the Normal 
College of the city of New York 1897 ; Twenty-eighth annual 
report of the Normal College of New York, for the year 
ending December 30, 1898, etc. ; Courses of study and rules 
for the government of training school for teachers, Brook- 
lyn, N. Y., 1897; John Fulton, Memoirs of Frederick A. P. 
Barnard, etc., New York, 1896, chap. XVII; Martha's 
Vineyard Summer Institute, 1899, Twenty-second annual 
session ; Clark University, etc., Register and eleventh 
official announcement, 1899; University of Wisconsin, 



407] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 49 

announcement, of summer session for 1899; same, Bulletin 
No. 29, etc., 1899-1900; Historical sketch of the State 
university of Iowa, J. L. Pickard, etc., 1899; Catalogue of 
the Peabody normal college for the year 1898-99. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 



BY 

GILBERT B. MORRISON 

Principal of the William McKinley High School, St. Louis, Missouri 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 



The school house is an infallible index of the educational 
status of the community in which it is located. It stands at 
once a monument and a history of the mistakes or successes, 
the ignorance or wisdom, the poverty or opulence, the par- 
simony or generosity of the people who have erected and 
maintained it. From the forbidding shanty on the country 
cross roads in the backwoods to the palatial edifice in the 
most enlightened city, this building tells a story in letters so 
plain and so unmistakable that " he who runs may read." 
The school house teaches not alone a lesson in architecture, 
but lessons in sanitation, in engineering, in aesthetics, and in 
pedagogics. The building from the school-room furnishings 
and devices for teaching to the finishing touches of the 
exterior, is a composite resultant of the work of teacher, 
superintendent, school director, engineer, and architect. 

The growth of the American school house is commensu- 
rate with the growth of American education. From the four 
bare walls where the three R's were formerly taught to the 
modern laboratory or art room in which are combined the 
appliances for the best teaching and for the expression of 
the best taste, these material evidences epitomize the educa- 
tional situation in our country. The consideration of school 
house building, therefore, becomes a question of the highest 
importance. 

The necessary features to be secured in building a school 
house named in the order of their relative importance are, 
i. Shelter; 2. Adequate space; 3. Warmth; 4. Ventila- 
tion ; 5. Light ; 6. Interior furnishings and appliances ; 
7. Beauty. 

The ends to be attained in all of these features are essen- 
tially the same for all types of buildings from the one-room 



4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [412 

country school house to the most expensive structure built 
in the city for high school or college purposes. The appli- 
cation of the principles involved in securing these ends in 
buildings of every variety of cost and function requires a 
vast diversity of treatment. 

In all of the above-named features of a building, the three 
ends to be sought are hygienic, economic, and mechanical. 
In all cases alike, it is mechanical skill and ingenuity work- 
ing with the means at their command to reach the best 
hygienic results. The features requiring the greatest skill 
are warming and ventilating, and the general architectural 
effect given to the building in its construction and in its 
location. 

In his. book on " The Warming and Ventilation of School 
Buildings," the writer has treated somewhat in detail the 
principles underlying the subjects of the present essay, and 
it is his object here to outline in the briefest manner to what 
extent these principles have been put into practice in the 
school houses of the United States. In order to do this, he 
has thought best to select some of our best buildings as 
examples representative of the various types, pointing out 
their merits and calling attention to their defects, and sug- 
gesting where improvements could be made. To fully treat 
in a thorough and scientific manner the principles involved 
in building a school house is beyond the scope of this article. 
The object here is simply to embody into the discussion of a 
few types the results of the best theory as exemplified in the 
best practice. 

THE COUNTRY SCHOOL HOUSE 

The majority of the children of the United States go to 
school in the country. The country school house, therefore, 
deserves its share of attention. On account of economic 
conditions, the instruction must be carried on in a single 
room of sufficient size to accommodate the children. In 
many of the states the unsanitary conditions usually prevail- 
ing in rural districts have been partially overcome by proper 
oversight on the part of intelligent supervisors. 



413] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 5 

As economy is the chief end to be considered in most rural 
districts, a plan by Wm. P. Appleyard and E. A. Bowd (Plate 
I) is selected as meeting a sufficient number of the neces- 
sary requirements to form an intelligent basis of treatment. 

While this house can be built for about $600, it presents 
a neat and attractive appearance. Its exterior reveals the 
touch of the architect's hand, and the educational influence 
of such a building when located on a well-selected site can 
hardly be overestimated. 

The building is 24x32 ft, outside measurement, and com- 
prises a school room, a fuel room, a wardrobe for boys, a 
wardrobe for girls and a porch ; it will furnish shelter for 
thirty pupils in single seats, or thirty-six pupils in double 
seats. The single seat should always be provided where 
the rigor of economy does not positively forbid it. The 
single seat is an American characteristic, and its moral influ- 
ence on the pupils in the freedom it gives them from too 
close proximity, as well as its assistance to the teacher in 
maintaining order, commends it to universal use. 

There remains very little to be said about the proper seat 
to be provided in furnishing a school room. The seats now 
on the market and furnished by all dealers in school furni- 
ture are, in the main, models of convenience, comfort and 
finish. It certainly stands to the credit of this country for 
having invented and brought into almost universal use the 
best seat which any country has produced. These seats are 
graded in size to suit the age of the pupils. A room improp- 
erly seated in the United States is at the present time only 
chargeable to the grossest ignorance, indifference or neglect. 

The heating is accomplished by means of a stove placed 
in one corner of the school room. The time-honored prac- 
tice of placing the stove in the center of the room has given 
way to a better knowledge of the principles of heating and 
ventilating. The function of the stove, when the demands 
of economy require its use, is the heating of the room by 
convection, not by radiation. While the radiated heat from 
the sun or from an open fire is most cordial and beneficial, 



6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [4H 

the reverse is true of radiated heat from a stove. The air 
in a room can be heated almost as quickly by a stove placed 
in one corner as in the center and by enclosing it in a jacket 
of sheet metal the parching radiation is intercepted. In the 
present case, the stove serves the purpose both of warming 
and of ventilation. 

The diminished specific weight of air when its tempera- 
ture is raised and its tendency therefore to rise lessened 
furnishes the basis for all methods of so-called natural or 
gravital ventilation. 

In this building, the chimney is divided into two parts, 
one for smoke and the other for a foul air vent A fresh air 
duct leading from the outside of the building to an opening 
directly under the stove supplies the fresh air. As the air 
in the room becomes heated, it has a tendency by its specific 
lightness to rise through the foul air vent in the chimney, its 
place being constantly supplied by the cold fresh air as it 
flows through the fresh air duct becoming heated as it passes 
up between the stove and the zinc jacket enclosing it. 

The foul air duct would become still more efficient if the 
chimney instead of being partitioned had simply contained 
the stove pipe extended to the top. A heavy galvanized 
iron pipe should be erected and securely fastened by stays 
anchored to the brickwork when the chimney is built. 

The chimney for a single room should have an interior 
cross sectional area of at least five square feet, and the pipe 
should be placed in the center of it. By this means the 
whole chimney not occupied by the pipe becomes a vent or 
aspirating chimney in which an upward current is main- 
tained by the heat from the pipe. The foul air reaches this 
vent through a duct leading from a box beneath the teacher's 
platform. The part of the floor under the platform is 
lowered to form the under side of the box while the top of 
the platform forms the upper side. The air finds access to 
this foul air box through openings or registers placed in the 
riser of the platform. 

The total area of these registers, and also the cross sec- 



415] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 7 

tional area of the fresh air duct should be about equal to 
that of the chimney. A throttle damper should be placed 
in the fresh air duct so that the air may be regulated in 
severe cold weather or retained in the room during the night 
to prevent its becoming too cold. The exit registers should 
also be closed at night. 

In order that the air may not be overheated as it passes 
the stove, and thus rendered unfit for breathing, the stove 
should be large, so that the increased area of heating surface 
may obviate the necessity of extreme overheating. Besides, 
the danger from overheating the air by highly heated sur- 
faces, it should be remembered that iron when raised to a 
red heat becomes pervious to the poisonous gases of com- 
bustion. One of the products of coal combustion is carbon 
monoxide (CO), a very poisonous gas, which, if allowed to 
escape, will contaminate the air. 

The method of conveying the foul air into the aspirating 
chimney shown in Mr. Appleyard's plan has been modified 
in various ways in different localities. In a plan drawn by 
Edbrook & Burnham, architects, Chicago, used in some of 
the school houses in Wisconsin and Illinois ; and in a simi- 
lar plan drawn by Hackney & Smith, architects, Kansas 
City, Mo., and used in some of the school houses in Mis- 
souri, the exit registers are multiplied and placed in the 
floor near the base board at intervals around the room. The 
foul air gathering " box " thus becomes the entire space 
between the floor and the ground below, the opening into 
the chimney being below the floor, as in the former case. A 
sanitary objection to this arises in the fact that in warm 
weather, when the inside is cooler than the outside air, the 
draft is liable to be reversed and the " ground air " under 
the house drawn up into the school room. 

In another modification, shown in plans drawn by John 
R. Church, Rochester, N. Y., the numerous exit registers 
are placed in the base boards and open into ducts rising in 
the walls to the attic, where they converge and unite in an 
opening into the aspirating chimney. A mechanical objec- 



8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [4-I& 

tion to this arises in the interference with the free movement 
of the air imposed by the large amount of friction in numer- 
ous small ducts. 

There is really 'nothing gained by multiplying details in 
conveying air from a room. The simplest is always the best 
way. An ordinary wing register placed in the vent flue just 
above the floor is probably a better means of conveying the 
foul air than any of the processes just mentioned. It is 
simple, economical, direct and frictionless. 

It should be remembered that the position of exit regis- 
ters near the floor is here recommended, not because this is 
the ideal position for them, but because it is necessary in a 
room heated by a stove to trap the air in the upper part of 
the room, and to keep it from escaping before it has been 
utilized. This position of exit registers is also necessary 
with all systems of heating which have heretofore been in 
use in school-house building, but unnecessary in a stage of 
pneumatic engineering which we are approaching, reference 
to which is made on a subsequent page. 

A still better means for removing the foul air is the open 
fireplace. This is used in a few districts in some of the 
northern states. It is to be regretted that the virtues of the 
open fireplace in school buildings have not been more widely 
recognized. Whether considered from a hygienic, economic 
or mechanical standpoint, this old-fashioned but neglected 
device is much to be commended. When it was discovered 
that the open fire does not furnish an adequate means of 
warming in severely cold weather, it gradually gave way to 
more effective modern devices ; its value as a means of ven- 
tilation, however, was not sufficiently appreciated to save its 
almost total abandonment. When combined with a stove 
so as to receive into it the smokepipe, the open fireplace 
chimney is not expensive. In moderate weather when little 
heat is required, the open fire would meet the demands of 
warming and fulfill all the requirements of perfect ventilation. 

The strong, upward draft through an open fireplace chim- 
ney when the outside is cooler than the inside air, even 



417] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 9 

without fire in the grate, is a matter of common observation. 
Every country school house should have an open fireplace. 
A small fire kept burning would ventilate the room, supple- 
ment the heat of the stove, and produce by its cheerful, 
radiating effect a wholesome influence on the pupils. 

As the radiation from an open fire does not warm the air 
except secondarily from the solid surfaces of objects inter- 
cepting the rays, the open fire cannot be employed for warm- 
ing except in mild weather ; but its other advantages here 
mentioned make it a most profitable investment. 

The lighting of the house shown in Plate I, while ample 
in its aggregate, has the defect common to most school- 
houses — that of light on two sides. A school room designed 
for academic purposes should be lighted on one side only. 
The length of the room should exceed its width by a ratio 
of about 3 to 2. While this ratio may vary within reason- 
able limits, the width should not be greater than twice the 
clear height. The windows on one of the longer sides 
should extend to the top of the room, should be well shaded, 
and as numerous as architectural requirements will admit. 

The hygienic necessity of protecting the eyes of the pupils 
by admitting the light at the left or the back has been uni- 
versally recognized, but a like consideration for the rights of 
the teacher has been generally neglected. 

In a room lighted on two adjacent sides, either the teacher 
or the pupils must face the light, and the teacher by com- 
mon consent has been made the victim. This, more than 
all other causes combined, is hastening the premature weak- 
ness of the eyes of our teachers. In country school houses, 
the light is commonly admitted on opposite sides, but this 
is objectionable on account of the disagreeable and injurious 
effects of cross lighting. The necessity of lighting on one 
side only is recognized in common practice in Germany, 
but it has been generally ignored in the United States of 
America. The writer is aware that thoughtful objections 
have been urged in this country against limiting windows to 
one side of class rooms — that the practice in Germany arose 



IO SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [4 1 8 

from the possibility there of admitting light from the north 
only, and that when admitted from the south, east or west, 
the direct rays will dazzle the eyes of the pupils by falling 
directly upon them and upon their work. 

While these objections have some weight, they will not 
stand when the facts are carefully considered. If there is 
an objection to windows on a side which admits direct sun- 
light on certain hours of the day, it is not plain how that objec- 
tion could be removed by placing windows on two such sides. 

When windows are distributed on two sides of a nearly 
square room, as is the case in the conventional corner room 
in most buildings of more than one room, neither side 
alone is sufficient to light the room when curtains are drawn 
on the other side. There are two reasons for this : First, the 
window area is insufficient, and second, the distance across 
the room of the common square form or lengthwise in rec- 
tangular form is greater than the established standard for 
the height of windows. 

The objection to rectangular rooms lighted exclusively by 
numerous windows on one of the longer sides may be — even 
though this side be on the south — entirely removed by the 
proper use of curtains. The curtains for such a room 
should be of white muslin of light weight mounted on 
spring rollers. A room 24x32 ft. with four large, full 
height windows in one of its longer sides, facing south, will, 
with such curtains drawn clear down, be fully lighted, when 
the sun is shining, with a soft, subdued, well-diffused and 
ample light. This has been fully demonstrated by the writer 
who used such a curtain for several years in a large physics 
demonstration room lighted on the south only by two very 
large windows instead of the four, five, or even six which it 
is easy to obtain in a building planned on hygienic principles. 

The common practice of admitting light at the back of 
the pupils and into the face of the teacher cannot be too 
strongly condemned. It is wholly unnecessary, false in 
theory, and pernicious in practice, as the ruined eyesight of 
thousands of teachers can attest. 



419] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE II 

The lighting on one side only is accomplished in the 
country school house shown in Plate II, drawn by C. Powell 
Karr, architect, New York city. The estimated cost of this 
house is $1,200, and it may well stand as a model of build- 
ings of this class. The school room is well proportioned, 
24x33 ft., and with its seven windows on one side and a 
14 ft. stud, it is amply supplied with direct and thoroughly 
diffused light. 

The stove with its air jacket is properly located in one 
corner. The chimney is large and contains a properly placed 
smoke pipe in the center. However, had the lower part of 
this chimney been converted into an open fireplace, the 
economic and hygienic ends would be still better served. A 
coal room and a teacher's room add to the convenience and 
symmetry of the building. 

A separate entrance with lobby, cloak room and hall is 
provided for the boys and girls — a matter of no small 
importance in a country school. 

The back doors opening out of the halls make a proper 
separation between the girls' and boys' walks to the out- 
houses. These walks, let it be here noted, should always be 
covered and the sides shielded by lattice work. 

One improvement is here suggested in the arrangement 
of the cloak and coat rooms. In order to secure light and 
ventilation, they should be changed from the inner to the 
outer wall of the halls where a window could be added to 
furnish the necessary light. While window ventilation is 
not generally recommended, its objection is less in a cloak 
room than elsewhere. 

This house is a model of neatness and, all essential points 
considered, may stand as a type of the best of its class. 

THE TWO-ROOM BUILDING 

In small hamlets where the school population necessitates 
adding another room, new problems present themselves. 
As the hygienic requirements are the same for all rooms, 
these problems are chiefly mechanical. 



12 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [420 

A two-room building answering all economic and hygienic 
requirements could not be found, but the plan shown in 
Plate III, drawn by Warren R. Briggs, architect, Bridge- 
port, Conn., is a fair representation of the best that has been 
accomplished. 

This building has two rooms, two hat and coat rooms, and a 
basement. It is estimated to cost $2,000. The basement is 
built of stone, and the upper part is frame. The architectural 
treatment gives the house a neat and attractive appearance. 

As we leave the one-room building and pass to those hav- 
ing two or more, economy as well as convenience suggests 
the centralization of the heating and ventilating apparatus. 
The stove is enlarged, placed in the basement, and becomes 
a " furnace." The cold air duct conveying the air to the 
source of heat between the furnace and enclosing jacket is 
substantially the same as for the one supplying the stove in 
the single room, except that it has double the cross-sectional 
area. The jacket instead of being open at the top is closed 
with branch pipes leading to the rooms. 

In Mr. Briggs' plan, the chimney and air ducts are situ- 
ated centrally as they properly should be. The warm air is 
admitted near the top of the rooms through the inlet ducts 
and is supposed to go out at the outlets near the floor. 
This it will do only when there is a considerable difference 
between the inside and outside temperature, there being no 
provision made to heat these outlet ducts. By making open 
fireplaces of these ducts, they would be converted into 
effective aspirating chimneys and would also serve for warm- 
ing the rooms in mild weather. 

In the method of heating here shown, we see in embryo 
the "hot air" or "indirect" system which seems to be the 
best means of warming small buildings with comparatively 
few rooms, in which a steam or hot water plant cannot be 
afforded, and where the destination of the hot air is not far 
from the furnace. The furnace, however, in small buildings 
should be large that the necessity of overheating may be 
obviated. 



42 1] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 13 

The fireplace before suggested should be heated only in 
mild weather. In very cold weather it causes unnecessary 
waste of air as well as of fuel. In fact, in extremely low 
temperatures, ventilation generally takes care of itself unless 
the room is very close. This is of course due to the con- 
siderable difference in atmospheric pressure between the 
inside and outside walls of the room. 

The rooms in the building under consideration are well 
proportioned — 25x35 ft. — and are well conditioned for 
exclusive lighting on the longer sides. This would provide 
a place for the teacher's platform, in the room shown on the 
left side of the plan, at the end opposite the entrance, throw- 
ing the light at the left of the pupils. The present position 
of the platform sacrifices valuable space and makes the 
teacher face the broadside light while seeing the faces of his 
pupils in shadow. The changes required by these sugges- 
tions while of the greatest importance are mechanically 
insignificant and simple. 

Excellent as is the present plan when generally con- 
sidered, it is too expensive for the ordinary hamlet district 
which would have to forego the luxury of a basement. To 
meet the economic conditions in such cases, the writer sug- 
gests a plan shown in Plate IV. 

, This plan gives well-lighted wardrobes with a convenient 
arrangement of doors. 

The heat is furnished by stoves placed in the corners of 
the rooms. The angular position of the chimney makes it 
serve well the purposes of both rooms. The position of 
fresh air and smoke pipes are shown by the dotted lines. 

The teacher's rooms, which are a convenience for many 
purposes, may be dispensed with where greater economy 
demands it. 

THE THREE-ROOM BUILDING 

With each addition to the number of rooms in a building, 
the mechanical difficulties incident to providing all the 
hygienic requirements increase. To supply plenty of pure, 
warm air to every room, to conform to the requirements of 



14 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [422 

lighting and seating, to provide a well-lighted and ventilated 
coat and cloak room adjacent to each school room, to have 
ample and well-lighted corriders, to plan with a view to 
beauty of design, and withal to keep within the bounds of 
economy, requires a profound knowledge of principles, prac- 
tical skill and sound judgment. 

As an objective basis for discussion, another building — 
Plate V — drawn by Mr. Briggs, has been selected. Although 
not ideal, this house possesses many excellent features. 

An examination of the plan reveals the same defect in 
lighting two of the rooms that was pointed out in the two- 
room building, — a defect which is easy to remedy by blind- 
ing the windows on one end and moving the teacher's plat- 
form. The only other defect noticeable in this plan is the 
use of the main hall for coat and cloak rooms. In the pres- 
ent case, however, this defect is not without compensating 
advantages. It gives freedom, room, and publicity in the 
putting away and the taking down of wraps, and it econo- 
mizes space. 

The objection which usually prevails against the hall as a 
place for wraps is the odor which is liable to come from the 
drying of wet outer garments. This objection, however, is 
partly answered in the present building by the position of 
the heating and ventilating chimneys, which secures good, 
ventilation for the hall, and thus prevents any currents of air 
from the hall into the school rooms. 

The chief merit of this building is its centrally located, 
compact and ample heating and ventilating apparatus. The 
position, size, and quality of this breathing apparatus is as 
important in a building as are corresponding features in the 
lungs of an animal. The central location is economical and 
gives a proper balance to the distribution of air. The hot 
air pipes rising inside the large aspirating chimney produce 
an upward current which draws the air from the rooms con- 
nected with it through the registers. The cold air passes 
in through the fresh air duct in the basement, is heated by 
the furnace, and rises between the furnace and jacket to 



PLA TE I 




ONE ROOM COUNTRY SCHOOL HOUSE 
Wm. P. Appleyard and E, A, Bowd, Architects, Lansing, Mich. 



w 



SCHOOL ¥\00^ 

\\I 




Floor Plan 



Ttst. 

Basement Plan 



PLATE II 










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MODEL ONE ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 
C. Powell Karr, Architect, New York 




Floor Plan 



PLATE III 




A TWO ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 
Warren R. Brings, Architect, Bridgeport, Conn. 



BOY?/ YAB& 



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COODCOOD 

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$IRLS' YARD. 




Floor Plan 



Basement Plan 



PLA TE IV 



BOYS' YARD. 



YHR». 




PLAN SUGGESTED FOR AN INEXPENSIVE TWO ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 



PLATE V 








A THREE ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 
Warren R. Briggs, Architect, Bridgeport, Conn 



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io. bni=3e£= 




Floor Plan 



Basement Plan 



PLATE VI 




FIFTH WARD SCHOOL, JOLIET, ILL. 
F. S. Allen, Architect, Jo lie t, III. 




First Floor 



Second Floor 



PLATE VII 




Schus m u li *£ ? V f Feet. 

FIFTH WARD SCHOOL, JOLIET, ILL.— Basement Flan 



J'LATE VIII 









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BASEMENT AND FIRST FLOOR PLANS OF AN EIGHT ROOM 
PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL HOUSE 



William Atkinson, Architect 



FLA TE IX 





SECOND FLOOR PLAN AND SECTLONAL VIEW OF AN EIGHT ROOM 
PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL HOUSE 



William Atkinson, Architect 



PLA TE X 



m 



. V. '" . ' 



1a 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILD LNG NO. 165, NEW YORK CITY 
C. B.J. Snyder, Architect, New, York 




Basement Plan 



FLA TE XI 




First Floor Plan 
PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDING NO. 165, NEW YORK CITY 



P. LA TE XII 



Fig. i 




PLAN SUGGESTED FOR A LARGE PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL 



Fig. 2 




a««* W 'M 1 V-# r*« 
PLAN SUGGESTED FOR A SMALL PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL 



Fig. i 



PLA TE XIII 




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i r.-SS: 5.2: 



PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 20, NEW YORK CITY 
C. B. J. Snyder, A rchitect 

Fig. 2 




Roof Playground 



PLATE XIV 




CAMBRIDGE {MASS.) ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL 

Chamberlin &> Austin, Architects 




FIRST FLOOR PLAN 



PLATE XV 




SECOND FLOOR, PLAN 




THIRD FLOOR PLAN 



CAMBRIDGE (MASS.) ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL 
Chamber lin & Austin, Architects 



PLATE XVI 



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PLATE XVII 



jj"|— t— — 1^71— 




First Floor 




Basement 



PLATE XVIII 




Third Floor 




I LIBRARY S^ " "• P ^ U 

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Second Floor 



PLATE XIX 




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PLATE XX 





MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY 



PLA TE XXI 





$£.CCLM5FLOO&?XJitf ' 

MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY 



PLATE XXII 



m 







CXOSS SECTIONAL VIE W 



PLATE XXIII 



Ikw. 
100 



90 
80 
70 
60 
80 
40 
20 
90 
10 




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10 Kmperes. 



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Heat 



1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 Units, 

r tizkt distributed under floor, ventilation above. 

B Heat DELIVERED ON SIDE, VEJtTILRTlON BELOW. 

C Heat delivered on side , ventilation above. 



PLATE XXIV 



Fig. i 




PLAN FOR OUT DOOR CLOSET 



Fig. 2 




423] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 1 5 

the pipes leading up through the large chimney to the upper 
part of the rooms. The exit registers placed near the floor 
open into the chimney. 

The building has an artistic and stable appearance. Built 
of stone or brick, the estimated cost is $6,600. But a frame 
structure, providing the same conveniences, could probably 
be built for $5,000. 

It will be unnecessary to give details of plans for a four 
and six-room building. Duplicating the plans for two rooms 
will give a good plan for a four-room building ; and dupli- 
cating the plans for three rooms will give an equally good 
one for a building of six rooms. Staircases could easily 
be provided for by enlarging the halls, and this without sac- 
rificing any of the essential features. 

THE EIGHT-ROOM BUILDING 

In accordance with the established grading of primary and 
grammar schools in this country, a building of eight rooms 
— one for each grade — is typical of the complete unit for 
this class of school work, and is the prevailing type in the 
small cities and towns throughout the United States. For 
this and other reasons now about to be mentioned, a care- 
ful consideration of this building becomes highly important. 

The method for warming a building is to be determined 
largely by the number of rooms to be warmed and by the 
means at the command of the builders. The proposition 
to establish a steam plant for a one-room country school 
house, would be about as absurd as one to warm a seven- 
story building covering a whole block in a large city with 
hot air furnaces in the basement. Considering the velocity 
at which air moves through ducts, its rate of cooling and 
the friction which it encounters in reaching its destination, 
all methods of conveying air have their proper places and 
their limitations. 

In the growth of the typical school house from a one to a 
fifty-room building, the stove, the hot air furnace, the gravi- 
tal steam plant with its " direct " and " indirect " radiation, 



1 6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [424 

and the forcing fan all have their appropriate places. To 
ask which of these means is the best is much like asking 
whether it is best for an animal to breathe by absorption, 
by spiracles, by gills or by lungs. It all depends upon the 
building or upon the animal. There is a time when the 
stove gives way to the furnace, the furnace to steam pipes 
alone, and steam pipes alone to steam pipes supplemented 
by mechanical power. 

It is in buildings of the capacity of the one under con- 
sideration that the battle between the dealers in hot air fur- 
naces and the steam fitters is usually waged, and the argu- 
ments commonly employed by both are as amusing to the 
scientist as they are distracting to the average school director. 

It may here be said to the credit of both factions that in 
buildings of this size either method will answer the pur- 
pose, but the writer wishes to give as his opinion that, in 
constructing an eight-room building, the time has come for 
the installation of a steam plant. 

In order to secure the proper ventilation, the radiation 
should be in the main " indirect ; " i. e., the steam pipes should 
take the place in the fresh air inlet duct of that formerly 
occupied by the furnace. Experience has proved that, in 
purely gravital systems, this should be supplemented with 
the direct radiation of a few radiators placed in the rooms 
under the windows. For a fuller discussion of the princi- 
ples underlying these statements, see " Warming and Ven- 
tilation of School Buildings," chapters XVII and XVIII. 

Another peculiarity which generally prevails in our eight- 
room buildings is that, situated as the rooms are in corners 
of the building, they are usually square and lighted on two 
adjacent sides. This error is ingeniously avoided in the 
fifth ward school building, Joliet, Ills., shown in Plates VI 
and VII. 

By blinding the windows on one side and by increasing 
their number on the other, all the rooms are properly lighted. 
By an equally ingenious and artistic architectural treatment, 
the external appearance is made strikingly attractive. The 



425] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 1 7 

halls are wide and well lighted, and a wardrobe having both 
school room and hall entrance is provided for each room. 

The heating of this building is with hot air indirect, 
supplemented by direct steam radiation. The writer is 
informed by the school authorities of Joliet that it is not 
wholly satisfactory in severe weather, and that in their newer 
buildings they use both direct and indirect steam radiation. 
In order to secure sufficient directness for the hot air as well 
as a sufficiently large heating surface, it was found necessary 
to multiply furnaces and to widely distribute them to differ- 
ent parts of the basement. A single boiler could accomplish 
the results easier and more economically by supply steam 
for indirect — supplemented by direct — radiation. 

The advantage of steam over hot air in such a building is 
seen in cold and windy weather when the impossibility for 
hot air to make its way against a strong pressure on the 
windward side has been so often and so fully demonstrated 
that argument is no longer necessary. Were the Joliet 
building heated and ventilated by a steam plant properly 
installed, the writer would not hesitate in classing it as a 
model of its class. 

Plates VIII and IX show floor plans, basement and sec- 
tional view of an eight-room primary and grammar school 
house which deserve careful study. 

This plan is the result of an attempt of William Atkinson, 
architect, to plan a school house possessing all the necessary 
architectural and hygenic features at a minimum cost — "to 
reduce the cost to its lowest terms." To do this, Mr. Atkin- 
son selects what is known as the "mill construction" which 
consists of exposed iron I beams and timbers ; and inside 
walls finished with faced brick instead of lath and plaster. 

As to the economy of "mill construction," architects in 
general do not consider it less expensive than that ordinarily 
employed. The writer's observation of its use in a portion 
of the manual training high school of Kansas City, Mo., is 
that it costs slightly more ; however, this is excellent con- 
struction and is growing in favor as shown by many recently- 



1 8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [426 

built houses in different parts of the country ; it is strong, 
and being exposed the work must be faithfully done ; it is 
especially recommended for laboratories and manual train- 
ing workshops; it is "slow combustion" and when properly 
constructed looks well. 

But it is not so much "mill construction" as other features 
which commend Mr. Atkinson's plan to careful considera- 
tion ; its shape in simple parallelogram, and the small space 
occupied by halls are certainly elements of economy. The 
absence of a central hall makes it possible to heat and ven- 
tilate the house by means of one large chimney in the center 
and could be made a support for I beams if "mill construc- 
tion" were used. 

The position of the two halls confines the light to one 
side of the school rooms which are 24 ft. in width and 32 ft. 
in length. The five large windows evenly spaced and the 
proportion of the rooms makes the lighting ideal. 

There are four well-lighted wardrobes on each floor, one 
for each room. Although these wardrobes are not in con- 
junction with the school rooms, they are near to them, and 
the inconvenience which their location would cause in dis- 
missing the pupils would be small. 

Another objection to the arrangement of the rooms is that 
all of the rooms cannot be reached from a common hallway, 
making it necessary to pass through certain rooms in reach- 
ing others. This is unconventional, but the objection is in 
reality insignificant when it is remembered that in a graded 
grammar school such passing is only occasional, and is chiefly 
confined to the movements of the principal in his visits to 
the different rooms ; he could, when necessary, pass around 
on the outside. 

We have now reached the proper place to consider the 
use of mechanical power as a means of ventilation. The 
necessity of this means in very large buildings is no longer 
a subject of debate, and is in use in all first class buildings 
in our large cities ; but it is generally supposed that to buy 
an engine and fans for ventilating an ordinary eight-room 



427] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 19 

building would be an expensive luxury. This is not only an 
error, but it may be safely said that the reverse is true — 
that it is expensive to do without engine and fans. 

It is now generally accepted that 2000 cubic feet of air at 
normal pressure is needed for each pupil per hour if the 
requirements of perfect ventilation are met ; but the mistake 
is commonly made that this amount is ever realized in sys- 
tems of gravity ventilation where the air is moved by heat- 
ing aspirating chimneys. It is not denied that this quantity 
of air per pupil can be moved by the gravity method ; only 
that it is not done in practice. 

The most careful estimates place the amount of fuel 
necessary for this purpose as about one-sixth in excess of 
that required to supply the heating. So that to ventilate a 
building properly by the gravity method more than doubles 
the cost of heating without ventilation. It is plain that the 
burning of such large quantities of coal in chimneys for the 
purpose of ventilation is expensive and — in view of a better 
way — wasteful. 

Without burdening the reader with deduction formulas, 
it may be reliably asserted that every pupil in school may 
be supplied for a whole school year with 2000 cubic feet of 
air per hour at a power cost of less than one cent per capita. 
As this statement will be reluctantly accepted by many who 
are unfamiliar with such matters, a few words of explanation 
will not be out of place. 

It should be remembered that in securing this result the 
exhaust steam is not wasted but is admitted directly into the 
radiators and utilized for heating the building. The engine 
simply converts enough of the steam as it passes through 
into mechanical power to run the fans. The drop in the 
temperature of the steam which this change causes is very 
small, so small indeed that it might almost be neglected, and 
it is this drop which supplies the entire expenditure for 
ventilation. 

In the complete combustion of a single pound of average 
bituminous coal, there is liberated 13000 heat units; multi- 



20 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [428 

plying this by the mechanical equivalent, 872, we get 
10036000 — the number of foot pounds of actual work of 
which one pound of coal is capable when the transformation 
takes place without loss ; and this is precisely the case when 
a fan is run by an engine and the exhaust steam used for 
heating the building. 

It will be interesting to note that this work, 10036000 
foot pounds, when divided by 33000, the horse power per 
minute, gives 304 plus as the number of minutes one pound 
of coal will supply a horse power of work. One horse 
power is the work necessary to ventilate an average class 
room. We see then that one average sized school room can 
by this means be amply ventilated for five hours with only 
one pound of coal. At $4 per ton, this would cost one-fifth 
of a cent ! 

To move air at the same rate by burning coal in a venti- 
lating chimney it would require for the same time an average 
of 100 pounds of coal; thus the cost of mechanical ventila- 
tion is only 1 per cent of that equally well done by gravity. 
To ventilate an eight-room building by mechanical means 
would require an eight horse-power engine and two three- 
foot fans. The cost of an installment would not exceed 

$350. 

Twenty-one pounds per hour is the quantity of coal which 
careful estimates place as necessary to ventilate a school 
room containing 60 pupils. Now counting seven the 
number of fire months, 20 the number of days to the 
month, eight as the number of hours per day in which fire 
will be needed, $4 the price of a ton of coal, the cost of ven- 
tilating a building of eight rooms would be 

7x20x8x8x21x4 = 1376.32. 
2000 

Any less expense would imply that the ventilation is imper- 
fect and short of that which would be supplied by engine- 
driven fans. Thus, a power plant would pay for itself in 
one year in the saving of coal alone. 

But there are other compensations incident to this system 



429] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 21 

in the installation. It should be remembered that all ducts, 
both for fresh and for foul air, need to be only half the size 
of those for gravity ventilation; this is because of a corre- 
sponding difference in the velocity of the air in the two 
systems. 

Again, the indirect radiating surface is at least one-third 
less, due to the higher steam pressure which may be carried 
to supply the drop in temperature which takes place on 
radiator surfaces when strong currents are passed over 
them. 

Taking, then, the great daily saving in coal consumption, 
the trifling extra expense of first installation, and the cer- 
tainty of the action and efficiency of the mechanical method, 
what remains to be said ? Simply that in buildings of eight 
rooms and upwards, mechanical ventilation should take the 
place of gravital. Whether we consider the matter from an 
hygienic, economic or mechanical basis, this conclusion is 
inevitable — a conclusion which has been amply verified by 
the writer in the Kansas City manual training high school 
during the past two years (Sept., 1897, to May, 1899), and 
to which fuller reference is made in subsequent pages. 

THE LARGE CITY WARD AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL 

As cities grow in population and as the price of ground 
increases until in extreme cases it becomes necessary to mass 
together 2000 to 3000 children under one roof, the problem 
of meeting all hygienic and mechanical conditions becomes 
serious and difficult. It is here that the factor of economy 
must in the main yield to necessity, and the enormous expen- 
diture of money is one of the inevitable means of solution. 

The only standpoints from which the discussion of econ- 
omy has any justification in these gigantic structures is in 
the question of height and in that of architectural treatment 
for aesthetic purposes. And even this is scarcely allowable 
in great cities where the class of construction is practically 
forced by the surroundings and where a certain measure of 
beauty is demanded by the artistic spirit prevailing in met- 



22 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [43© 

ropolitan "air." Notwithstanding that the cost per school 
room decreases with the number of stories, it requires with 
the best management about $5,000 per room to construct a 
building five stories in height in the city of New York. 
This is five times as much as would be required to secure 
conditions equally hygienic in the country, where the absence 
of plumbing and mechanical ventilation is compensated for 
in the unlimited playgrounds and free country air. 

As to architectural effect, the writer believes that, consid- 
ering the educational value of attractive surroundings and 
the relatively small cost of securing them when artistic skill 
is exercised, a due regard should be paid to the appearance 
of our school buildings. 

When the architectural treatment is undertaken in a true 
artistic spirit — a spirit which makes art conform to utility 
instead of sacrificing it — the additional expense is well 
invested. It must, however, be confessed that there has 
been much useless expenditure in an attempt at meaningless 
ornamentation, resulting in a ridiculous exhibition of cheap 
filigree and hodge podge, devoid not only of the first ele- 
ments of beauty, but often sacrificing utility and convenience. 

The two extremes of expense in building a school house 
are found in the "factory" type, consisting simply of walls, 
windows and roof, without ornamentation of any kind ; and 
in the "hospital" type, which comprises not only all modern 
improvements in sanitary plumbing, heating and ventilation, 
but architectural effect as well. When properly done, a suf- 
ficient architectural treatment can be given to a building 
with a moderate additional cost. 

The following from Mr. Edmon M. Wheelwright, city 
architect, Boston, Mass., who has recently contributed to the 
" Brickbuilder" a most valuable series of articles on "The 
American school house," is so well said and so much to the 
point that the writer takes pleasure in quoting it : 

" In designing" a school house, the architect should strive 
to produce not an English college building, a French 
chateau, or a ' Romanesque ' library, but a school house. 



43 1] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 23 

The practical requirements of the problem demand in most 
cases symmetry of plan, and in all cases lighting of the 
school rooms by wide and high windows. It is requisite 
that these windows should not have transom bars, and that 
either a flat roof or one of low pitch should be used. A 
high, well-lighted basement is also a requisite of a school 
house. The important rooms in the basement need ample 
windows, and a stud of ten feet is none too high for the 
proper installation of the heating apparatus. These require- 
ments for the basement affect school house designing most 
radically. 

" Such being the general requirements which most influ- 
ence the general expression of our school houses, it will be 
found difficult to reconcile therewith features borrowed from 
the late English Gothic and the early English renaissance. 

" Aside from economy in planning, which certainly leads 
to a balanced arrangement of rooms, the key to the external 
expression of a school house is the size and distribution and 
form of windows which experience has shown to be best 
adapted for the needs of a school room. This consideration 
of window treatment alone leads the architect who appreci- 
ates the economic and practical requirements of the problem 
to abandon picturesque treatments in a school house design 
and to adopt those suggested by the brick architecture of 
the Italian renaissance and by the Georgian work of Eng- 
land and this country. Sufficiently varied motives for the 
external expression of our school house plans can be found 
in these styles. 

" * * * The architect to whom the designing of a 
school house is entrusted should accept the limitations 
imposed by the practical conditions of the problem. He 
should not seek to be ' original ' or to gain the semblance of 
a structure, however beautiful in its own time and for its 
own needs, which does not meet the requirements of an 
American school house." 

Mr. Wheelwright concludes that " under ordinary condi- 
tions, satisfactory architectural results may be obtained at an 



24 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [432 

access of cost of not more than 5 per cent above that of the 
most 'practical' construction." 

Public school buildings No. 165 (Plate X), and No. 20 
(Plate XIII) are given as types of large city buildings, not 
because they are considered perfect models of architecture 
and construction for buildings of their class, but because 
they are excellent buildings and have been erected under 
the most trying and extreme conditions in the crowded parts 
of America's largest city. 

These buildings are heated by steam radiation and ven- 
tilated by engine-driven fans located in the basement. 

A mechanical error has been conformed to in having sepa- 
rate engines for the different fans instead of deriving all the 
power from a single unit and distributing it to the fans by 
electric motors. A 50 h. p. engine with direct connected 
dynamo of 40 k. w. capacity and two 1 5 h. p. motors would 
be more efficient, more easily kept in repair, and more up to 
date than the old method of furnishing an engine to each 
fan. 

It would also have been better to have divided the 
mechanical movement of the air between the plenum and the 
exhaust methods. The vacuum-forming tendency given by 
an exhaust fan is always effective and greatly assists the 
incoming air making its way against friction. And in cases 
when the room becomes too warm and the fresh air is tem- 
porarily closed off, the exhaust fan acts like a fireplace and 
can always be depended upon. The power required in the 
two methods is about the same. 

In these New York schools, the air supply is estimated to 
be 1800 cubic feet per hour for each pupil. 

In planning very large buildings, two distinct types are 
employed, known respectively as the open court type and 
the letter H type. As to which it is better to choose, 
depends on the size, shape, and location of the building lot. 

The New York school, No. 165, is a good example of H 
type, which is for the majority of cases the better for 
crowded localities. In these districts, it is necessary to build 



433] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 25 

close up to the party line ; this plan as seen in the present 
building makes it possible to build a solid blank wall on the 
party line with the windows all facing the open court which 
may be beautified, and the view is unobstructed by unsightly 
shops, smoky chimneys, and tenement houses. 

The external treatment of building No. 165 shows an 
attempt to conform to the Gothic type of architecture. 
While utility has not, in this instance, been wholly sacrificed, 
and making- due allowance for differences in taste, the writer 
is of the opinion that the high pitched roof, the pinnacles, 
and the pointed dormers are not the most appropriate form 
of decoration. The architect, Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, justifies 
the space occupied by the roof by using it for a gymnasium 
and for vent flues. 

The building laws of New York require such a great 
thickness of wall in high buildings that much valuable space 
is gained in buildings over four stones in height by using 
the steel- skeleton type used in the large office buildings ; 
this makes it possible to reduce the thickness of the first 
story walls from 36 inches to 16 inches. 

The introduction of manual training into the schools of 
the United States has been met in school house building by 
placing it in different parts of the house, from the basement 
to the attic. In building No. 165, the whole fifth floor is 
given over to manual and physical training and a gymnasium. 

As manual training in grammar grades is still in a transi- 
tory and unsettled state, the provisions for it in school house 
building are as various and imperfect as is the knowledge 
concerning its place, amount, and nature in the course of 
study. In high schools, certain requirements and methods 
have become established making more clearly definite the 
functions of the buildings, as is pointed out further on. 

There is a difference of opinion as to the necessity of an 
auditorium in a grammar school. In New York city, a 
demand for an audience room and a regard for economy are 
two conflicting ideas which seem to have met and com- 
promised as shown in building No. 165 in sliding door par- 



26 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [434 

titions between all the rooms on the second floor of the 
central pavilion. An auditorium or general assembly hall 
in a primary and grammar school is of doubtful utility so far 
as the management of the school is concerned. 

The lighting of building No. 165 is generally to be com- 
mended. All the rooms except those in the ends of the 
outside pavilions are lighted on one side only, by three very 
wide mullioned windows occupying nearly the whole inside 
wall space. It may be said of the end windows that they 
are objectionable if the rooms are to be used for ordinary 
class purposes. By using these ends for wardrobes, the 
windows would not interfere with the requirements of 
hygienic lighting and might still be left to furnish a justifi- 
cation for the pretty Gothic window at the top. 

A difference of opinion prevails among the leading archi- 
tects of this country as to the form and position of win- 
dows. Mr. Wheelwright objects to the use of mullions and 
transom bars, while Mr. Snyder in his best New York build- 
ings makes free use of both. The objection to mullions is 
based on the uneven distribution of light which is incident 
to unequal spacing. This, however, depends on the con- 
ditions in each instance. There appears to be no objection 
to mullions as used in the central pavilion of building No. 
165 where the rooms are lighted on one of the shorter sides 
and the windows, whose frames are 17 ft. in width and 1 1 ft. 
in height, occupy nearly the whole of the available wall 
space ; but in rooms lighted as they should be on one of the 
longer sides better results can be attained by plain windows 
evenly spaced than by any use of mullions. The use of 
them, then, in school house building should be limited to 
those exceptional cases which require practically the conver- 
sion of one side of a room into a single, unbroken source 
of light. 

The use of transom bars, however, cannot be defended, 
for they are obstructions to light and are certainly not justi- 
fied if their only purpose is conformity to ancient ideals 
which had purposes of their own quite different from those 



435] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 2/ 

demanded in a school house. The highest art will give a 
pleasing expression to the highest utility. 

In determining the ideal length for a school room, the two 
main considerations are the distance which an ordinary con- 
versational tone of voice will carry, and the distance at 
which ordinary blackboard writing can be seen. This dis- 
tance may be taken, with liberal variations to meet particu- 
lar cases, to be about 32 feet. 

The width will depend on the height of the windows. If 
the German standard of requiring the width to be not 
greater than twice the clear height be accepted, then the 
width of the rooms in building No. 165 might be 28 ft. 6 in., 
as the height is 14 ft. 4 in. A room 28x32 ft. will comfort- 
ably seat singly 56 pupils. This is as many as any teacher 
should be called upon to manage in one room. 

In determining the size of classes, there is somewhere a 
proper balance between the economic and the pedagogical 
phases of the question. As the child is the all-important 
factor, it would seem that the maximum number of pupils 
which can be admitted to one room without sacrificing their 
health or individuality should be first determined and then 
make the school house conform to the requirements. As 
the limits of safety are not confined within fixed, hard and 
fast lines, the writer believes that the limits of hygienic 
teaching can be found in a room varying between 22 to 28 
feet in width and 30 to 36 feet in length, accommodating 
respectively 40 to 60 pupils according to conditions. 

The mistake in school house building has been in making 
rooms too large instead of too small as is sometimes charged. 
The answer of Superintendent Philbrick of Boston, Mass., 
to this charge when made some years ago against the size of 
the rooms in the English high school of Boston which was 
planned by him is worth repeating: "It has been said that 
the rooms are not large enough. One might as well say 
that a bushel measure is not as large as it should be. The 
rooms are as large as they need be for the objects in view 
in planning them." 



28 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [436 

In planning a school house the number, size and position 
of the rooms should first be determined and the architecture 
adapted to the requirements can then be selected. But the 
architect too often first decides upon the outside appearance 
and then makes the interior arrangements to fill the spaces ; 
this frequently results in rooms of various shape and size 
not well adapted to the purposes for which they were 
intended. 

One of the most important matters in large primary and 
grammar schools is the number and location of the ward- 
robes. The provision for these in building No. 165 are not 
satisfactory. For purposes of order and convenience in 
handling large numbers of small children there should be 
one of these cloak rooms provided for each school room. 
In the building under consideration there seems to be no 
provision for these rooms in the central pavilion, and those 
in the outside pavilion are not lighted. This defect could 
have been corrected by placing windows in the blank wall 
on the property line. Such windows, notwithstanding their 
proximity to neighboring walls, would, if ground glass were 
used, serve a purpose in lighting these cloak rooms without 
opening a view to objectionable neighborhoods. 

A provision for an amply lighted cloak room for each 
school room is shown in fig. 1, Plate XII, which the writer 
suggests as an H plan for a large primary and grammar 
school house. In this plan it is assumed that the building 
occupies one-half a block having streets on three sides and 
an alley on the other. In many available sites this condi- 
tion can be secured ; but in cases like that of the New York 
building the position of the corridors and school rooms in 
the outside pavilions could be reversed without organic 
change in the design. In this plan the following features 
are secured : 1. Ample shelter for 2000 to 4000 pupils, 
according to the number of stories; 2. Rooms 24x32 
ft., the proper proportion ; 3. Ventilation by combination 
of plenum and vacuum movements as shown by the num- 
ber and position of flues ; 4. Four large windows in one 



437] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 20, 

side provide ample light for the school rooms if the clear 
height is not less than 13 feet; 5. A well-lighted cloak 
room opening into each room and into the corridor, which 
serves ideal convenience in dismissing the pupils. 

This plan does not preclude the use of the space here 
shown from being occupied by school rooms for other pur- 
poses which local conditions might require, such as offices, 
reception rooms, water closets, play rooms, etc. The plan 
is intended to suggest a way to secure the above-named 
features for every school room, and the arrangement would 
conserve equally well the lighting, warming and ventilating 
requirements for whatever use the space might be employed. 

The position of the cloak rooms at the ends of the out- 
side pavilions while unconventional, serves to preserve the 
intent as to side lighting, while it does not preclude any 
outside window arrangement which architectural treatment 
would necessarily require. Fig. 2 illustrates the idea when 
applied to a smaller building. 

With the limited opportunities in the densely populated 
districts of our large cities for exercise in the open air, the 
question of play grounds becomes important. In building 
No. 165, the open courts between the outside pavilions not 
being sufficient, the whole first floor is given over to this 
purpose. This is unnecessarily expensive. The prejudice 
in New York city against any use of the basement except 
for the heating and ventilating apparatus should give way 
before the light of modern methods for the sanitary regula- 
tions of basements. A properly constructed basement with 
half-height top windows and properly supplied with fresh, 
warm air is as wholesome as any room in the building. 

It is especially important in providing for a system of 
ventilation to carry the air from an elevated and pure source 
instead of taking it from back alleys and beneath porches 
and door steps as is too frequently the case. 

The use of the roof for play grounds is a good solution 
of the problem. Public school No. 20, New York city, 
Plate XIII, is a good example of this use of the roof. The 



3<3 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [43 8 

air at this height is generally pure and the sunlight is unob- 
structed. By thus utilizing the roof and dispensing with. 
the waste space of a high attic under it, this scheme is advis- 
able from an economic as well as from an hygienic standpoint. 

THE HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING 

A study of the high school buildings of this country 
reveals perhaps more than do buildings of any other class 
the progress not only in school architecture but in pedagogi- 
cal methods as well. From the first conception of secon- 
dary education which consisted of adding four more to the 
eight primary and grammar grades, the high schools have 
developed a system of specialized work which is expressed 
in a building planned and equipped to meet the many and 
diverse requirements. 

The first high school building which marked distinctively 
an epoch in school house architecture in this country was 
the Latin and English high school of Boston, Mass., which 
was begun in 1877. This house was planned by Mr. Jno. 
D. Philbrick, then city superintendent of the Boston schools, 
and Mr. Clough, the city architect. The plan was inspired 
chiefly by Mr. Philbrick after a study of the celebrated 
building in Vienna — the Academische Gymnasium — which 
is probably the best school building in the world. 

The building is a pure type of the court plan and covers 
a block of ground 423 feet in length by 220 feet in width. 
The rooms and corridors are arranged in parallelogram form 
around a central court which admits light and provides a 
playground. The lighting for the school rooms is taken 
principally from the street sides. 

This building marks several interesting transitions in 
methods and ideals of education, one of which is shown in 
the large military drill rooms, 30x62 ft., a reflection of the 
militant type of European education. Another is the 
amphitheatre style of "lecture" room for the teaching of 
science instead of the working laboratory method now in 
vogue in the best schools. True, this building contains a 



439] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 3 1 

working laboratory, but the dominant feature in the science 
work of that time is seen in the care and expense lavished 
on the lecture rooms. The building reveals a curious inter- 
mingling of the ordinary graded high school, a military 
academy, and a college of the conventional type. 

But it is not for the purpose of calling attention to its 
faults that this building is here referred to ; in many impor- 
tant particulars it may stand as a model of the best that 
has yet been realized. In the mattter of size, form, loca- 
tion, and lighting of its 48 school rooms it undoubtedly 
stands at the head of American school houses. Other 
houses with more modern characteristics have in these 
important features not preserved the perfect model which 
this building furnished. These class rooms are of the ideal 
size and shape, 24x32x14 ft., and lighted by four windows, 
9 ft. 6 in. x 4 ft. 6 in., placed on one of longer sides six 
inches from the ceiling and four feet from the floor. They 
will accommodate from 35 to 40 high school pupils seated at 
single desks. 

Another excellent feature of this building is the arrange- 
ment of water closets, which occupy positions in wings from 
the stairways, there being two stories of them for each floor, 
one of the stories being entered at the half-way landings 
between the floors. 

The building is not sufficiently ventilated, there being 
allowed but 800 cubic feet per hour for each pupil, instead 
of 2000 cubic feet which is now considered necessary. There 
also seems to be little or no provision made for the care of 
the pupils' wraps, except some low box-like closets under the 
windows, which proved entirely unsatisfactory. 

The building was intended to be fire-proof, the corridors 
being constructed with iron beams and brick arches plastered 
upon the bricks ; the floors are of black marble ; and the 
staircases built of iron. 

The main idea which dominated the minds of the design- 
ers of this building should not be lost sight of : that the 
real width of any organic part of the house should be the 



32 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [440 

width of one school room plus the width of the parallel cor- 
ridor. Whether the construction be on the court or the H 
plan, this principle is sound, and should be rigidly adhered 
to in planning a very large school house. 

One of the essential features of a high-school house as it 
differentiates from one built for grammar school purposes is 
the assembly hall, which in America is simply a large school 
room intended for general purposes of classification, and 
the assembling of the school as a whole for general instruc- 
tion, announcements, opening exercises, musical entertain- 
ments, lectures, etc. It is not an imitation of the German 
Aula, which is largely for general public purposes, and is 
usually richly ornamented with costly architectural treat- 
ment. The American high school assembly hall is strictly 
for utilitarian purposes, and not " to represent the dignity of 
the state." In the Boston school there are two assembly 
rooms, both on the third floor in the central pavilion, each 
capable of seating 800 persons. The purposes of the school 
would have been better served had these halls been united 
into a single room capable of seating the whole school. But 
here again the building represents another transition in high 
school development, that of separating the " classical " and 
mathematical from the English and science branches ; 
indeed, the block is divided into halves, one for the former 
and the other for the latter branches. These two assembly 
rooms were probably intended for the two schools. 

The Cambridge English high school (Plates XIV and XV) 
may be taken to illustrate the next important step in the 
development of secondary education in this country. The 
recognition of natural science to a place in the curriculum 
came slowly, and the pursuit of it by the working laboratory 
method came still more slowly. In this building, ample pro- 
visions have been made for physical and chemical labora- 
tories in two of the large corner rooms on the second and 
third floors. 

These laboratories are well equipped with demonstration 
tables, chairs with writing-arm attachments, working desks 



44 1 ] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 33 

plumbed for water and gas, shelves for reagents, and gas 
hoods in the chemical laboratory for the removal of noxious 
gases. 

The building represents what may be called the physical 
science stage in high school development where physics and 
chemistry have secured their rights, but where the biological 
sciences — botany, zoology, and physiology — are still in the 
show cabinet stage, no provision being made for working 
laboratories for them. 

The building is constructed on the H plan with the end 
pavilions short. The corner rooms are well adapted for the 
laboratories and drawing rooms, which need an abundance 
of light and in which light from more than one side is not 
an objection. 

Six of the corner rooms are used for class rooms — a use 
which does not show an ideal adaptation, as they are 40X 
28 ft., which is too large for the purposes of instruction ; it 
is presumed, however, that they are used to accommodate 
pupils who are studying as well as those who are reciting. 

A more recent and a better method of providing for the 
study periods of the pupils is the seating of them in rooms 
or " study halls " planned for that purpose. In modern high 
schools, the pupils change places every period as is the cus- 
tom in colleges. These corner class rooms in the Cambridge 
building are too large for class rooms and smaller than they 
should be for study rooms as a teacher can easily manage 
from 100 to 150 pupils in the study hall ; they serve to rep- 
resent that phase in school house building before the func- 
tion of a room for recitation and for study purposes became 
differentiated. 

The large assembly hall and the drawing room on the 
third floor are well adapted to their uses, and the large room 
in the center pavilion on the second floor called the " senior 
class room " would make an ideal freehand drawing and art 
room. 

The number and position of the wardrobes (" coat 
rooms ") is ideal from the grammar school standpoint ; in 



34 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [442 

high schools, however, of more recent construction, these 
rooms have been left out, and the wraps of the pupils dis- 
posed of in individual lockers placed in large rooms in the 
basement set apart for that purpose. This differentiation 
from the grammar school plan, besides being economical, 
presupposes that the age of high school pupils puts them 
beyond the necessity of individual espionage while being 
dismissed. 

But the most distinguishing characteristic of the Cam- 
bridge building is its external appearance, it being the first 
building in which a rational and artistic treatment and utility 
were happily combined. When visiting this building in 1896, 
while making an extended tour of school house inspection, 
the writer was impressed with the simple, strong, artistic 
elegance of its architecture. It is well proportioned, its 
parts well unified without any attempt to obscure the uses 
for which it was intended ; and it is free from fussy, mean- 
ingless ornamentation. It stands for what it is — a beauti- 
ful school house. By referring to Plate XIX it will readily 
be observed that these characteristics are reflected by the 
manual training high school, Kansas City, Mo., started in 
1897. 

The Cambridge building was erected without special 
regard for economy ; it is fire proof, and built of expensive 
material ; the basement is granite, the first story Amherst 
stone, and the second and third of terra-cotta brick ; its cost, 
exclusive of ground, was $230000. 

While this building stands as an architectural unit from a 
high school standpoint, the course of study pursued in it is 
unified with the manual training school, which is situated 
on the opposite side of the beautiful grounds donated by 
Mr. Frederic H. Ringe. 

The new high school building at Springfield, Mass., Plates 
XVI, XVII and XVIII, is given as representing the last 
step in high school development preceding that of the 
manual training high school. It exemplifies not only what 
can be done when economy is not a restraining factor, but 



443] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 35 

also illustrates the prestige at which secondary education 
has arrived in this country. From architects who have 
$300000 at their command, exceptional results are naturally 
expected. In the Springfield building, which cost some- 
what more than this amount, while not above criticism, our 
expectations for excellence have in the main been met. 

The external architectural design is based on the Italian 
renaissance, and while it lacks the harmony of proportion 
given to the Cambridge building, it is strong, dignified and 
chaste. The foundation walls above grade are of pink 
granite ; the walls of the other stories of buff brick, and 
the trimmings are of Bedford limestone. Every sixth 
course of brick of the first story is indented (" six cut 
work ") which adds variety and strength to the general 
effect. It is constructed on the central court plan, the 
rooms occupying three of its sides, and a corridor complet- 
ing the rectangle? It is 203 feet by 173 feet, and built on 
a lot 400 feet by 270 feet. 

The interior is rich with all the ornamental detail which 
polished marble, plate glass, bronze trimmings and other 
expensive materials can give. Mechanically it is a modern, 
expensive and magnificent structure. 

The heating is by indirect radiation supplemented by 
direct radiation in exposed parts. The furnace and boiler 
are installed in a separate house outside the main building. 
This feature is much to be commended as it insures to all 
the school rooms immunity from coal dust and escaping 
smoke which are incident to a boiler house even with the 
most careful firing. This plant has four horizontal tubular 
boilers each 125 h. p. capacity. The indirect coils are 
located in heatingf chambers near the four outside corners of 
the building. The fresh air is supplied to these heaters 
through main conduits extending around the parallelogram 
directly under the corridor of the first floor. These con- 
duits are very large, about 80 square feet cross sectional 
area insuring an abundance of fresh air. The air enters 
this conduit through an elevated shaft — a highly commend- 
able sanitary feature — by which a pure source is insured. 



36 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [444 

The plenum movement is accomplished by three large 
fans located at convenient distributing points. The four 
exhaust fans, four feet in diameter, are located near th'e top 
of the four vent shafts. Separate fans are used to ventilate 
the laboratories. 

The heat is regulated by thermostats, another luxury of 
modern engineering. This is in reality more than a luxury 
in a school house ; it is a necessity, for experience has proved 
that the regulation of the heat in school rooms cannot safely 
be entrusted to the teachers, whose minds are not only pre- 
occupied but whose judgment on such matters is not always 
to be relied upon. 

The lighting of this building, while in the main abund- 
ant, is not altogether fortunate in its distribution. The 
assembly hall in the center of the court is lighted from 
above and by light courts at the sides. The school rooms 
on the sides of the building are large — 2 '/'feet by 37 feet 
— well proportioned and well lighted by five windows on 
one of the longer sides ; but the eight corner class rooms on 
the first and second floors have the objection common to 
such rooms used for this purpose — light in the face of the 
teacher. This defect is not necessarily incident to the court 
plan of construction, and has been happily avoided in the 
Newark, N. J.,. high school, Howard & Cauldwell, archi- 
tects. Although the advantage of light on two or more 
sides for laboratories is not recognized in this school. 

It is the character and arrangement of the third floor of 
the Springfield building which especially commends it as a 
type of modern high school building. Here the recent 
demands of the physical and biological sciences are fully 
met, and the relative importance of laboratory and lecture 
work properly apportioned. The whole provision on this 
floor comprises seven working laboratories, three drawing 
rooms and one lecture room. The latter occupies a central 
position between the chemical and geological laboratories 
on the one hand and two physical laboratories on the other. 
The biological laboratories — three in number — occupy 



445] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 2)7 

positions on the side of the building adjacent to the physical 
laboratories ; and the drawing rooms are located on the 
remaining side. The drawing room on the corner, with light 
on two sides, is adapted to mechanical drawing, while the 
long room, lighted on one side by seven windows, is admi- 
rably adapted to freehand, perspective and art work. 

A conservatory for plants and flowers is situated on the 
third floor on the inside of the corridor extending into the 
court. Above this is an astronomical observatory with 
revolving copper dome. 

But it is in the location and height of this observatory 
that the enthusiasm of science has somewhat strained archi- 
tectural possibilities. While the dome is a very good one 
and looks well when viewed at some distance, it is practically 
useless for astronomical purposes except for amateur work 
of the crudest kind. Although " it rests upon a steel column 
directly connected with one of the foundation walls," vibra- 
tions are certain to occur on account of its height and its 
connection with the roof of the building. The writer speaks 
from experience with a telescope similarly located in a dome 
above the third floor of the Kansas City central high school. 

In the disposition of the pupils' wraps, the grammar school 
characteristic has been retained. Wardrobes are located in 
a quarter without light between the corridors and the school 
rooms, instead of having individual lockers in large rooms 
in the basement, as now found in many high-school houses 
of recent construction. 

An excellent use has, however, been made of the central 
space in the basement of the Springfield building. A large 
lunch room is here provided with double counters equipped 
for furnishing light refreshments. 

The question of lunches is one of the important and 
unsolved hygienic problems in high school education. This 
problem arises from the relatively short school day in sec- 
ondary schools ; it is too long for one session and too short 
for two. When put into one, the dinner hour is too late ; 
when divided into two, the short cold lunch hastily eaten is 



38 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [446 

equally objectionable and detrimental to the health of the 
pupils. A large, well-appointed cafe in the building, where 
it can be secured and managed economically for the pupils^ 
is the best solution of the problem. This gives two short 
sessions, with a light warm lunch given at the proper time. 

THE MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL 

It has been noticed that the high or secondary school in 
America started simply as additional grades to the eighth 
grammar grade ; and that these grades confined the atten- 
tion of the pupils to books only, differing from the work of 
the lower grades only in the subject-matter found in them. 
We have seen the school house for this work grow from the 
ordinary school room type to that just described. 

No less interesting is the growth of the manual training 
high-school house which is as in the former case a material 
expression of educational progress in this country. 

With the growth of the high school and the multiplying 
of branches of study, came a tendency too scholastic and 
bookish for practical purposes, when science came in as a 
balance. But laboratory science, excellent as it serves its 
purpose, is inadequate. The applications of science to the 
world of industry and art is not made a part of the pupil's 
growth until he can make this application a part of his 
training. 

The first response to this demand for the practical ele- 
ment was, as in the case of the high school, crude. It was 
merely a better sort of apprenticeship — a trade school. 
Later, a little academic work was added — just thrown in for 
"a little book learning." Still later the use of tools was 
generalized, the academic requirements enlarged by the 
introduction of branches of high school grade. The curric- 
ulum was adapted to pupils of high school age. The time 
was divided between tool work, drawing, and book studies, 
and the " manual training high school " became a reality. 

It would be interesting to trace the growth and develop- 
ment of these schools by giving plates from the first one 



447] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 39 

which was built in St. Louis twenty years ago under the 
direction of Calvin M. Woodward, and still a flourishing 
school, to the latest and most improved ; but space forbids. 
The first of these schools were supposed to be for those 
who expected to be mechanics and were for boys only. It 
was not till the establishment of the St. Louis school that 
manual training was considered on an educational basis. 

With the recognition of the educational claims of manual 
training, apart from its practical utility, came the apportion- 
ment of the academic studies and tool work in making out 
the curriculum. In doing this, varying knowledge and con- 
flicting ideas have been crystalized and recorded in the 
school houses. In some cases, one or two shops were added 
to the ordinary high school where the boys could work 
" after school ; " in others built for manual training schools, 
the shops predominated, and the mere mechanic fixed the 
character of the school with too few of the academic 
characteristics. 

Later came the extension of the manual high school to 
girls, and the modification of the training answering to their 
needs along the lines of the feminine industries ; and this 
correlated with the full academic, art and science provisions 
of the ordinary high school. 

Thus have the two types of school — the purely academic 
and the purely mechanical — grown, developed, and con- 
verged into one correlated unit forming the high school, par 
excellence. The term "manual training," which at first had 
its uses in distinguishing two distinct types has become some- 
what misleading in its application to the school of to-day ; 
but it must still be retained for the want of a better means 
of designating it from those high schools which have not yet 
incorporated manual training into the curriculum. 

The Kansas City manual training high school, Plate XIX, 
is here given as a type of its class, not because it is in all 
respects superior to others or because it is free from defects, 
but rather because it was planned after others had been care- 
fully studied. 



40 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [448 

The public manual training high school building of to-day 
should embody in its construction rooms specialized for a 
four years' course in art, science, academic work, and man- 
ual training for boys and girls ; and owing to the expense of 
maintaining it above that of the ordinary high school, its 
construction should be undertaken with the strictest economy 
consistent with hygienic and architectural requirements. 

The writer believes that more of these requisites have 
been realized in this than in any other school house yet 
built. When finished (the east pavilion completing the 
design as shown is now, December, 1899, nearly completed), 
it will be 190 feet in length and 140 feet greatest width ; it 
is built on a lot 250 feet long by 165 feet wide, and has a 
frontage on three streets. 

The central and right hand (as shown by the cut) pavil- 
ions were built in 1897 at a cost of $100000 ; this includes 
heating, ventilating, plumbing, laboratory, equipment, fur- 
nishings, and manual training equipment for first two years 
of the course, but not the ground. The wing now being 
built will, with its equipment, cost $50000 more, making a 
total of $150000 for the entire plant. The basement walls 
are of limestone blocks rough hewn and " pitch faced." 
The upper stories are of Kansas City buff brick, the first 
story being "six cut" work. The roof is of brown slate. 
The architectural effect is pleasing ; it is plain, straight- 
forward, and free from meretricious ornamentation. Flam- 
boyant trimmings are absent. Something of the harmonious 
effects which have been noted in the Cambridge high school 
have been given to this with less expensive materials. The 
arches which span the piers between the windows of the sec- 
ond and third stories of the central pavilion, while suggested 
by the Romanesque style of architecture, do not sacrifice 
the li^htine of the rooms, for the mullioned windows as 
here employed give a larger opening than could be other- 
wise secured. But the transom bars used in these windows 
should have been omitted, for they obstruct light and do not 
improve the appearance. 



449] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 41 

The heating is accomplished by indirect, supplemented by 
direct, steam radiation ; the ventilation by two Hope pro- 
pellers, 6 ft. in diameter, one in the fresh air room serving 
as a plenum, the other in the foul air room as exhaust. 

The chief merit of this lies in the central location of the 
plenum containing the indirect steam coils. The arrange- 
ment is shown in the basement plan ; the plenum is the unlet- 
tered room in the center. A change was made in the plan 
which makes the plenum room slightly smaller than repre- 
sented. This room with its heated steam coils and fresh air 
supply are to the buildings what lungs are to an animal, and 
its location in the center insures a balanced circulation. The 
movement of the air is as follows : The plenum fan located 
in the fresh air room receives the supply through vertical 
shafts on either side of the front entrance. The openings 
into these shafts are the large louvre windows shown in the 
perspective, Plate XIX. These windows are on the north 
side of the building far removed from any source of smoke 
and high enough from the ground to insure purity. The 
course of the air after it is forced through the plenum room 
may be followed by referring to the cross section of the 
building, Plate XXII. The section is made through the 
fresh air, plenum, and foul air rooms and shows the position 
of both fans. The air rises through the fresh air flues and 
is delivered into the rooms about 8 ft. from the floor. It is 
drawn out by the exhaust fan located in the foul air room 
through the foul air flues which lead from the wall registers 
near the floor to a sub-basement shown in fig. i. This sub- 
basement is three feet high and extends the entire length of 
the building the full width of the bicycle rooms ; four wings 
extend from this subway so as to communicate with the four 
sections of flues between the rooms. The exhaust fan 
draws the air from this subway, thus connecting the lower 
registers of every room with low pressure. 

It would require a longitudinal section of the building 
through the bicycle rooms to illustrate the movement of the 
air toward the outside pavilions : but this is easily described. 



42 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [450 

A "false" ceiling three feet below the floor over the bicycle 
rooms provides an open free passage for the air as it is 
forced from the plenum room ; this is virtually an exten- 
sion of the plenum room to the openings to every fresh air 
flue in the house without the use of distributing pipes. 

By this means, all the friction which is incident to the 
usual method of pipe distribution is eliminated. This being 
a departure in pneumatic engineering, it deserves some 
attention ; it was a concession on the part of the architect 
and the result of a compromise with the writer who wanted 
to extend this plenum chamber in the same manner beneath 
the floors instead of near the ceiling by the conventional 
method. 

Let it here be noted that the economy in fuel when warm 
air is delivered through the floors and so distributed that it 
may be let out at the ceiling is enormous. It exceeds the 
usual way by a ratio almost equal to that of the mechanical 
system of ventilating over that of the gravital noted on a 
preceding page. 

The economy in warming when the air is properly dis- 
tributed through the floors and let out at the ceiling, as 
compared with the conventional way, has been carefully 
tested by the writer by the use of an experimental model. 
While these experiments are somewhat too technical to suit 
the purposes of this article, a study of the plot, Plate XXIII, 
will not be without interest. 

The figures at the left show the difference in inside and 
outside temperatures ; those at the top, amperes of electric 
current used in heating iron coils as the source of heat ; 
those at the bottom, relative heat units. It will be noticed 
that these are the squares of the amperes above and thus 
show the well-known thermal relation between the current 
and its thermal equivalent. It will be understood that these 
numbers are not real thermal units, but serve to show the 
relative amount of heat at different readings of the ammeter. 

The line AO shows the results when the air was distrib- 
uted under the floor with ventilation above ; BO, when the 



45 I ] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 43 

air was delivered at the side with ventilation below ; CO, 
when the air was delivered near the top and let out at the 
top. Take an example : Suppose the temperature above 
that outside of the room to be 50 degrees, this temperature 
line crosses the resultant line at X, showing that it requires 
2 1-2 amperes of current to maintain this temperature when 
heat is applied below. With the same temperature when 
the heat is applied at the side the line crosses at B, showing 
10 amperes. Whence it is plain that the relative heat 
required in the two cases is shown by the ratio of 6 1-2 to 
100. In plain words, it would require only 6 1-2 per cent 
of the cost by present methods to heat a building if the air 
were properly distributed, delivered through the floors, and 
let out at the top. 

The writer fully realizes that the foregoing brief state- 
ments will be somewhat unsatisfactory to those who are 
unfamiliar with the details of the tests, 1 but he is confident 
that this method of warming and ventilating has reached 
the stage of successful experiment, and will as surely dis- 
place the old way as that the electric motor displaced the 
horse in street car locomotion. 

Returning to the extended plenum chamber under the 
corridor floors, it may be said that it works perfectly, and so 
much of the " theory " has passed into history. 

During the first two years of its use this system, with the 
exception of the register in one room, has required no regu- 
lation of the registers, notwithstanding the absence of ther- 
mostats. The exceptional room is on the first floor just 
opposite the plenum fan ; in this the delivery is excessive 
unless the register is kept partly closed. The exception is 
of so little importance, however, that the placing of a deflec- 
tor in the plenum room has not been found necessary. 

While the ventilation of this building has some of the 
defects common to current practice, the writer believes that 

1 For full explanation and experimental details of these tests, see the writer's 
paper in the Report of the Proceedings of the Mechanical Engineering Section, 
American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Columbus, O., 1899. 



44 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [452 

it is the best ventilated school house in America, and, the 
size of the building considered, the most economical. 

The fans, when running at full speed, 400 revolutions, 
move 60000 cublic feet per minute. This would supply 
2000 pupils each with 1800 feet per hour. The average 
daily attendance during the past year, 1898-9, was about 
900. The fans were run 250 revolutions per minute giving 
each pupil 2500 cubic feet of pure warm air per hour. 

The lighting of this building is nearly ideal. The H 
plan of construction provides light on three sides of all 
rooms used for laboratories, manual training and mechanical 
drawing ; including the lunch rooms and the engine room in 
the basement there are 16 of these. The large windows at 
and above the three main entrances furnish ample light for 
the halls and corridors. The class rooms do not conform to 
the ideal standard recommended in the preceding pages. 
These rooms, while of ideal shape and size, are lighted on 
the shorter instead of the longer side. But considering the 
use of the entire available wall space which has been 
employed for the mullioned windows lighting these rooms, 
the height of the rooms being 14 feet, and the use which is 
made of the rooms, this departure from standard require- 
ments is not serious. It should be remembered that in high 
school academic work there is comparatively little pen-writ- 
ing done, the greater use of the eyes being confined to 
blackboard work. The light in these rooms is ample for all 
purposes for which they are ever used. 

The assembly hall is as light as day itself, as may readily 
be inferred by glancing at the third floor plan. With ceil- 
ing 24 feet high, and light from 18 large mullioned windows 
8 feet by 16 feet with arched windows above these, entering 
from opposite sides, more light is provided than is called for 
by any standard. This assembly hall is 1 20 feet by 84 feet 
and has a seating capacity of 1600 persons; it serves for 
lectures, concerts, study hall, and commencement exercises. 
It is equipped for stereopticon projection work ; and although 
there is a window area of 2800 square feet, the room is com- 



4531 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 45 

pletely darkened in 50 seconds by an automatic electrical 
device which controls the raising and lowering of the dark- 
ening shades and the screen back of the platform. 

It may be noted here that provision for darkening rooms 
for scientific purposes and for illustrated lectures is another 
phase of modern school architecture, and not until recently 
have the mechanical difficulties incident thereto been entirely 
overcome. The mechanism in the Kansas City school con- 
sists of a 1 h. p. Westinghouse motor with worm gear, mag- 
netic clutch, and drum attachment which moves a steel cable 
extending around the room under the windows and beneath 
the floors. 

The physical and biological laboratories provide for teach- 
ing physics, chemistry, botany, and zoology, and all have 
separate teacher's laboratory for research work. The work- 
ing tables in the physical laboratory are each separately 
wired for the individual use of the current by the pupils. 
The brick pier (shown in the plan of the girls' lunch room) 
terminates in the physics demonstration table furnishing a 
vibrationless support for galvanometer experiments. 

The chemical laboratory is furnished with students' work- 
ing desks with solid slate slab tops. Six drawers to each 
desk provide a locker for each pupil in which to keep appa- 
ratus for which he is alone responsible. Three large gas 
hoods located against the walls and in communication with 
the exhaust fan give perfect ventilation and provide a place 
to generate noxious gases. Another point of special con- 
venience in these laboratories is the sliding door 16 feet 
wide which throws them together with the adjoining large 
class rooms. By this arrangement, the teacher may oversee 
a laboratory division while conducting a recitation. 

The tables in the biological laboratories are topped with 
plate glass which has the advantage of smooth, easily-cleaned 
surface for dissections. Wall paper of a neutral tint placed 
under the glass relieves the eyes of the pupils. The main 
corridors on the first and second floors are 19 feet wide and 
serve the double purpose of corridors and exhibition halls 



46 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [454 

where at the closing week an exhibit of the yearly work is 
arranged on long tables. 

The large "geology and natural history room," on the sec- 
ond floor will hereafter be used for a free-hand drawing and 
art room, the north light making it ideal for this purpose. 

The pupils' wraps are provided for in locker rooms in the 
basement. 

The outside pavilions are of the " mill construction " 
which is especially to be commended for shops and labora- 
tories. The inside walls are of pressed brick. The floors 
are supported by large steel I beams running crosswise, car- 
rying large, finished, wooden joists. One entire pavilion is 
used to accommodate the manual training work ; while archi- 
tecturally a unit with the other part of the building, this 
pavilion is set off by an independent wall with a 4-inch 
cushion of air between to prevent the communication of 
vibrations to the class rooms from running machinery. An 
additional precaution is furnished by the intervening locker 
and wash rooms which serve the boys in preparing their 
toilets after the shop exercise. 

The entire inside finish is of selected yellow pine. The 
building is not fireproof, except the " slow combustion " 
which the mill construction secures to the parts just men- 
tioned. The isolation of the building and a system of night- 
watch signals make fireproof construction unnecessary. 

The numerous class rooms supplementing the laboratories, 
shops, drawing and art rooms provide conveniences for a 
complete high school academic course correlated with labora- 
tory science, manual training and drawing. 

The stairs in this building conform to the standard require- 
ments as to number and height. The double staircases at 
either end of the main corridor and the single one at the 
end of the central hall afford ample and free egress in case 
of fire. The stairs are five feet in width with six-inch risers 
and twelve-inch treads. 

While the injury to the American school girl from stair 
climbing has probably been exaggerated, it is undoubtedly 



455] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 47 

true that girls of delicate organization have suffered much 
from this cause. It seems to be the consensus of opinion of 
all who have considered the subject that the six-inch riser 
and twelve-inch tread makes the easiest stairway. There 
should not be more than fifteen stairs between landings. 

CLOSETS 

The location of closets should be determined by the exist- 
ing facilities for ventilation and drainage. Where there is 
any doubt as to the efficiency of either, closets should be 
placed in outside buildings ; but when a school house has 
the advantage of good sewage and mechanical ventilation, 
the place for pupils' closets is the basement. 

The condition of closets and outhouses which usually 
prevails in districts without sewage deserves the severest 
criticism. It is here that the results of ignorance and care- 
lessness are fully revealed. The privy vault should never 
be tolerated, and the large receptacle surface tanks which 
are usually " cleaned " two or three times a year are little 
better. The following quotation from the report of the 
state board of health of Maine for 1892-3 is good, and 
covers about all which need be said of outhouse closets : 
" All that is needed is a common closet, a supply of dry 
earth, a water-tight receptacle beneath, and a convenient 
way of disposing of its contents at quite frequent intervals. 

" The receptacle should be wholly above the surface of the 
ground, and may consist of a metallic-lined box, a half of a 
kerosene barrel with handles upon it for removal, or, which 
is better, a large galvanized iron pail. 

" The receptacle may be removed through a door in the 
back of the closet or in front of the seat, or, by having the 
seat hinged and made to button backward, it maybe removed 
that way. The earth should be common garden or field 
loam and finely pulverized. Road dust does well, but sand 
is not suitable. Coal ashes are good. Whichever of these 
is used should be dry and screened through a sieve with 
about quarter inch meshes. The dry earth may be kept in 



48 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [456 

a box or bin so arranged, where it can be, that it may be filled 
from the outside of the closet, or it is quite convenient to 
have one-half of the seat hinged, and beneath it the small 
compartment to hold the present supply of the earth. In 
this box or bin holding the earth there may be a small tin 
scoop which may be employed in sprinkling in the earth, a 
pint or more each time the closet is used. The main thing 
is to use enough of the earth to completely absorb all liquids, 
and this requirement, of course, precludes the throwing of 
slops into the closet." 

Figure i, Plate XXIV, shows the construction of this 
closet. 

Arrangements could easily be made with gardeners or 
farmers for the daily removal of the contents of these 
receptacles for fertilizing purposes. 

Closets under the roof of the school building should have 
good sewer connection through a heavy cast iron soil pipe 
which should have a vertical extension in a pipe 3 or 4 
inches in diameter through the roof for ventilation ; an effi- 
cient trap situated in a convenient manhole ; an automatic 
flushing tank, and local ventilation for each separate seat. 

It is important that provision be made in school house 
closets against the stopping up of pipes and traps, and the 
neglect incident to hand flushing, hence automatic latrines 
are preferable to single closets. The mechanical conditions 
of a perfect system of closets may be studied by referring 
to the cut, Fig. 2, which shows a longitudinal section of the 
automatic flushing latrine in the Kansas City manual train- 
ing high school. 

It was installed by Lewis & Kitchen of Kansas City. 
The trough is made of cast iron lined with heavy enamel 
and is perfectly smooth and durable. The bottom is so 
constructed that the water stands only in the parts of the 
trough directly under the seat. The trap is the invention 
of J. H. Brady, engineer for the Kansas City board of edu- 
cation ; it is hinged so that it may be raised up allowing all 
accidental lodgements a free exit ; it is located in the bottom 



457] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 49 

of a dry vault and may be reached with a hook in the hands 
of the janitor or other person. There is no possibility of 
needing the services of a plumber should the trap become 
clogged. 

The upper drawing in the cut shows the local ventilation 
of each separate closet. The air enters just below the 
front part of the seat and passes out at the back into the 
vent duct which is in direct communication with the exhaust 
fan. The ventilation in this method of transverse move- 
ment of the air is better than it is possible to secure in 
systems which ventilate the trough longitudinally, for even 
when the lids of the seats are left down the air passing 
under them from above will supply the current and prevent 
the requisite flow from the end of the trough remote from 
the vent. 

The boys' urinals are of the stall partition type with 
gutter trough ventilated at the bottom. The back, ends 
and partitions are made of hammered glass, the tread and 
trough being of slate. Glass is preferable above all other 
material for this purpose as it is easily cleaned and free from 
any tendency to disintegration. 

NORMAL SCHOOL AND COLLEGE BUILDINGS 

The essentials of a normal school house are not materially 
different from those of a first class high school. Class 
rooms of ordinary typical construction serve the purpose of 
"professional" work with training classes, and with modern 
views now taking root respecting the amount of academic, 
science, and manual training needed in normal school 
courses, these functions have already been considered in 
describing the manual training high school. The " Teachers' 
college " in New York city is an interesting building and 
might serve equally well the purposes of a modern manual 
training high school. In universities, the work is specialized 
in separate buildings which simplifies the task of the archi- 
tect. The principles of sanitation and architectural treat- 
ment indicated in the buildings already referred to apply so 



50 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [458 

well to special buildings that separate consideration is not 
considered essential to this short monograph. 

INFLUENCE OF LEGISLATION ON SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 

The state of New York in 1887 passed a law authorizing 
and directing the state superintendent of public instruction 
to procure architects' plans and specifications for school 
buildings ranging in cost from $600 to $10000. This was 
a very important step and it resulted as was intended in 
enlisting the best architectural talent in the country. Liberal 
prizes for the most meritorious designs were offered, and as 
a result some very creditable designs were secured. The 
suggestions which these designs furnished have been acted 
upon in many districts not only in New York but in several 
other states. Following is the list of the names and resi- 
dences of the architects who presented creditable designs : 

Wm. P. Appleyard and E. A. Bowd, Lansing, Mich. 

John R. Church, Rochester, N. Y. 

John Cox, Jr., New York city. 

Clarence True, Yonkers, N. Y. 

C. Powell Karr, Rochester, N. Y. 

J. C. A. Heriot and Corliss McKinney, Albany, N. Y. 

J. Frank Lyman, Yonkers, N. Y. 

Warren R. Briggs, Bridgeport, Conn. 

Fenimore C. Bate, Cleveland, Ohio. 

Proudfoot & Bird, Wichita, Kans. 

In 1882, the state superintendent of Wisconsin invited the 
competition of architects in furnishing designs at small cost. 
Following are the names and addresses of architects who 
made valuable contributions : 

J. Bruess, Milwaukee, Wise. 

W. G. Kirchaffer, Elkhorn, Wise. 

Edbrooke & Burnham, Chicago, 111. 

H. C. Koch & Co., Milwaukee, Wise. 

G. Stanley Mansfield, Freeport, 111. 

F. S. Allen, Joliet, 111. 

F. W. Hollister, Saginaw, Mich. 

In 1895, the state legislature passed a law which says 



459] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 5 1 

that : — " Hereafter no school house shall be constructed in 
the city of New York without an open-air playground 
attached to or used in connection with the same." This law 
has done much toward improving the hygienic conditions in 
New York, and its influence has been felt in other cities. 

The state laws of Massachusetts provide for the placing of 
fire escapes in all buildings more than two stories in height ; 
also " that every school house shall be kept in a cleanly state 
and free from effluvia arising from any drain, privy, or other 
nuisance, and shall be provided with a sufficient number of 
proper water and earth closets." It further provides that 
" every school house shall be ventilated in such a proper 
manner that the air shall not become so exhausted as to be 
injurious to the health of the persons present therein." 

The state laws of Kentucky provide that each school 
house shall have a floor space of not less than ten square 
feet to each pupil in the district ; shall be at least ten feet 
between floor and ceiling ; shall have at least four windows ; 
one or more fireplaces with chimneys made of brick or stone." 
It also provides that each school house shall provide for each 
child "a seat with back the height of the seat and its back 
to suit the age of the child — no desk or bench to be made 
to accommodate more than two children." 

The statutes of Vermont (1896) provide that : " The state 
board of health shall within reasonable time and as often as it 
thinks necessary issue a circular letter to the local boards of 
health giving the best information as to lighting, heating, 
ventilating, and other sanitary arrangements according to 
regulations by the state board of health." 

The laws of Connecticut provide that " every school house 
shall be ventilated in such manner that the air shall not be 
injurious to the health of the persons present therein." 

In many of the states the only legislation is that doors in 
school houses shall open outward. This is a precautionary 
provision against accidents in fires, and seems to be more 
generally recognized by state legislatures than any other 
single necessity. 



52 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [460 

In many other states there has been no legislation 
whatever. 

In view of the large benefits which have already been real- 
ized from the little legislation that has been made in a few 
states, it is to be hoped that this important means of enlight- 
enment will become more general in the United States. 

WORK OF SCHOOL SUPERVISORS AND ARCHITECTS 

Next to the good which has been accomplished by state 
legislation comes that which has been done by state superin- 
tendents who, realizing the importance of school architec- 
ture, hygiene, and sanitation, have from time to time embod- 
ied in their reports valuable information as to the needs of 
the schools and suggestions as to how to supply them. 

In Wisconsin, State Superintendent W. C. Whitford in 
1882 issued a valuable circular on " Plans and specifications 
of school houses " for the country districts, villages, and 
smaller cities of his state. In 1892 Supt. Oliver E. Wells 
issued a valuable pamphlet containing suggestions and plans 
for the ventilation and furnishing of school houses. 

In Michigan, State Supt. Henry R. Pattengill in his 
report for 1894 gave some valuable information on " School 
grounds, school house architecture, and outbuildings." Also 
Supt. John E. Hammond in his report for 1897 gives valu- 
able information. 

The state board of Connecticut issue from time to time 
valuable school documents, among which No. 13 is a valu- 
able scientific monograph on " School house warming and 
ventilating" by S. H. Woodbridge. Documents Nos. 12 and 
15 contain suggestions on ventilation, and show a large col- 
lection of plans for school houses. 

For the state of New York, Supt. Chas. R. Skinner has 
issued several reports of great value, among which is a large 
bound volume on " Recent school architecture," and contains 
a large number of plates showing the plans and perspectives 
of many of the best school houses in the state. 

State Supt. Nathan C. Schaefer of the state of Pennsyl- 



461] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 53 

vania has given in several of his reports many good sugges- 
tions, and has been unsparing in his criticisms on existing 
conditions in country schools, as a means of stimulating 
effort toward the improvement of school buildings in his 

state. 

In Missouri, Supt. Jno. R. Kirk has done some excellent 
work in the improvement of country schools and in his 
reports of 1896 and 1897 he gives a plan for a model country 
school house which has been adopted by many of the country 
districts in the states. This plan possesses the sanitary 
features described in the other one-room building already 
described. 

Of the architects who have not hereinbefore been men- 
tioned and who have done excellent work in school house 
building may be named : Robert S. Roeschlaub, Denver, 
Colo.; E. H. Mead, Lansing, Michigan, whose "three-room 
building " shown in the Michigan state report for 1898 is 
especially to be commended ; Arthur Bohm, Indianapolis, 
Ind.; Hudson & Wachter, architects, Toledo, Ohio; How- 
ard & Camdwell, Newark, N. J.; E. A. Joselyn, New York 
city. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HOUSE ARCHITECTURE AND 

SANITATION 

Alcott, William A. Essay on the construction of school houses. 

pp. 66. Hilliard: Boston, 1832. 
Barnard, Henry. School architecture, or contributions to the 

improvement of school houses in the United States. Sixth 

edition, pp.464. Norton: New York, 1854. 
Bicknell, A. J. School house and architecture. Trubner : London, 

1877. 
Chadwick, E. Sanitary principles of school construction. Lon- 
don, 1877. 
Chase, C. T. Manual on school houses and cottages for the 

people of the south, pp. 83. Wash. 1868. 
Clark, Theodore M. Rural school architecture, pp. 106. Bureau 

of education. Wash. 1880. 
Construction and maintenance of school infirmaries. Churchill: 

London, 1888. 



54 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [462 

Designs for school houses accepted by the department of public 
instruction of the state of New York. pp. 20, with 19 com- 
petitive plans. Albany, 1895. 

Designs for school houses accepted by the department of public 
instruction of the state of New York. pp. 20, forty pages of 
plans. Albany, 1889. 

Dickson system of school house construction. 2000 feet of air 
per hour for each pupil without mechanical power. School 
House Construction Company, 215, 217, 219 South Adams street, 
Peoria, 111. pp. 35. Peoria, 111., 1894. 

Dukes, Clement. School construction. Lawrence : Rugby, Eng. 

Dunham, C. A. The model school house, pp. 35. Burlington, 
Iowa, 1894. 

Eveleth, Samuel F. School house architecture. Illustrated in 17 
designs in various styles, pp. 14, 67 plans. Woodward : N. Y. 
1870. 

Freese, Jacob R. Report on school house and means of promot- 
ing popular education, pp. 13. Wash. 1868. 

Gardner, E. C. Town and country school buildings. Kellog: N. 
Y. 1889, contains designs, plans and descriptions. 

Gove, Aaron. Public school house. Education 17 (March, 1897) 
407-411. 

Hints and suggestions on school architecture and hygiene* 
with plans and illustrations. By J. George Hodgins. pp. 135. 
Toronto, 1886. 

Hodgins, J. George. The school house, its architecture, external 
and internal arrangements, with elevations and plans for public 
and high school buildings, pp. 271. Copp : Toronto, 1876. 

Johonnot, James. School houses, with architects' designs by S. 
E. Hewes. Schermerhorn : N. Y. 1872. 

Public school buildings in the District of Columbia, pp. 48, 
House of representatives miscellaneous documents No. 35, 47th 
Congress, 1st session. Washington. 

Report of the general agent (Massachusetts board of education) 
on the condition of the school houses and giving plans and 
descriptions of school houses suitable for country towns and 
villlages. pp. 64. Boston, 1873. 

Saeltzer, Alexander. Treatise on accoustics in connection with 
ventilation ; and an account of the modern and ancient methods 
of heating and ventilation. New York, 1872, 12. 



463] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 55 

School houses and public buildings. How they may be safely 
constructed and properly heated and ventilated. Drawings on 
exhibition at World's Columbian exhibition, pp.4, 1893 — pp. 33 
with plates. (Commonwealth of Massachusetts.) 

Turnbull, G. B, New high school building at Colorado Springs. 
School report, 1 (Dec. 1894) : 682. 

Walker, C. H. Suggestions on the architecture of school houses, 
Atlantic, 74 (Dec. 1894): 825. 

Plans for heating and ventilating school houses. In state of 
Maine board of health report, 1891. 315-386. 

School architecture and equipment {buildings and grounds) 

Robins, E. C. Technical schools and college buildings, pp. 244. 
Whittaker: London, 1887. 

Robins, E. R. School architecture : planning, designing, build- 
ing. pp.440. Murray: London, 1877. 

Wade, Rufus R. School houses and public buildings : How they 
may be safely constructed and properly heated and ventilated. 
pp. 35 — 34 plates of plans, designs, etc. Boston, 1893. 

Wheelwright, Edmund M. Series of 17 articles in the " Brick- 
builder," Boston, on " The American school house." 

Ventilation and sanitation 

Briggs, Robert C. Steam heating and exposition of the Ameri- 
can practice of warming buildings by steam. Pp. 122. Van 
Nostrand: New York, 1888. 

Bryant, Walter, and Herman, Leopold. An exposition on heat- 
ing and ventilating the school houses of Boston in 1846 and 
1847. pp.24. Bryant: Boston, 1848. 

Colyer, Frederick. Public institutions : their engineering, sani- 
tary and other appliances, pp. 219. Spon : London, 1889. 

Griscom, John H. The uses and abuses of air. pp. 252. N. Y., 
1850. 

Jacob, E. H. Notes on ventilation and warming of houses, 
churches, schools and other buildings, pp. 124. Young: N. Y., 
1882. 

Leeds, Lewis W. A treatise on ventilation, pp. 226. N. Y., 

1882. 

Lupton, N. T. On heating and ventilation, with special reference 
to the school buildings of Nashville. (Nashville, 1878.) 



56 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [464 

Marble, Albert P. Sanitary conditions for school houses, pp. 168. 
Bureau of education: Washington, 1891. 

Moore, Joseph A. Ventilation of school buildings in Massachu- 
setts, pp. 15. Chicago, 1893. 

Morrison, G. B. Ventilation and warming of school buildings, 
pp. 22-173. Appleton: N. Y., 1887. 

Morrison, G. B. Some thermal determinations in the heating of 
buildings. Proceedings of " American Association for the 
Advancement of Science." At Columbus, 1899, 

Nichols, W. R. Sanitary conditions of school houses. (Boston, 
1880.) 

Quimby, H. M., and others. Ventilation of school houses in 
Worcester, pp. 24. Worcester, 1889. 

Ross, G. On the ventilation of schools, hospitals, law courts and 
other public buildings. Collingrade : London, 1874. 

Young, A. G. School hygiene and school houses, pp. 399. 
Augusta, 1892. 

This is the seventh annual report of the state board of Maine, and is the 
ablest discussion of school hygiene that has yet appeared from a board of 
health. 

Billings, J. S. The information necessary to determine the merits 
of the heating and ventilation of a school building. Proceedings 
National educational association, 1882. pp. 1 1-19. 

Hubbard, T. Principles of warming and ventilation as applied to 
our public schools. (In. pro. san. con. O., 1887. p. 54.) 

Walker, William A. Report to N. Y. county board of education 
on the proper size, construction and means of ventilating school 
houses, and the arrangement of playgrounds. Docs, of N. Y. 
city board of education. 1842-1850, pp. 5-12. (1846.) 

Woodbridge, S. H. Connecticut school document, No. 13, on 
" School house warming and ventilation." 



10 

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



BY 



JAMES RUSSELL PARSONS, JR. 

Sometime Director of the College and High School Departments, University 
of the State of New York, Albany, New York 





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PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



I GENERAL 



Preacademic, grammar or common school work refers to the eight years of ele- 
mentary instruction; secondary or academic work, to the four years of secondary 
instruction between elementary school and college; college work, to the four 
years of higher instruction, following the four years of secondary. Professional 
institutions are uniformly called schools. 

Authorities — It is impossible within the limits of this 
monograph to give more than a brief outline of professional 
education in the United States. For detailed information 
touching laws, regulations, location of schools, and courses 
of study the reader is referred to Professional education in 
the United States, published by the University of the State 
of New York. 

Of the many authorities consulted the following have 
proved most helpful : U. S. education reports ; Eliot's Edu- 
cational reform ; U. S. census reports ; Briggs' Theological 
education and its needs; 1 Dyer's Theological education in 
America; 2 Jessup's Legal education in New York ^ Well- 
man's Admission to the bar ; 4 Hammond's American law 
schools, past and future ; 5 Reports of the American bar 
association; Toner's Annals of medical progress in the 
United States ; 6 Davis' Medical education and medical insti- 
tutions in the United States ; 7 Journal American medical 
association ; Shepard's Inaugural address at the World's 
Columbian dental congress; Proceedings of the American 
pharmaceutical association. These and other authorities 
have been used freely, but limited space makes it imprac- 
ticable to give in many cases more than this general 
acknowledgment. 

1 Forum, January 1892. s Penii monthly, August 1880. 3 See the History of the 
bench and bar of New York. 4 American law review, May 1881. 5 Southern law 
review, August 1881. * U. S. education report, 1874. 7 U. S. education report, 1877. 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



L 4 68 



Assistance rendered by specialists is acknowledged in the 
chapter relating to each profession. 

Growth — At the time of the declaration of independence 
there were only two professional schools in this country, the 
Medical college of Philadelphia (1765), now the medical 
department of the University of Pennsylvania, and the medi- 
cal department of King's college (1768). 1 

The following statistics, summarized from Professional 
education in the United States, show unprecedented growth : 2 





Schools 

1899 


Instructors 
1899 


Students 
1898 


Graduates 
1898 


Students 
1899 




165 

86 

"156 

56 

4 52 

17 

532 


I 070 

970 

8 5 735 

1 513 

4 49 2 

249 


8 317 
II 783 
3 24 043 

7 221 

*3 525 
368 


I 693 

3 no 
3 5 725 

1 921 

4 i 122 

123 


8 093 

11 883 

3 24 119 

7 633 

4 3 563 

378 


Law ... 


Medicine 


Dentistry 




Veterinary medicine... . 


B Total 


10 029 


55 257 


13 694 


55 669 





In 1898, 286 of the 532 schools reported total property 
amounting to nearly $50,000,000 (New York 33 per cent), 



King's college is now Columbia university. 

The 1898 U. S. education report gives the following: 





Schools 


Instructors 


Students 


Graduates 




i5S 
83 

151 
5° 
45 
14 


958 
845 

4 247 
961 
401 
173 


8 37i 
11 615 
23 433 
6 774 
3 712 
326 


1 673 
3 ° 6 5 
5 597 
1 848 
1 129 
109 














Total 


49S 


7 585 


54 231 


13 421 





3 Excluding graduate schools, but including 3 medical preparatory schools. 

4 Including Department of pharmacy, University of Washington, which has sus- 
pended temporarily. 

6 In these totals training schools for nurses are not included. The Philadelphia 
lying-in, charity and nurse school was opened in 1828, but it is said that syste- 
matic training in schools for nurses was not given till 1873. The 1898 U. S. edu- 
cation report gives 377 of these schools with 8805 students. The course of study 
is usually two years in length though nearly 1-4 of the schools now require three 
years. Most of these schools are connected with hospitals where medical, surgi- 
cal and obstetric cases are treated. The course of study embraces anatomy, phys- 
iology and hygiene, and obstetrics. 



469] 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



262 reported receipts exceeding $5,000,000 (New York 31 
per cent), 270 expenditures exceeding $4,500,000 (New 
York 28 per cent). Degrees are granted by 73 theological 
schools, 82 law schools, 152 medical schools, 56 dental 
schools, 45 schools of pharmacy and 16 veterinary medical 
schools. 

Distribution of professional schools and students in 1809 1 — 
38 political divisions of the United States report profes- 
sional schools and students as follows : 



Division 



Sc. =school; 
St. =student. 

Illinois 

New York 

Pennsylvania 

Missouri 

Ohio 

Massachusetts 

Maryland 

Tennessee 

Michigan 

Kentucky 

District Columbia. 

Iowa 

California 

Indiana 

Minnesota 

Virginia 

Georgia 

Wisconsin 

Texas 

Louisiana 

New Jersey 

Connecticut 

Colorado 

Nebraska 

Alabama 

Kansas 

North Carolina 

Maine 

Vermont 

Oregon 

South Carolina... 

Arkansas 

New Hampshire.. 

West Virginia 

Washington 

Mississippi 

Oklahoma 

South Dakota. 



Theology 



165 



St. 
: 210 
: 039 
813 
448 
432 
514 
56i 
226 
102 
401 



161 

277 

194 

98 

160 

16 

23 

459 

152 

33 

59 

61 

9 



8093 



St. 

1 308 

2 202 

526 
366 
7°5 

974 
277 
211 

918 



365 
323 
456 
446 
236 

75 
259 
176 

72 

o 

194 

93 
117 



Medicine 



Sc. 



156 



St. 

3 o6 5 

2 415 

2 475 

2 345 

1 392 

1 066 

1 33i 

1 876 

877 

1 on 

460 

631 

576 

3°5 

428 

618 

449 



109 

253 
179 
239 
172 
167 
171 

215 
182 
97 
108 
131 



Dentistry 



St. 
1 282 

5°3 
1 5°3 



302 
497 
301 
346 
179 
135 
135 
395 
258 
no 
36 
253 
J 35 



Pharmacy 



56 7 633 



Veteri- 
nary 



Sc. 



St. 
284 
536 

619 

177 

418 
178 

106 
75 



46 
210 



170 
62 



3 563 



Sc. 



St. 
82 
82 
52 
25 



378 



St. 
7 231 
6 777 
5 988 
3 846 
3 55° 
3 °6i 
2 772 
2 689 
2398 

I 747 

1 665 
1 572 
1 462 
1 357 
1 323 
1 106 
911 

813 

522 

5°i 
485 
455 
429 
413 
410 
392 
359 
293 
215 
200 
'95 
*34 
! 3i 
"5 
69 
45 



55669 



The following report no professional schools : Alaska, 
Arizona, Delaware, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Indian territory, 
Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Puerto 
Rico, Rhode Island, Utah, Wyoming. 

1 Not including students at the University of Havana: law 124, medicine 98, 
pharmacy 98 (1899), or at the University of Santo Tomas, Manila: theology 6, 
law 558, medicine 404, pharmacy 51 (1897). Grand total, including also 1916 gradu- 
ate medical students, 58,924. 



6 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [470 

Illinois leads for the first time in professional students, a 
fact due to a lack of proper control of the power to grant 
degrees and licenses. Including students in graduate medi- 
cal schools, New York and Illinois report about the same 
number of professional students in 1899. 

Varying standards — There is no national authority in the 
United States that can prescribe standards for degrees or 
for license to practise the professions. Each state makes its 
own professional laws. As a result there are almost as many 
standards as there are political divisions. The desirability 
of uniform standards throughout the country for admission 
to professional practice is recognized generally, but varying 
conditions as to density of population, educational advant- 
ages and general development make it impracticable to hope 
for the attainment of this end for some time to come. 1 

30 years ago the public had little protection from incom- 
petency in professional practice. The bar is said to have 
been at its lowest ebb. Medical laws were crude and largely 
inoperative. In several states only were there any acts 
designed to control the practice of pharmacy and dentistry. 
There was no law whatever restricting the practice of vet- 
erinary medicine. 

There has been extraordinary progress, specially in the 
last decade, in restrictive professional legislation, and in 
the admission and graduation requirements of professional 
schools throughout the United States. In view of these 
facts the growth in professional students is remarkable. 
From 1888 to 1899 the increase was as follows: theology 
24 per cent, law 224 per cent, medicine 84 per cent, dentistry 
380 per cent, pharmacy 31 per cent, veterinary medicine 17 
per cent. 

In 1890, when the last U. S. census was taken, the ratio to 
population for each given profession was : clergymen 1 to 
710, lawyers 1 to 699, physicians 1 to 598, dentists 1 to 
3579. The corresponding ratios for 1870 were: clergymen 
1 to 879, lawyers 1 to 946, physicians 1 to 617, dentists 1 to 

1 See section on Influence of medical societies. 



Growth in professional students 



Medic in 



Theology 
Law 



Pharmacy 

Dentistry 

Veterinary 




47i] 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



4919. In each profession there has been a growth which is 
greater proportionately than the growth in population. 1 

Preliminary general education for licenses — In New York 
state a preliminary general education equivalent to gradua- 
tion from a four years' high school course after a completed 
eight years' elementary course is prescribed by statute as 
the minimum standard for license to practise medicine. This 
standard approximates that required in continental Europe. 
New Hampshire has similar requirements, but they are not 
as rigidly enforced. The statutes of Delaware, Maryland, 
New Jersey and Pennsylvania prescribe a "common school 
education." Louisiana demands " a fair primary education." 
The rules in Vermont prescribe a high school course ; in 
Illinois and Iowa less than one year of high school work ; in 
Virginia, " evidence of a preliminary education." In remain- 
ing political divisions laws and rules are either silent in this 
respect or so indefinite (Arkansas and other political divis- 
ions) as to be of little value. 

In New York and Illinois (after Jan. 1, 1900) a prelim- 
inary general education equivalent to a three years' high 
school course is required for admission to the bar. Connec- 
ticut demands a high school education or an indefinite pre- 
liminary examination. The minimum requirement in Mich- 
igan (in case of examination) is less than two years of high 

1 These returns were first given in i860 when the ratio to population (31,443, 321) 
was : clergymen (37,529) 1 to 837, lawyers (33,193) 1 to 947, physicians (54,543) 1 to 
576, dentists (5606) 1 to 5608. Following are the figures for 1870, 1880 and 1890 : 





Population 


Clergymen 


Lawyers 


Physicians 


Dentists 


1870 


38 558 371 
50 155 783 
62 622 250 


43 874 
64 698 
88 203 


4° 73 6 

64 137 
89 630 


62 448 
85 671 
104 805 


7 839 
12 314 
17 498 









Students at these periods were reported as follows in 1897 by the American bar 
association : 





Theology 


Law 


Medicine 


Dentistry 


Pharmacy 


1870 


3 254 
5 242 
7013 


1 653 

3 134 

4 5l8 


6 198 
11 929 
16 660 


257 

730 

2 696 


512 

1 347 

2 871 


1880 







8 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [472 

school work, in Colorado it is one year of high school work, 
in Minnesota (in case of examination) it is less than one 
year, in Ohio it is a common school education. If anything 
is demanded in other political divisions the requirement is 
not sufficiently established (excepting a few local cases) to 
find a place either in statutes or court rules. 

The New York law exacts a full high school course as 
one of the requirements for license to practise dentistry. 1 
New Jersey demands by statute "a preliminary education 
equal to that furnished by the common schools," Pennsyl- 
vania "a competent common school education," Virginia a 
" fair academic education." In other political divisions there 
is no such requirement. 2 Louisiana, Michigan, South 
Dakota, Wisconsin, and, in case of examination, California 
and Texas are the only political divisions which mention in 
their rules preliminary general education as a requirement 
for license to practise pharmacy. An elementary educa- 
tion only is prescribed. The completion of a full high 
school course or its equivalent is one of the statutory require- 
ments for license to practise veterinary medicine in New 
York. 8 Pennsylvania demands " a competent common school 
education." There is no such requirement in any other 
state. 

Preliminary general education for degrees — In New York, 
high standards in preliminary general education are demanded 
both for degrees and for licenses, 4 and in each case the ques- 
tion of attainments is determined by a central authority, the 
University of the State of New York. As a rule in other 
states the professional schools conduct their own entrance 
examinations, and the tests are often mere matters of form, 
even though the standards may appear satisfactory on paper. 

1 For matriculates before Jan. 1, 1901, 3 years in a high school are accepted. 
5 See section on Dental societies. 3 For matriculates before Jan. 1, 1901, 2 years 
in a high school are accepted. 4 Excepting licenses to preach and licenses to 
practise pharmacy. 



473] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 9 

Entrance requirements 

In 4 theological schools there are no entrance requirements ; 
in 24 schools they are indefinite. 19 demand a grammar 
school education. 1, 6 and 19 require respectively one, 
two and three years of high school work. 18, 3 and 71 
demand respectively one, three and four years of college 
work. 

In 16 law schools there are apparently no entrance require- 
ments whatever ; in 8 schools they are so indefinite as to be 
practically worthless. 26 schools demand a grammar school 
education. 8, 11, 12 and 3 require respectively one, two, 
three and four years of high school work. Harvard demands 
an education equivalent to that required for admission to 
the senior class. The Columbia law school will be main- 
tained as a graduate department after 1903. 

In 2 medical schools the requirements are indefinite ; 29 
demand a grammar school education; 97, 12, 3 and 12 
require respectively one, two, three and four years of high 
school work. Johns Hopkins requires a college course, 
Harvard also after Sep. 1901. 

In 3 dental schools the requirements are indefinite; 18 
demand a grammar school education; 18, 11 and 6 require 
respectively one, two and three years of high school work. 

In 6 schools of pharmacy there are no entrance require- 
ments ; in 4 schools they are indefinite. 24 demand a gram- 
mar school education ; 11, 6 and 1 require respectively one, 
two and three years of high school work. 

In 1 veterinary medical school the requirements are indef- 
inite ; 9 demand a grammar school education ; 1, 5 and 1 
require respectively one, two and three years of high school 
work. 

Professional students with college degrees — The 1894 U. S. 
education report states that probably nearly one half of 
the theological students held either B.A. or B.S. degrees 
(46 1-2 per cent), as compared with only about 20 per cent 
of law students. The corresponding returns from medical 
schools were so imperfect that they were not tabulated. 
Tables in the 1897 U. S. education report indicate that of 



IO 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



[474 



schools reporting graduate students 49 per cent of the stu- 
dents in theology, 24 per cent of those in law and 14 per 
cent of those in medicine held either B.A. or B.S. degrees. 
The corresponding returns for 1898 were 53 per cent in 
theology, 29 per cent in law, and 21 per cent in medicine. 

Following is a classification of schools 1) that report grad- 
uate students, 2) that report no graduate students, 3) that do 
not report this item : 







Sch 


Dols 


Students 


Hold B. A. or 
B. S. degrees 


Per 


cent 




1897 


1898 


1897 


1898 


1897 


1898 


1897 


1898 


Theology 


1 


93 


85 


5 217 


5 086 


2 566 


2 696 


49 


53 




2 


26 


28 


635 


850 


O 








O 




3 


37 


42 


2 321 


2 435 








1 


Law 


1 


56 


41 


7 997 


6 289 


I 932 


I 825 


24 


29 




2 


2 


2 


29 


20 


O 


O 





O 




3 


25 


40 


2 423 


5 306 


1 


1 


1 


1 


Medicine 


1 


76 


64 


10 709 


9969 


I 498 


2 O94 


14 


21 




2 


5 


3 


160 


146 


O 


O 





O 




3 


69 


9i 


13 508 


14 339 


1 


1 


1 


1 



Courses in theology, law and medicine are naturally grad- 
uate courses and will eventually be maintained as such by 
leading universities. It is believed, however, that it would 
not be advisable or even desirable for the state to make 
graduation from college the minimum requirement in gen- 
eral education for degrees even in these faculties. High 
school graduation is sufficient for the minimum state require- 
ment. Anything farther than this should be left to indi- 
vidual initiative. 2 

1 Not reported. 

2 There are few graduate students in dentistry, pharmacy or veterinary medicine. 
In library science, however, which under New York's leadership will develop rap- 
idly throughout the United States, a thorough college training will soon be the 
usual requirement of all strong schools for admission to the professional course. 
In 1900 for example all but two of the entering class of 31 at the New York 
state library school are graduates of colleges or universities registered as main- 
taining proper standards. In public accounting which was raised by New York 
to the dignity of a profession in 1896 the New York requirement of a full four 
years' high school course will doubtless be accepted generally as the standard in 
preliminary general education. Additional requirements in New York for full C. 
P. A. (certified public accountant) certificates are three years' satisfactory experi- 
ence in the practice of accounting (one of which has been in the office of an 



475] 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



II 



Length of professional courses —The following table shows 
as a rule great progress, specially since 1885, in the adoption 
of higher standards for graduation. 



Theological schools 1875. 
1885. 
1897. 
1898. 
1899. 



Law schools 1875. 
1885. 
1897. 



Medical schools 1875, 
1885. 
1897. 
1898. 
i8qq. 



Dental schools 1875. 
1885. 
1897. 
1898. 



Four 
years 



26 
26 



'20 

» 4 i 



o 
o 

99 
103 
141 



Three 
years 



77 

98 

116 

117 

116 



1 

5 
21 
38 
44 



"3 

5 
49 
42 
10 



o 

5 
47 
49 

55 



Two 

years 



30 

38 

47 
36 
37 



103 



One 
year 



Not 
stated 



II 
22 
II 
IO 
O 



Schools of pharmacy 1875. 

1885. 

1897. 

1898. 

" i8qq. 



Veterinary medical schools 1897. 
1898. 
1899. 



10 

21 

34 
35 
38 



expert public accountant) and examinations in the theory of accounts, practical 
accounting, auditing and commercial law. Pennsylvania has a C. P. A. law, and 
attempts have been made to secure similar legislation in Illinois, Maryland, New 
Jersey and Minnesota. 

1 Including 4 schools that report courses of five years. 

2 Including 17 schools that report courses of more than four years. 

3 Distinction between medical schools with two and three-year courses not 
certain. 

4 Including 3 medical preparatory schools. 

6 Department of pharmacy, University of Washington, which has suspended 
temporarily. 



12 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



[476 



Professional schools now remain in session for a much 
greater part of the year than formerly : 

Length of courses in months, i8gg 



Theology 

Law 

Medicine 

Dentistry 

Pharmacy 

Veterinary medicine 

Total 



Unknown or 
less than 6 


6-7 


7-8 


8-9 


9-10 


More than 
10 


O 


3 


37 


57 


54 


14 


I 


2 


6 


52 


21 


4 


IO 


74 


45 


21 


6 





12 


24 


11 


4 


5 





5 


16 


11 


10 


5 


5 


5 


5 


2 


4 


1 





33 


124 


112 


148 


92 


23 



Total 



165 

86 

156 

56 



532 



Evening sessions occur less frequently 





Day 
sessions 


Evening 
sessions 


Both 


Unknown 


Total 




49 

135 

47 

36 

7 


24 

5 
4 
9 



7 
9 


4 
3 


6 

7 
5 
3 
7 


86 




156 




56 




52 




*7 






Total 


274 


42 


23 


28 


367 



University supervision — As long as the public had prac- 
tically no protection from incompetency in professional 
practice independent proprietary schools flourished. With 
proper restrictive legislation such institutions will either die 
or fall under university supervision. 

Many professional schools not under university super- 
vision show a self-sacrificing zeal for high standards and an 
absence of the commercial spirit that might well be emu- 
lated by all institutions connected with colleges or universi- 
ties. Nevertheless independent institutions are realizing 
more than ever before the disadvantages of working without 
university privileges and tend more and more toward uni- 
versity connections or university relations. 



477] 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



13 



In 1899, 257 schools were separate institutions and 275 
were departments of colleges or universities as follows : 



Separate 
institutions 



Departments 


Total 


46 


I6 5 


70 


86 


74 


156 


36 


56 


38 


52 


11 


17 


275 


532 



Theology 

Law , 

Medicine 

Dentistry 

Pharmacy 

Veterinary medicine 

Total 



119 
16 



20 

14 
6 



?57 



Scholarships — Theological seminaries, when not endowed, 
are supported by funds from the denominations they repre- 
sent. Tuition is generally free, and in many cases board 
and lodging are furnished. Additional help is given usually 
when needed, and generous scholarships are the rule. In 
other professional schools scholarships are comparatively 
rare. The 1895 U. S. education report gives 40 law school 
scholarships and 295 x medical school scholarships. The 
largest, offered by College of physicians and surgeons, New 
York, pays $700 a year and is bestowed to promote the dis- 
covery of new facts in medical science. 

An examination of 82 law school catalogues for 1899 
shows that 48 scholarships are offered definitely. Tuition 
is free at the law department of Howard university, the law 
departments of the universities of Kansas, Texas and West 
Virginia. The Harvard law school and the Boston univer- 
sity law school offer a " limited number of free scholarships." 
Law students may compete for the 1 50 state scholarships 
and the 18 university scholarships offered annually at Cor- 
nell and for the 50 city scholarships offered by the Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania. The law department of Centre 
college offers free tuition to sons of ministers and to all 
young men of limited means and good character. 3 schools 
give fellowships annually as follows : New York law school, 



1 "Many of these are not scholarships in a strict sense."-— U. S. education report, 
1895 



14 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [478 

i at $500 a year, good for from one to three years ; Law 
department University of Pennsylvania, i at $300, good for 
one year ; Pittsburg law school, 1 at $250, good for one year. 
32 schools offer cash prizes amounting to $3010 and law and 
reference books as other prizes. 

151 medical school catalogues for 1899 report definitely 
only 152 scholarships and 11 fellowships. These are offered 
by 31 schools. 5 other schools refer indefinitely to scholar- 
ships. At Cornell and the University of Pennsylvania med- 
ical students may compete for state and university, or city 
scholarships on an equal footing with those who would enter 
other departments. Tuition is free at the Army medical 
school, the medical department of the University of Texas 
and the medical preparatory school of the University of 
Kansas. 19 schools give cash prizes amounting to $5685; 
5 7 offer hospital appointments as prizes ; 47 give gold medals, 
surgical instruments and other prizes. 

56 dental school catalogues for 1899 show that 7 schools 
offer 58 scholarships. 1 The dental department of the Uni- 
versity of Maryland deducts one half from tuition fees of 
one student from each state on recommendation of his state 
dental society. The Baltimore college of dental surgery 
had similar beneficiary scholarships till 1898 when they were 
abolished. 18 schools offer prizes but their value is not 
great. 

52 catalogues of schools of pharmacy for 1899 show that 
5 schools offer 12 scholarships and 2 fellowships. Tuition 
is free at the schools of pharmacy connected with the Ala- 
bama polytechnic institute, Washington agricultural college, 
Purdue university, and the universities of Kansas, Ohio, 
Oklahoma, Texas, Washington and Wisconsin. 15 schools 
offer prizes, usually medals or pharmaceutic instruments. 
5 of these 15 schools give cash prizes amounting to $620. 
The committee on revision of the U. S. pharmacopoeia has 
instituted fellowships in the University of Michigan and the 
University of Wisconsin for the discovery of new facts in 
pharmacy. 

'See section on Subjects discussed in dentistry. 



479] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 1 5 

1 6 veterinary school catalogues for 1899 show that 19 
scholarships are offered by 5 schools, that 1 school gives a 
fellowship and that 6 schools offer prizes. Tuition is free 
at the veterinary departments of Cornell and Ohio univer- 
sities, and of Washington agricultural college. Cornell 
opens to competition by veterinary students, 18 scholarships 
and to veterinary graduates a fellowship of an annual value 
of $500. Veterinary matriculates are eligible for 50 city 
scholarships offered by the University of Pennsylvania. 
The veterinary department of Ohio state university offers a 
scholarship in each county in which the agricultural scholar- 
ship is not taken. 

Fees — Tuition is free in 132 theological schools. Only 
8 have matriculation fees, 33 a course fee and 34 other fees. 
The average matriculation fee is $5.38, the average course 
fee $91.61, the average of other fees $22.06. 

Tuition is free in 4 law schools. 23 have matriculation 
fees (average $14), 83 have course fees (average $69.80), 
59 have other fees (average $10.86). 

Tuition is free in 3 medical schools. 119 have matricula- 
tion fees (average $10.68), 153 have course fees (average 
$82.39), 129 have other fees (average $49.47). 

Tuition is not free in any dental school. 40 have matricu- 
lation fees (average $8.62), 56 have course fees (average 
$94.32), 5 have other fees (average $33.48). 

Tuition is free in 9 schools of pharmacy. 28 have matric- 
ulation fees (average $8.07), 43 have course fees (average 
$58.90), 50 have other fees (average $37.90). 

Tuition is free in 3 veterinary medical schools. 7 have 
matriculation fees (average $7.85), 14 have course fees 
(average $81.28), 12 have other fees (average $43.50). 

Libraries — In 1898 the U. S. commissioner of education 
reported 1,360,720 volumes in libraries of 118 theological 
schools, 243,054 in libraries of 47 law schools, 151,433 in 
libraries of 72 medical schools, 6901 in libraries of 16 dental 
schools, 22,156 in libraries of 17 schools of pharmacy. 3 
theological schools, 9 law schools, 21 medical schools, 9 



l6 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [480 

dental schools and 2 schools of pharmacy reported that they 
had no libraries. 34 theological schools, 27 law schools, 58 
medical schools, 25 dental schools and 26 schools of phar- 
macy made no report on this item. Libraries in veterinary 
medical schools were not reported. 
Following were the largest libraries : 

Theology 

Volumes 

Union theological seminary, presbyterian 71 576 

Hartford theological seminary, congregational 68 029 

Princeton theological seminary, presbyterian 61 648 

Andover theological seminary, congregational 51 000 

Seminary of the Reformed Dutch church in America. . 43 700 

Law 

Harvard university, law department 44 000 

Cornell university, law department 26 000 

Columbia university, law department 25 000 

University of Pennsylvania, law department 18 904 

Yale university, law department * 12 000 



Medicine 

Hahnemann medical college, Philadelphia 15 000 

Hahnemann medical college, Chicago 12 000 

University of Michigan, homeopathic medical dep't... 10 000 

University of Pennsylvania, medical department 10 OOO 

Johns Hopkins medical school 7 7 12 

Dentistry 

Marion Sims college of medicine, dental department.. . 2 2 000 

Ohio medical university, dental department s 2 000 

University of Michigan, dental department J 6oo 

Pharmacy 

Philadelphia college of pharmacy - 10 000 

Massachusetts college of pharmacy 1 5 l 3 2 

University of Illinois, department of pharmacy I 800 

1 Approximate. 

9 Only one library for medical and dental dep'ts. 

3 Only one library for medical, dental and pharmacy dep'ts. 



481] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 1 7 

Endowments — The 1898 U. S. education report gives the 
following : 

84 theological schools report endowments of $17,977,325. 
54 do not report this item. 1 7 state that they are not 
endowed. 

19 medical schools report endowments of $1,906,072. (In 
1897, 14 medical schools reported endowments of $648,262.) 
84 do not report this item. 48 state that they are not 
endowed. 

8 law schools report endowments of $752,500. The law 
department of the University of Cincinnati reports also an 
endowment that yields an income of $7500. (In 1897, 4 
law schools reported endowments of $431,000.) 48 do not 
report this item. 27 report that they are not endowed. 

1 dental school, the Harvard dental school, reports an 
endowment of $50,000. 20 report that they are not endowed. 
29 do not report this item. 

2 schools of pharmacy, the Massachusetts college of phar- 
macy ($13,675) and the Albany college of pharmacy ($2381) 
report endowments of $16,056. 17 report that they are not 
endowed. 26 do not report this item. 

Following were the largest endowments : 

Theology 

Princeton theological seminary, presbyterian $1 369000 

Union theological seminary, presbyterian 1 1 350 000 

General theological seminary, protestant episcopal. . . 1 260 987 

Chicago theological seminary, congregational 968 820 

Andover theological seminary, congregational 850 000 

Law 

Harvard university, law department 400 000 

University of California, law department 135 000 

Catholic university of America, law department 3 1 00 000 

Medicine 

Columbia university, medical department 480 000 

Johns Hopkins medical school 427 000 

Woman's medical college of Pennsylvania 296 772 

Yale university, medical department 106 000 

1 1897. 5 Approximate. 



l8 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [4^2 

Value of grounds and buildings — The 1898 U. S. education 
report gives the following values of grounds and buildings : 

98 theological schools, $13,863,628.' 54 do not report this 
item. 3 report that they do not own grounds or buildings. 

19 law schools, $1,431,000. 58 do not report this item. 
6 report that they do not own grounds or buildings. 

96 medical schools, J $i 1,264,263. 53 do not report this 
item. 2 report that they do not own grounds or buildings. 

15 dental schools, 2 $i, 019,836. 30 do not report this 
item. 5 report that they do not own grounds or buildings. 

15 schools of pharmacy, $656,417. 25 do not report this 
item. 5 report that they do not own grounds or buildings. 

The following report the greatest values in grounds and 
buildings • 

Theology 
General theological seminary, protestant episcopal . . $1 353 000 

St Joseph's seminary, Roman catholic I 100 000 

Western theological seminary, presbyterian 780 055 

Princeton theological seminary, presbyterian 500 000 

Union theological seminary, presbyterian 500 000 

Law 

University of Cincinnati, law department 350 000 

Boston university law school 225 000 

Harvard university, law department 150 000 

New York university, law department 120 000 

Vanderbilt university, law department . . . , 100 OOO 

Medicine 

Columbia university, medical department 2 OOO OOO 

Jefferson medical college 600 000 

Hahnemann medical college, Philadelphia 523 763 

Cooper medical college | 460 000 

New York homeopathic medical college 450000 

1 In 1897, 93 schools reported $7,271,009. 
8 In 1897, 13 schools reported $627,500. 



483] 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



19 



Dentistry 
Baltimore medical college, dental department. . 

Philadelphia dental college 

New York college of dentistry 

Detroit college of medicine, dental department 
Pennsylvania college of dental surgery 



Pharmacy 

New York college of pharmacy 

Philadelphia college of pharmacy 

Northwestern university, school of pharmacy 

Massachusetts college of pharmacy 

Maryland college of pharmacy 



a $200 000 

1 70 000 

120 000 

2 105 336 

70 000 

204 067 

1 50 000 

3 75 000 

68 850 

37 000 



When grounds and buildings are used for several depart- 
ments, as for example the Columbia law school which is in 
the library building, values are not always reported. 

Total and average property, receipts and expenditures in 1898 
— It is interesting to compare with the preceding figures 
those given in Professional education in the United States : 







Total 










Schools 


Property 


Schools 


Receipts 


Schools 


Expenditures 


Medicine 

Veterinary med. . 


87 

27 

126 

19 
19 

8 


$27 785 997 

3 053 265 

15 346 030 

I 150 915 

981 932 

426 697 


76 

31 
III 

23 
13 

8 


$1 561 516 

565 295 

2 185 216 

459 99 6 
167 098 

86 59S 


83 

33 

in 

22 

13 

8 


$1 420 92I 

540 887 

2 022 503 

421 689 

173 994 
89 604 




286 


$48 744 836 


262 


$5 025 719 


270 


$4 669 598 



A verage 



Theology 

Law 

Medicine 

Dentistry 

Pharmacy 

Veterinary medicine. 



Property Receipts Expenditures 



5319 379 27 

113 083 88 

137 666 90 

60 574 47 

51 680 63 

53 337 12 



$20 546 26 

18 235 32 

19 686 63 
19 999 82 
12 853 69 
10 824 75 



?I7 119 53 

16 390 52 

18 220 74 

19 167 68 

13 384 15 
11 200 50 



'Cost of medical and dental buildings; dental buildings and grounds cost less 
than $75,000. s Includes medical and pharmacy dep'ts. s Reported in Professional 
education in the United States, $24,000. 



20 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



[484 



Gifts and bequests — The following made up from Apple- 
ton's Annual cyclopedia shows the amount of gifts and 
bequests for educational purposes (including hospitals), of 
$5000 each and upward in value for each year from 1894 
to 1898. The extraordinary total of $110,952,199 is divided 
as follows: theological schools $1,918,500, law schools 
$127,500, medical schools $2,631,000, hospitals $16,593,701, 
libraries $14,143,888, general education $75, 537,610/ 



Year 


Theology 


Law 


Medicine 


Libraries 


Gen. educ. 


Total 




Schools 


Hospitals 




1894 

1395 
1896 
1897 
1898 


$554 000 
570 000 
305 000 

244 500 

245 000 


$12 500 


$126 OOO 
755 000 


$1 911 OOO 

2 722 367 

5 096 667 

3 394 167 
3 469 500 


$3 927 721 
3 602 667 
2 197 000 
2 341 000 
2 075 500 


$11 68l 262 
IO 817 255 
13 894 058 
21 224 l66 
17 920 869 


$18 212 483 
18 467 289 
21 492 725 
27 318 833 
25 460 869 


115 OOO 




1 750 000 




$1 918 500 


$127 500 


$2 631 000 


$16 593 701 $14 143 888 


$75 537 610 


$110 952 I99 



Women as professional students — The 1898 U.S. educa- 
tion report shows that women now appear as students in 
professional schools of each class except those in veterinary 
medicine. In nursing they are of course in a large majority, 
8004 as compared with 801 men. In the other professions 
they are reported as follows: theology 198, law 147, medi- 
cine 1397, dentistry 162, pharmacy 174. The proportion of 
women in regular medical schools is much smaller than in 
homeopathic, eclectic and physiomedical schools, showing 
that women prefer the medical sects. 



1 Including the most notable gifts and bequests for all public purposes the 
grand total for these five years is $174,800,000. The ordinary denominational 
contributions for educational and benevolent purposes, all state and municipal 
appropriations to public and sectarian institutions and the grants of congress for 
the relief of suffering in Cuba are excluded. 



485] 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



21 



The following table made up from Professional education 
in the United States gives the division of professional 
schools by sex in 1899 : 



SCHOOLS 



Theology 

Law 

Medicine 

Dentistry 

Pharmacy 

Veterinary medicine 



69 
12 

4 

14 



64 
64 

80 
44 



165 

86 

156 

56 

52 
17 



Power to confer degrees — Low standards in many profes- 
sional schools are due to a failure to subject the degree-con- 
ferring power to strict state supervision. In New York and 
Pennsylvania the laws now prevent an abuse of the power 
to confer degrees. 1 In Massachusetts and Vermont bodies 
formed under the general corporation acts are prohibited 
from conferring degrees. In Ohio and Nebraska the stat- 
utes require only the nominal endowment of $5000 for a 
degree-conferring institution. In other states and territories 
as a rule any body of men may form an educational corpo- 
ration with power to confer degrees "without any guaranty 
whatever that the privilege will not be abused." 2 

This matter has been under discussion recently in various 
educational bodies and there is a strong sentiment in favor 
of a strict supervision by the state of the degree-conferring 
power. 3 

1 A similar bill, strongly advocated by educators, was defeated at the last ses- 
sion of the Illinois legislature through the efforts of politicians and others in 
favor of low standards. 

5 Edward Avery Harriman, Educational franchise (R. Am. bar. ass., 1898). 

3 In 1897 the section of legal education of the American bar association resolved 
that the degree-conferring power should be " subject to strict state supervision 
to be exercised in a manner somewhat similar to that which is exercised by the 
regents of the University of the State of New York." In an address before the 
National educational association in 1897, Pres. Henry Wade Rogers said: "There 
should be established in each state a council of education, which should be 
intrusted with powers similar to those vested in the regents of the University 
of the State of New York, and it should be composed of the most eminent men 
in the state without any reference to political considerations. No degree-confer- 
ring institution should be incorporated without the approval of the council of 
education." 



22 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



[ 4 86 



2 THEOLOGY 

Schools, faculty and students — In the United States there 
is no connection between church and state. Each religious 
denomination establishes such theological schools as may be 
required. In 1899 the 165 schools had 1070 instructors and 
8093 students. 2 schools were nonsectarian, and the rest 
were distributed among 23 religious denominations in the 
order of students for 1899 as follows: 1 



DENOMINATIONS 



1 Roman catholic 

2 Baptist 

3 Presbyterian 

4 Methodist episcopal 

5 Evang. Lutheran 

6 Congregational 

7 Protestant episcopal 

8 Christian 

9 Reformed church 

10 Lutheran 

11 United presbyterian 

12 Hebrew 

13 Moravian (United brethren). . . 

14 Nonsectarian 

15 Cumberland presbyterian 

16 Universalist 

17 Methodist protestant 

18 Evangelical association 

19 African methodist episcopal.. 

20 Unitarian 

21 Reformed presbyterian 

22 New Jerusalem 

23 Associate reform presbyterian 

24 Seventh day baptist. 

Total 



29 
16 
17 
19 
17 
12 

14 
8 
6 
5 
3 
2 
2 
2 
1 

3 
2 



165 



222 
102 

125 
107 

73 
108 
92 
4i 
5i 
19 
10 

15 
11 

19 
7 

24 
6 
2 

5 
16 
2 
6 
4 
3 



1 070 



1 635 
1 286 
1 066 
1 005 
876 

556 
460 
429 
180 
142 
129 

92 

81 

73 
65 
61 

35 
34 
37 
18 
28 
12 
14 
3 



3 317 



Grad. 



330 
171 
283 
166 
234 
133 
87 
40 

59 
39 

45 
8 

23 
7 

11 
18 
o 
9 
5 
4 
9 
2 



1 693 



1 700 

1 142 

1 034 

981 

851 
492 
430 
424 

188 

143 

121 

104 

92 

72 

65 

54 

5i 

44 

37 

26 

20 

13 

7 

2 



8 093 



1 The U. S. census report for 1890 gives 119 denominations associated 
siastical groups (18,841,790 members), 24 which are not thus associated a 
independent miscellaneous congregations (1,771,016 members). The 119 
nations are arranged according to number of communicants as follows: 

1 R. catholic (7) [See chart] 6 257 871 8 United brethren (2) 

2 Methodist (17) 4 589 284 9 Latter-day saint (2) 

3 Baptist (13) 3 712 468 10 Hebrew (2) 

4 Presbyterian (12) 1 278 332 11 Friend (4) 

5 Lutheran (16) 1 231 072 12 Christian (2) 

6 Episcopalian (2) 540 509 13 Dunkard (4) 

7 Reformed (3) 309 458 14 Adventist (6) 



in eccle- 


nd some 


denomi- 


225 281 


166 125 


130 49 6 


107 208 


103 722 


73 795 


60 491 



Theological schools in 1899 




,6 ' K V 









oP a 



^ J 

AsS° c \l dav baptiVr 
Seventh aa Y K 



1 * wT 



Theological students in 1899 







VVO 



r «P 



i\*° 



^ef* 



re' 



Me* ho 



^ 



w 







2 ° 
•3 ° 

o 

f rS 

r, o 

rf3 







a * 
% 8 



:o 



"^ 



a <! 

& - 

O un 

73 ^> 

in 



u-» 



l-H O 

O 



487] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 23 

In 1878 there were 125 schools with 4320 students. The 
growth in students in 21 years has been 87 per cent. 

The seminaries have increased their requirements steadily 
so that all the great divisions of theology are now repre- 
sented in their faculties. In 1899, 1 school had a course of 
7 years, 10 a course of 6 years, 6 a course of 5 years, 24 a 
course of 4 years, 116 a course of 3 years, 7 a course of 2 
years and 1 a course of 1 year. 73 grant degrees. 

Early theological training — The rise of independent semi- 
naries marked the second step in the development of theo- 
logical education in this country. A desire to educate can- 
didates for the ministry had influenced the founding of 
colleges at a much earlier period. In fact our first institu- 
tions for higher education owed their origin to this desire. 
The chief object in the founding of Harvard college (1636) 
for example was to provide an educated ministry. Cotton 
Mather in his Magnalia Christi Americana gives a list of 
New England churches in 1696 which shows that of 129 
pulpits supplied by 116 pastors, 107 of the clergymen were 
graduates of Harvard college. The colleges founded at 
New Haven (1700) and at Princeton (1748) followed Har- 
vard in making education free to candidates for the ministry 
who could not meet their own expenses. 

In England candidates for the ministry usually pursued a 
university course which included several studies that bore 
on their future calling. In addition to the college degree 
they were examined on certain theological books which they 

15 Mennonite (12) 41 541 17 Communistic societies (8) 4 049 

16 Plymouth Brethren (4) 6 661 18 (River) Brethren (3) 3 427 
The independent sects may be classified as follows: 

Disciple of Christ 641 051 Universalist 49 194 

Congregationalist 512 771 Spiritualist 45 030 

Evang. Lutheran 223 588 Moravian II 781 

Evang. association 133 313 New Jerusalem 7 095 

Unitarian 67 749 Other 79 444 

[Estimates revised to April 1, 1898 give total communicants 26,054,385; Roman 
catholics (7) 8,410,592, methodists (17) 5,735,898, baptists (13) 4,232,962.] 

H. D. Sedgwick jr in the October 1899 Atlantic monthly writes that the propor- 
tion of Roman catholics to the whole population in 1783 was 1 in 80, in 1829, 1 in 
16, in 1844, 1 i n 15. in 1890, 1 in 10. 



24 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [488 

had read either in private or with the assistance of a pre- 
ceptor. This same scheme was followed in this country in 
the 17th and 18th centuries. The college faculty included 
as a rule a professor of Hebrew and a professor of theology 
and their work was supplemented by the study of theologi- 
cal books either in private or under the oversight of an 
experienced clergyman. 

Rise of independent seminaries — At the close of the 18th 
century the colleges had departed so far from the special 
purpose of their creation that it was thought necessary to 
establish theological seminaries. For more than half a cen- 
tury private theological schools had been in existence. Dr 
Joseph Bellamy of Connecticut conducted the first of these 
institutions that attained distinction and some of his gradu- 
ates opened other similar schools. The theological semi- 
nary proper, however, had its origin in this country in the 
closing years of the 18th century. In England when the 
universities were closed to those outside of the established 
church, new institutions sprang up but these included aca- 
demic as well as theological courses. In this country the 
seminaries " became a supplement to the college, not a sub- 
stitute as in England." Undoubtedly the desire to have 
schools in which their special religious doctrines might be 
taught influenced the denominations in America that had no 
secular colleges to found their own theological seminaries, 
but the necessity for the more definite and systematic train- 
ing of the theological schools seems to have been felt by all. 

The history of the existing institutions that are specially 
devoted to preparation for the ministry is limited with three 
exceptions to the present century. The Seminary of the 
reformed Dutch church in America was founded in 1784. 
In that year Drs Livingston and Meyer were set apart to be 
professors of theology and the method of training men for 
the ministry by any individual pastor whom the student 
might select was formally discontinued. The succession of 
classes since 1784 has been continuous with the exception of 
two or three years. These years were not consecutive so 



489] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 25 

that the work of the professors has been continuous. This 
work was done first in New York, then at Flatbush, L. I. 
and since 1810 at New Brunswick, N. J. 

St Mary's seminary was founded at Baltimore in 1791 and 
is under the direction of members of the Society of St Sul- 
pice. Xenia theological seminary is the result of the consoli- 
dation in 1874 of the Seminary of the northwest with the 
Associate seminary at Xenia. The Theological seminary of 
the associate presbyterian church of North America was 
located originally at Service, Beaver co. Pa. in 1794, when 
Dr John Anderson was elected professor of theology by the 
Associate synod. In 1821 the seminary was transferred to 
Cannonsburg, Pa. and in 1855 to Xenia, Ohio. 

In 1782 the Associate reformed synod was formed by the 
union of the Associate presbyteries and the Reformed pres- 
byteries. Those who refused to accept this union estab- 
lished the Theological seminary of the associate presbyte- 
rian church of North America at Service, Beaver co. Pa. 
The Associate reformed synod opened a theological semi- 
nary in New York in 1805. 

In 1808 New England congregationalists united in open- 
ing the theological school at Andover. In 181 2 the Gen- 
eral assembly of the presbyterian church founded the Prince- 
ton theological seminary. In 181 5 Hartwick seminary, the 
oldest Lutheran theological school in this country, was 
opened in Otsego co. N. Y. In 181 7 the General conven- 
tion of the protestant episcopal church established the Gen- 
eral theological seminary in New York where instruction 
was first given in 1819. The seminary was removed to New 
Haven in 1820 but was reopened in New York in 1822. In 
1820 the Baptist education society opened Hamilton theo- 
logical seminary, the first theological school established by 
baptists in the United States, since 1893 a department of 
Colgate university. The Reformed church in the United 
States founded the theological seminary at Carlisle, Pa. in 
1825. In 1839 tne rnethodists founded their first theologi- 
cal seminary " in commemoration of the first centennial of 



26 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [49° 

ecumenical methodism." The institution was opened in 
1840 at Newbury, Vt, was removed to Concord, N. H. in 
1847, to Boston in 1867 and became in 1871 the theological 
department of Boston university. 

Of the 165 existing theological schools 3 were established 
before 1800, 18 between 1801 and 1825, 25 between 1826 
and 1850, 72 between 1851 and 1875, 47 between 1876 and 
1900. When the necessity of systematic training for the 
ministry was recognized theological schools were established. 
The multiplication of these schools, however, is due to some 
extent to differences of opinion touching matters pertaining 
to the Christian faith. When men can not think alike even 
in details that seem trivial they split frequently into sects 
which sometimes found theological seminaries to teach their 
own peculiar views. In an interesting paper on the causes 
and remedy of the disunion of Christendom the rector of 
St Andrew's, Rochester, expresses the opinion that the pur- 
pose of the church to discipline life, to make men pure 
and just and kind is often lost sight of in an effort to 
secure intellectual agreement concerning the most abstruse 
and difficult subjects that the human mind can entertain. 
Bishop Whipple of Minnesota emphasizes the other side 
of this picture as follows : " Never in the world's history has 
there been such enthusiasm in all humanitarian work as 
now. Not even in the primitive church have greater 
victories been won in leading heathen folk to Christian 
civilization." 

Religious bodies vary greatly with regard to the training 
deemed essential for the ministry. The training of the 
Roman catholic priest for example begins normally at about 
the age of 12 when the candidate is secluded in many ways 
from contact with secular life, living and working constantly 
under ecclesiastical supervision. On the other hand the 
protestant candidate for the ministry is usually free to choose 
his teachers, studies and associates, and he does not begin 
his special training till he has finished his general education 
and entered the theological school. Again episcopalians, 



491] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 2J 

presbyterians and congregationalists for example have 
exacted as a rule a comparatively good general and pro- 
fessional education. The methodists on the other hand 
have not laid so much stress on intellectual training. They 
did not open a theological school till 1840 and even in 1899 
the methodist seminaries did not report so many students as 
the presbyterian though in the United States there were 
probably about four times as many methodists as presbyte- 
rians. Almost from the date of their organization, how- 
ever, the methodists have maintained a scheme of syste- 
matic theological examinations, and recently progress has 
been made toward a more thorough training. They now 
supervise with special care the scholastic work of their higher 
institutions of learning. 

It is commonly asserted that many theological seminaries 
notwithstanding their comparatively high admission require- 
ments do not maintain the educational standards required by 
other professional schools, and that students in these semina- 
ries are seldom dropped through failure to reach a satisfac- 
tory intellectual standing. As the Rev. W. F. Whitaker of 
Albany says, however, we should not overlook the funda- 
mental difference between theology and other professions. 
Physical disease demands everywhere the same skill but 
intellectual training necessary for the cure and care of souls 
varies with varying needs. 

University relations — Some theologians magnify the advan- 
tages that arise from the pursuit of a common purpose in 
independent seminaries. In their judgment these seminaries 
accomplish much more thorough work in theology than that 
done for example at Oxford and Cambridge. Other writers 
emphasize the fact that " the theologian needs the contact of 
other minds just as do other specialists," and that it is a mis- 
take to divorce the study of theology from that of the other 
sciences. In the United States the seminaries long restricted 
the study of theology to candidates for the ministry ; lay- 
men neglected this field almost entirely and theologians on 
the other hand were narrowed by the seclusion of the 
seminary. 



28 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [492 

The work of independent theological schools is of course 
much more thorough than that which the secular colleges 
attempted with the aid of individual clergymen, but the iso- 
lation of these schools is a disadvantage when we compare 
them with some of the great universities abroad in which 
theology is the leading faculty. 

The recognition of this fact marked the third step in the 
development of theological education in this country. In 
1819 Harvard 1 and in 1822 Yale 2 organized separate theo- 
logical faculties. In 1899, 46 colleges and universities had 
theological faculties, and 13 independent schools had entered 
into such relations with neighboring universities that their 
students were able to enjoy many university privileges. 
These friendly relations now exist, even between different 
denominations. The Episcopal theological school at Cam- 
bridge, Mass. has for example many of the advantages 
offered by Harvard university, the Episcopal divinity school 
at Philadelphia shares advantages offered by the University 
of Pennsylvania, the Union theological seminary in New 
York those afforded to the students of Columbia and New 
York universities. 

Present tendencies — Dr C. A. Briggs wrote as follows on 
theological education in 1892 : 

" The course in theology is still very defective in the great 
majority of the theological schools . . . but no one 
can deny real and great progress . . . The backbone 
of theological training is still Hebrew exegesis, Greek exe- 
gesis, church history, systematic theology, pastoral theology 
and homiletics . . . The scientific method is begin- 
ning to revolutionize theological education ; but this move- 
ment is only in its beginnings." 

In recent years there has been a tendency to extend the 
elective system in seminary courses. Some theologians con- 
tend that these courses should be entirely elective ; others, 

1 The first professorship established in the university was the Hollis professor- 
ship of divinity, established in 1721. The differentiation of the divinity school 
from the college was very gradual. 

2 The chair of divinity was established in 1755. 



493] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 29 

that they should require a symmetric training in all funda- 
mental branches, and that the choice of studies should be 
limited to those that are demanded by special tastes or by 
special lines of work. 

In an essay on the education of protestant ministers, pub- 
lished in the Princeton review in 1883, and republished in 
1898 in Educational reform, President Eliot gives the fol- 
lowing suggestions touching this matter : 

" The subjects which in our day should be set before a 
candidate for the ministry are divisible into two classes : 
those which every candidate should master, and those from 
which every candidate should make a limited selection. 
The preliminary subjects which every student of 
theology should in my judgment be required to master are as 
follows : 

1 Languages: Greek (including New testament Greek), 
Latin, Hebrew and German 

2 English literature, with practice in writing, and study of 
style 

3 The elements of psychology 

4 The elements of political economy 

5 Constitutional history, or the history of some interest- 
ing period of moderate length 

6 Science : botany, zoology, or geology, studied in the 
laboratory and the field. 

The requisitions in the languages other than English are 
the only ones in this list which are now habitually enforced 
in theological seminaries." 

" Having finished the preliminary required studies, the 
candidate for the ministry is ready to enter upon the advanced 
studies which may properly be called professional. Since 
preaching is to be his most important function, he will natu- 
rally give a good share of his time to homiletics and the 
practice of writing and speaking. The other subjects which 
are now included under the comprehensive term 'theology' 
or ' divinity ' may be grouped as follows : 



3<D PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [494 

i Semitic studies : linguistic, archeologic and historical 

2 New testament criticism and exegesis 

3 Ecclesiastical history 

4 Comparative religion or historic religions compared 

5 Psychology, ethics, and the philosophy of religion 

6 Systematic theology, and the history of Christian 
doctrine 

7 Charitable and reformatory methods, and the contest of 
Christian society with licentiousness, intemperance, pauper- 
ism and crime." 

" Any three of these seven groups thoroughly studied, in 
addition to homiletics and the preliminary required studies, 
would in my judgment give a far better training for the 
protestant ministers of our day than is now offered in any 
theological seminary in my knowledge." 

In this essay Pres. Eliot deals only "with the surround- 
ings and mental furnishing of the minister, not with his 
inspiration." He does not maintain that there is no need of 
uneducated ministers or that men of genius are dependent 
on systematic training or that "sensibility, earnestness and 
piety" are not the most essential qualities. He does say, 
however, that men of genius are rare and that it is not the 
business of universities and theological seminaries to provide 
" uninstructed exhorters." 



495] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 3 1 



3 LAW 

Early law schools — The first American law school was 
founded at Litchfield, Ct. in 1784 and discontinued in 1833. 
Though not connected with any university it seems to have 
made an excellent record. Of 1023 graduates, 50 became 
members of congress, 15 U. S. senators, 40 judges of the 
higher state courts, 10 governors of states, 5 cabinet officers, 
2 justices of the federal supreme court, 1 vice-president of 
the United States and several foreign ministers. 

A course of lectures in law was delivered in the College 
of Philadelphia in 1 791 by James Wilson who had been 
appointed professor of law in that institution, but his work 
was discontinued before the close of the second course. In 
1797 James Kent made a similar attempt at Columbia, but 
he gave only one course of lectures. 

The Harvard law school, established in 181 7, was the 
earliest school in the country connected with a university 
and authorized to confer degrees in law. The course was 
lengthened to 3 years in 1877. There were no examinations 
for the degree till 1871, and none for admission till 1877. 
At the beginning of the year 1897 the rule came into force 
by which only graduates of approved colleges and persons 
qualified to enter the senior class of Harvard college are 
admitted as regular students. 

The Yale law school was established in 1824, that of the 
University of Virginia in 1825 and the Cincinnati law school 
in 1833. 

Development of law schools since 1858 — Law schools had 
exercised little influence on the legal profession in this coun- 
try up to the time of the opening of the Columbia law school 
in 1858. The extinct Litchfield school and the unsuccessful 
attempts at the college of Philadelphia and Columbia con- 
stitute the record up to 1800. 3 of the existing schools 
were established between 1801 and 1825, 7 between 1826 
and 1850, 24 between 1851 and 1875, 5° between 1876 and 
1900. The growth of the Columbia law school was quite 



2,2 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [496 

steady from the first. In 1859 there were 35 students, in 
1876, 573, in 1889, 491. In 1888 the trustees decided to 
add a third year to the course to take effect in the fall of 
1890. In 1899 they adopted a resolution converting the 
school into a graduate department by limiting admission to 
college graduates, the change to take effect in the fall of 
1903. 

Since 1858 the growth in law schools has been most 
remarkable. In 1878 there were 50 schools with 3012 stu- 
dents ; in 1899 there were 86 schools with 11,883 students. 
The increase in students in 21 years has been 294 per cent. 
These figures show that the old method of study in the 
office of an attorney is rapidly giving place to the systematic 
training of the law school. In fact it is impracticable under 
existing conditions to obtain a satisfactory legal education 
in an attorney's office. 1 

The greatest drawback to efficient work in our law schools 
as shown elsewhere, is failure to demand a satisfactory pre- 
liminary education for admission. There has been rapid 
growth in the belief that the course of study entitling stu- 
dents to the LL. B. degree can not be covered properly in 
less than three years. The president of Western reserve 
university, Charles F. Thwing writes as follows : " The pro- 
gress of professional education in the U. S. receives illus- 
tration in the fact that a fourth year is now frequently 
spoken of as a demand of the law school. 2 Many law 
schools are now doing four years' work in three years, and 
certain schools are doing three years' work in two years. 
The best schools have increased their courses of study from 
two years to three, and as they have increased the length of 
time they have also increased the number and amount of 
the studies." 

1 The ratio of lawyers to population in 1870 was 1 to 946, in 1890 it was 1 to 699. 
These figures show a growth somewhat out of proportion to the growth in popu- 
lation, but not by any means as great comparatively as the growth in students 
(1870, 1653; 1890, 4518). The explanation is simple. Only students in law schools 
have been reported, not those prepared for the bar elsewhere. 

2 The law department of West Virginia university requires four years' work for 
LL.B. degree after July 1, 1899. 



497] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 33 

In 1875 on ly 1 law school had a course of three years. 
In 30 schools the course was two years, in 10 one year, in 2 
the length of the course was not stated. In 1899, 44 schools 
had a three years' course, 37 a two years' course, 4 a one 
year's course. In 1 the length of the course was not stated. 
Of the 44 schools with three year's course 1 1 report an abso- 
lute requirement of three years' study in a law school for the 
LL. B. degree ; 30 report three years' study in a law school 
as the regular requirement for the LL. B. degree. 

Of the 86 law schools reporting in 1899, 16 are separate 
institutions and 70 are departments of colleges or universi- 
ties ; 49 hold day sessions, 24 evening sessions, 7 hold both 
and 6 do not report the item ; 82 grant degrees. 

Salaries of teachers — Charles Noble Gregory in a paper 
read before the American bar association in 1897 showed 
that of 349 law teachers in the United States, 75 or only 
about 1-5 gave their entire time to the work. The law 
teachers who received fixed salaries were as a rule somewhat 
more highly paid than teachers of other topics even in the 
same university. The report from Harvard law school was 
most complete. There we found a faculty of 9 men, all but 
1 giving their entire time to the school. The salary of an 
assistant professor was $2250; of a professor $4000 during 
the first 5 years, $4500 during the next 5 years, and $5000 
thereafter. The average salary of the teachers in American 
law schools who gave their full time to the work, including 
deans and assistants, was $2564. 1 2. Replies from European 
law schools indicated that nearly three times as large a pro- 
portion of the law teachers gave their full time. 

Methods of instruction — Instruction in law schools is given 
by lectures, by recitations from textbooks, and by discussion 
and explanation of selected cases. Each of these systems 
has its advocates. In a majority of the schools instruction 
is given mainly by lectures. Next in popularity comes the 
method of recitations on lessons previously assigned. There 
are only a few schools that depend mainly on the discussion 
and explanation of selected cases. 



34 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [498 

Dean Ashley of the New York university law school 
writes as follows on this subject : " The leading universities 
repudiate the idea of any fixed method for teaching or 
studying law." Professor Gray of Harvard says : "In all 
law schools, I suppose, the students learn from textbooks, 
cases and oral instruction. At any rate they do so here. 
Each teacher is free to use these means as he pleases. The 
different professors do actually use them in different ways 
and proportions." Dean Keener of Columbia says : " There 
is no uniform method of instruction in this school. Each 
instructor is at liberty to pursue the method of instruction 
which in his opinion will be productive of the best results. 
At the present time three methods of instruction are used." 

The 1898 report of the committee on legal education of 
the American bar association gives returns from 20 law 
schools, including the leading schools of the country, on 
instruction in practice. 2 report that they depend princi- 
pally on the observations which the students can make in 
attending actual courts ; but in all others the practical 
importance of school instruction and of practice in moot 
courts is recognized. The committee recommends as the 
ideal plan of organization of a law faculty with reference to 
practical work that provision be made for a professor of 
pleading and practice, a thoroughly trained lawyer who shall 
devote his entire time to work of that kind. 

Admission to the bar in colonial days — In early colonial days 
lawyers seem to have been regarded with jealousy and aver- 
sion. At the time of the revolution, however, they had 
gained a position of prominence which they have always 
maintained in this country. Of 56 signers of the declara- 
tion of independence 25 were lawyers and so were 30 out of 
55 members of the convention which framed the federal 
constitution. 1 

There was no particular scheme of legal education in the 
colonial period but in most of the colonies there were stat- 
utes relating to attorneys. In North Carolina the following 

1 Statistics of J. H. Pattern jr. 



499] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 35 

parliamentary provision was in force up to the revolutionary 
war : 

"... None shall from henceforth be admitted attor- 
neys in any of the king's courts of record . . . but such 
as have been brought up in said courts, or otherwise well 
practised in soliciting of causes, and have been found by 
their dealings to be skilful and of honest disposition . . ." 

In Virginia in 1680 the licensing of attorneys was placed 
by the general assembly in the hands of the governor : 

"... no Person or Persons whatsoever, shall prac- 
tice as an Attorney or appear to plead in the General court, 
or any county-court in this countrey, but such as shall be 
first Licenced by his Excellency, or Successors thereunto, 
and . . . any one that shall presume to plead in the 
general court, or any county or other court without such 
licence first obtained, and had ; shall forfeit for every such 
offence committed in the county-court six hundred pounds 
of tobacco and in the General Court 2000 pounds of 
Tobacco." 

This act was superseded in 1748 by what seems to be the 
earliest provision for an examining committee : 

" The judges of the General Court shall nominate and 
appoint such and so many of the council learned in the Law 
and Attornies practicing in said Court as they shall think 
fit, to examine into the Capacity, Ability or Fitness of such 
persons as shall from time to time apply for a licence to 
practice as Attornies in the County courts and other inferior 
courts of this colony and shall cause such nomination and 
appointment to be entered in the Records of their Court ; 
which persons so nominated shall take oath that they will 
well and truly examine into the Capacity, Ability and Fit- 
ness of such persons as shall make application to them for a 
Licence to practice as Attornies and that they will not grant 
a Licence to any person who shall not upon examination to 
the best of their knowledge be found sufficiently qualified to 
practice as Attorney aforesaid." 

In New Jersey any one was allowed to plead till 1698, 



36 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [5OO 

after which date attorneys were licensed by the governor. 
In Massachusetts, Rhode Island and New Hampshire an 
oath seems to have been all that was demanded of those 
seeking admission as attorneys. This was the case also in 
Delaware up to 1726. 

The records of the secretary of state at Albany show that 
for 70 years just preceding the American revolution attor- 
neys were admitted to practise in New York by the gov- 
ernor without any examination as to fitness, though for 
admission to practise before the supreme court the usual 
preparation was " a college or university education and 
three years' apprenticeship or, without the former, seven 
years' service under an attorney." J 

In Connecticut attorneys were appointed by the county 
courts. In Maryland the justices admitted those whom the 
governor and council had previously licensed. In Pennsyl- 
vania attorneys were admitted by the justices ; also in South 
Carolina till 1721, after which date they were admitted by 
the chief justice of the general and supreme court at Charles- 
ton. In all these cases tests as to fitness, if there were any 
such tests, seem to have been of a very superficial character. 2 

Admission to the bar after the revolution— The New York 
constitution of 1777 provided that "all attorneys, solicitors 
and councellors at law, hereafter to be appointed, be 
appointed by the Court and licensed by the first judge of 
the court in which they shall respectively plead or practice ; 
and be regulated by the rules and orders of the said courts." 

In 1797 the New York supreme court prescribed a seven 
years' clerkship with a practitioner as one of the require- 
ments for admission as an attorney except in the case of 
those who after the age of 14 had pursued classical studies 
for four years or less, such applicants being permitted to 
deduct the time so occupied from the seven years' clerkship. 
After four years' practice the attorney was admitted without 

1 William Smith, History of New York. 

" 2 1 am indebted to Mr Ashley of the New York state library school for assist- 
ance in the study of the colonial records. 



501] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 37 

further test as a counselor. These rules were modified in 
1829 by requiring three years' practice as an attorney and a 
separate test for the degree of counselor. A few other 
states had similar requirements. 

Under the rules that followed the adoption of the New 
York constitution of 1846 students were admitted to the 
bar without any requirements as to period of study or mode 
of training and without satisfactory evidence as to character. 
The same laxity prevailed in other states and the law came 
to be regarded more as an ordinary trade than as a distinct 
profession. This was the condition of legal education in 
1870 when the bar is said to have reached its lowest ebb. 

In 1880 most of the states had adopted a system of oral 
examinations for admission to the bar. These tests were 
usually held in open court. In about 3-5 of the states any 
ignoramus could present himself and if successful gain 
admission to practise before all state courts. The tests at 
best demanded little knowledge of legal principles ; usually 
they were a farce. 1 5 states required a definite period of 
study ; 6 gave an allowance in term of study to bachelors of 
arts ; Pennsylvania and Delaware required a preliminary 
general education ; women were admitted in 10 states. 1 

In 1871 admission to the bar in New York was placed 
under the control of the court of appeals. In 1882 the court 
adopted a rule requiring all law students unless college 
graduates to pass an examination as a test of preliminary 
general education. In 1894 the legislature provided for 
uniform examinations in all judicial districts, similar in 
essential features to those adopted in 1878 by the supreme 
court of New Hampshire. In the latter state from 181 2 to 
1872 a statute had provided as follows: "Any citizen of the 
age of 21 years, of good moral character, on application to the 
supreme court, shall be admitted to practise as an attorney." 

The American bar association has recommended that 

'In 1899 women are admitted definitely in 15 states and by inference in most 
political divisions. They seem to be excluded definitely only in Arkansas, 
Georgia and Indiana. 



38 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [502 

examinations for admission to the bar be conducted by a 
commission appointed by the court of last resort, according 
to the system now in force in New York, Ohio and Illinois. 
Boards with high standards seem to feel that written exam- 
inations afford the fairest test. Oral examinations are cer- 
tainly impracticable when large classes are to be examined. 
An attempt is now made to select questions that require the 
application of legal principles to given facts. All progressive 
boards are abandoning the plan so prevalent in the past of 
limiting the tests to petty details and questions of local 
practice. 

At the 1899 meeting of the American bar association, the 
acting president, Charles F. Manderson, spoke substantially 
as follows : A notable and encouraging sign of the times, 
presaging much good to the profession and benefit to the 
public, is the increased interest felt in the proceedings of the 
local bar associations. Nearly every state has an active, 
vigorous organization, and very many of the counties and 
judicial districts have their societies, composed of the best 
professional material of the vicinity. The standard of quali- 
fications for admission to the bar has been materially ele- 
vated by these associations. 

Synopsis of present requirements — In the following politi- 
cal divisions law-school diplomas do not now confer the right 
to practise law, an examination being required by statute in 
all cases : 



Arizona 


Indian ter. 


Montana 


Oregon 


Arkansas 


Choctaw nat. 


New York 


South Dakota 


Colorado 


Iowa 


North Carolina 


Utah 


Florida 


Kentucky 


North Dakota 


Virginia 


Hawaii 


Maine 


Ohio 


Washington 


Idaho 


Massachusetts 


Oklahoma 


Wyoming 



The following require for admission to the licensing 
examination : 

Colorado, one year high school, two years' clerkship or 
study in school 

Iowa, two full years' study in office or reputable school 



503] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 39 

Maine, two years', after September 1900 three years' study 
in office or recognized school 

Montana, two full years' study of law 

New York, three years' high school course, college gradu- 
ate two years', others three years' study in office or school 

North Carolina, 12 months' professional study 

North Dakota, two full years' study with practitioner in 
this state or in reputable school in U. S. 

Ohio, a common school education, three full years' study 
with practising attorney or in school 

Oregon, three years' study of law 

Washington, two years' regular study of law 

Wyoming, two years', after September 1900 three years' 
study in law school or office 

The following require the licensing examination only : 

Arizona Idaho Massachusetts Tennessee 

Arkansas Indian ter. Oklahoma Utah 

Florida Choctaw nat. Oregon Virginia 

Hawaii Kentucky South Dakota 

The 16 following states require either approval of law 
diploma or examination by duly qualified authority : 

Alabama Louisiana Mississippi Tennessee 

California Maryland Missouri Texas 

Georgia Michigan Nebraska West Virginia 

Kansas Minnesota South Carolina Wisconsin 

The following requiring either approval of diploma or 
examination admit to examination on : 

Kansas, two years' study, the last with attorney 

Louisiana, two years' study of law 

Maryland, three years' study in school or office 

Michigan, between one and two years' high school, three 
years' study of law 

Minnesota, about two thirds year high school, three years' 
study in office or school 

Nebraska, two years' study in office of practising attorney 

West Virginia, two years' study of law 



40 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [504 

Wisconsin, two years' study of law 

In 10 states, District of Columbia, New Mexico and 
Indian territory, Muskogee or Creek nation and Chickasaw 
nation, and the Philippines admission is governed by rules 
of court not defined in the law as follows : 

Connecticut, examination after high school graduation or 
indefinite preliminary test, three years' study in a law school 
or office, two years' study if a college or law school graduate 

Delaware, examination after three years' study of law 
under direction of a member of the bar 

District of Columbia, three years' study under competent 
attorney or in school 

Illinois, examination after graduation from three years' 
high school course, three years of 36 weeks each in approved 
law school or with licensed lawyers who subject the students 
to regular examinations in each subject (prior to Jan. 1900 
a diploma showing a regular course of two years or an 
examination on two years' study in an office) 

Indian territory, Cherokee nation, the judge or treasurer 
grants a license 

Chickasaw nation, supreme court judges issue a license to 
any person possessing sufficient law knowledge 

Creek nation, a district judge admits to a district court 
and a supreme court judge to all courts any person of good 
moral character 

1 Indiana, "every person of good moral character, being a 
voter, shall be entitled to practise law in all courts of jus- 
tice." — Constitution 

Nevada, examination in open court 

New Hampshire, examination after three years' study 
under direction of a counselor of the court 

New Jersey, examination after three years' clerkship with 
degree of B. A. or B. S., or four years' clerkship, one year 

1 A constitutional amendment is to be submitted to the people, which provides 
that the general assembly shall by law prescribe the necessary qualifications for 
admission to the bar. 



505] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 4 1 

and a half in a law school may count for an equal period in 
clerkship (exceptions) 

New Mexico, examination after two years' clerkship or 
diploma of law school 

Pennsylvania, to supreme court on motion after four years' 
clerkship and one year's practice in county court or diploma 
of certain law schools after three years ; to county courts 
under varying conditions 

Philippines, " A strict examination in open court 
by the justices of the supreme court." Those admitted to 
practise in U. S. courts or in the highest court of any politi- 
cal division may be admitted without examination 

Rhode Island, examination after three years in an office 
or a classical education and two years in an office 

Vermont, (old rule) examination after three years with 
attorney, or one year with attorney and two in office, (rules 
under 98 law not yet approved) 

Alaska has no law. In Cuba and Puerto Rico the require- 
ments are in process of transition. 



42 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [506 

4 MEDICINE 1 

Apprenticeship system — Before the establishment of medi- 
cal schools in this country medical students either went 
abroad to study or served an apprenticeship with some prac- 
tising physician. The custom of studying with a preceptor 
was common in view of the expense incident to work abroad, 
and this custom in a modified form continued till very 
recently. As a rule the apprentice had little opportunity 
for study but was forced to depend on what he could absorb 
by contact with his preceptor. The physicians of the 17th 
and 1 8th centuries who had studied abroad were usually 
classical students and in their preliminary training set an 
example that it would have been wise to follow. 

First public medical lectures — The first public lectures on 
anatomy before a class of students in this country are said 
to have been delivered by Dr William Hunter of Newport, 
R. I. in 1752. It seems, however, that Dr Giles Firmin as 
early as 1647 delivered readings on human osteology in New 
England ; that Dr Thomas Cadwallader of Philadelphia 
gave instruction to students in anatomy between 1 745 and 
1 751, and that Drs John Bard and Peter Middleton dissected 
the human body in New York city in 1750 for purposes of 
medical instruction. In 1762 Dr William Shippen of Phila- 
delphia gave a course of lectures on anatomy, illustrated by 
actual dissections. These lectures were continued till the 
organization of the Medical college of Philadelphia (now 
the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania) 
in 1765. Dissections were rarely performed prior to 1760 
and even autopsies were seldom permitted. 

Early medical schools — At the time of the American 
revolution, with a population of 3,000,000, there were prob- 
ably about 3500 physicians in the colonies, of whom it is 
estimated that not more than 400 had received medical 
degrees. In New England the clergyman was often the 

1 See Toner's Annals of medical progress in the United States, and Davis' Medical 
education and ??iedical institutions in the United States. 



507] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 43 

only available physician. Two medical schools were organ- 
ized in the colonies, the Medical college of Philadelphia 
(now the medical department of the University of Pennsyl- 
vania) in 1765, and the medical department of King's (now 
Columbia) college, in 1 768. The first medical degree con- 
ferred in this country was that of bachelor of medicine. 
This degree was granted to 10 men by the Medical college 
of Philadelphia in 1768. The degree of doctor of medicine 
was first conferred in 1770 by the medical school of King's 
college on two students who had taken the bachelor's degree 
in 1769. 51 medical degrees had been conferred by these 
institutions before 1776, when operations were suspended 
by the war. In the colonial period two medical societies 
(the State medical society of New Jersey, in 1766, and the 
Delaware state medical society, in 1776) and one permanent 
general hospital were organized. 

Harvard university medical school was organized in 1782, 
Dartmouth medical college in 1797, the School of medicine 
of the University of Maryland and the College of physi- 
cians and surgeons of New York in 1807. In 181 3 the 
medical department of King's (the name of which had been 
changed to Columbia) college was finally discontinued. 
The College of physicians and surgeons became in i860 
the medical department of Columbia university. Of the 
156 medical schools now existing in the United States 3 
were established between 1765 and 1800, 12 between 1801 
and 1825, 22 between 1826 and 1850, 33 between 1851 and 
1875, 86 between 1876 and 1900. 

At the time of the organization of the early medical 
schools the practice of obstetrics was relegated as a rule to 
ignorant midwives ; physiology, histology, organic chem- 
istry, pathology and surgery, as now recognized were hardly 
known. The schools at first conferred the degree of bach- 
elor of medicine on those who had studied two years with a 
preceptor and attended one course of lectures, the degree of 
doctor of medicine after three years of study and two 
courses of lectures. The bachelor's degree was abandoned 



44 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [508 

in 1 81 3. At first the Medical college of Philadelphia 
required for admission some knowledge of Greek and Latin, 
physics, natural history and botany, but the requirement 
was abandoned about the time of the reorganization of the 
University of Pennsylvania in 1792. For a century there 
were as a rule practically no requirements in preliminary 
general education for admission to medical schools, and even 
today this is their greatest defect. To the fact that charters 
for medical schools were to be had for the asking and that 
those schools were almost wholly self-sustaining is due the 
multiplication of small schools without facilities for clinical 
instruction. These schools in their rivalry for fees crowded 
all instruction into two ungraded lecture courses of from 
four to five months each. Progressive medical schools were 
anxious to raise their standards but feared a loss in stu- 
dents. The diploma given as a result of this unsatisfactory 
instruction admitted to professional practice. 

Influence of medical societies — In 1839 tne New York 
state medical society resolved that teaching and licensing 
ought to be separated as far as possible. 1 In 1837 the same 
view had been advocated in Philadelphia. Farther discus- 
sion of this question led to a call for a convention of dele- 
gates from all medical schools and societies in the United 
States. The convention was held in New York in 1846, and 
from it sprang the American medical association. 

Much has been accomplished by medical societies to ele- 
vate the medical profession, specially since the organization 
of the American medical association in 1846. This national 
organization, thoroughly representative in character, gave a 

1 Results of licensing examinations show the importance of this question. 
Under the New York licensing laws, for example, 4808 physicians have been exam- 
ined, of whom 3722 or 77.5$ were successful; 916 dentists have been examined, 
of whom 712 or 77.7$ were successful ; 67 veterinarians have been examined, of 
whom 30 or 44.7$ were successful. In these statistics each candidate who fails is 
counted as often as examined, but nevertheless so large a per cent of rejections 
is astonishing in view of the fact that admission to licensing examinations pre- 
supposes the preliminary education required by statute and also graduation with 
a degree from a registered professional school. Including those unable to meet 
the requirements for admission to licensing examinations more than 30$ of all 
applicants have failed to secure licenses. 



509] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 45 

new impetus to medical societies. In 1876 there was only 
one state in the Union that did not have a state medical 
society and many affiliated local associations. 

The following societies have exercised an important influ- 
ence in promoting higher standards : 

Association of American medical colleges (1890) 

American institute of homeopathy (1844) 

National confederation of eclectic medical colleges (1871) 

Southern medical college association (1892) 

The first and fourth of these societies prescribe for admis- 
sion to medical schools a preliminary general education 
equivalent to one year in a high school, the second and third 
demand work equivalent to two years in a high school. All 
prescribe four courses of lectures in different years as a con- 
dition for an M. D. degree, though they give an allowance 
of one year to graduates of reputable literary colleges and 
of other professional schools. 1 All tend to improve facili- 
ties for teaching, dissections and clinics. The schools regis- 
tered by these societies are 72, 21, 6 and 11 respectively. 

At the June 1899 meeting of the American institute of 
homeopathy the legislative committee was requested to 
draft a model bill with a view to obtaining general uni- 
formity in the laws relating to the practice of medicine, 
preparatory to the introduction in congress of a general law 
to secure the right of physicians to practise in all states after 
being authorized to practise in one. 2 

1 A bill amending the medical law in this respect passed both houses of the New- 
York legislature in 1897 but unfortunately was not signed by the governor. This 
bill gave the regents power to accept as the equivalent of the first year of medi- 
cal study " evidence of graduation from a registered college after four years of 
general preliminary education in addition to the high school course fixed by law 
as a minimum, provided that such college course included not less than the mini- 
mum required for such admission to advanced standing in languages, physics, 
chemistry and biology." 

2 A uniform standard for admission to practise throughout the United States is 
impracticable at present owing to varying conditions as to density of population, 
educational advantages and general development. Weak states can not maintain 
the standards demanded elsewhere and strong states can not afford to lower their 
standards. The present needless multiplication of standards, however, is most 
unfortunate. Instead of a separate standard for almost each political division, 
two or at most three standards should answer for all. In the first group should 



46 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [5IO 

At the June 1899 meeting of the National confederation 
of state medical examining and licensing boards the com- 
mittee on minimum standards for admission to medical 
schools recommended graduation from a four years' high 
school course or its equivalent. This committee outlined an 
alternative examination that represents less than three years 
of high school work. It also provided for an allowance of 
the first year of professional study to graduates of reputable 
literary or scientific colleges after satisfactory examination 
on the work of the first year. 

At the June 1899 meeting of the Association of American 
medical colleges, a special committee made an interesting 
report on the condition of medical education in the United 
States. The committee had corresponded with all the medi- 
cal schools, 82 in number, which had appeared as members 
of the association in 1897 and 1898. The replies received 
from 56 schools show great discrepancy in teaching facilities 
and in the requirements for graduation. Following are 
some of the most significant facts : 

Laboratory work, including dissections. 1 school makes 
no report ; 1 gives less than 300 hours of laboratory work in 
four years ; 5 give between 300 and 500 hours ; 27 between 
500 and 1000 hours; 14 between 1000 and 1500 hours; 8 
over 1 500 hours. 

Practical work. 5 schools offer less than 100 hours; 10 
give from 100 to 200; 13 from 200 to 300; 11 from 300 to 
500 ; 16 over 500 hours. 

come the strongest states, and the standard maintained by these states would act 
as a stimulus to weaker political divisions. In dentistry New York, Pennsylvania 
and New Jersey have already moved in this direction and in medicine there will 
be a similar movement when the regents have the statutory power on unanimous 
recommendation of a state board of medical examiners to indorse the licenses of 
those whose preliminary education and professional training meet the require- 
ments of the New York law. The Wayne co. (Michigan) medical society has 
addressed a circular to licensing bodies asking i) if reciprocity with political 
divisions that have practically the same licensing requirements would be favored, 
2) if statutory amendments necessary to secure such reciprocity would be advo- 
cated. Sep. 14, 1899 favorable answers to both inquiries had been received from 
30 political divisions. With few exceptions statutory amendments would be 
necessary. 



5 1 i] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 47 

Obstetric cases. 5 schools offer their students no opportu- 
nity to attend obstetric cases before graduation ; 28 give stu- 
dents opportunity to attend personally from one to three 
cases; 7 from three to five cases; 6 from 5 to 10 cases; 7 
over 10 cases. 

Clinical cases yearly available. 3 schools furnish no evi- 
dence of having even one patient to present to their students 
before graduation ; 4 have less than 500 patients all told 
from which to select clinical cases; 4 have less than 1000; 
5 between 1000 and 2000; 9 between 3000 and 5000; 8 
between 5000 and 10,000; 6 between 10,000 and 20,000; 6 
between 20,000 and 40,000; 3 between 40,000 and 100,000. 

Minimum number of hours of clinical attendance by each 
student. 6 schools offer less than 300 hours of clinical work 
in four years ; 6 give only from 300 to 400 hours ; 7 from 
400 to 500 hours; 19 from 500 to 800 hours; 14 from 800 
to 1 200 hours ; 4 give over 1 200 hours. 

Didactic work. 2 schools give less than 1000 hours in 
four years ; 7 from 1000 to 1500 hours; 22 from 1500 to 
2000 hours ; 13 from 2000 to 2500 hours; 4 from 2500 to 
3000 hours ; 8 give over 3000 hours. 

Total number of hours work demanded of medical stu- 
dents. 3 schools demand less than 2000 hours ; 2 from 2000 
to 2500; 11 from 2500 to 3000; 7 from 3000 to 3500; 7 
from 3500 to 4000 ; 26 over 4000 hours. 

The committee recommended a change in the constitu- 
tion and by-laws of the association by the adoption of the 
following : 

1 After July 1, 1900, and till more stringent rules be 
adopted, students beginning the study of medicine must pos- 
sess a diploma from a high school giving a thorough prelim- 
inary education, or must pass a thorough examination in all 
the branches usually taught in such schools. This examina- 
tion is to be conducted by a state superintendent of public 
instruction or some one delegated by him, or by members of 
the faculty of a university or college, who are not connected 
with the medical faculty of the school the student wishes to 



48 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [5 1 2 

enter, or by such a body as the regents of the University of 
the State of New York. 

2 Before a student can enter an advanced class he must 
present certificates from a school whose requirements fully 
equal those of this association of having successfully passed 
the examinations in at least three fifths of the branches 
embraced in the curriculum of the previous years of the 
school he desires to enter or he must pass examinations on 
the same ; on the remaining branches he may be conditioned, 
but these conditions must be removed by taking the work, 
providing it has not already been taken, and by passing 
examinations before he can pass on to the succeeding class 
(that is a man shall not carry conditions for more than one 
year), providing, however, that this shall not prevent schools 
from allowing students who have earned the B. A. or B. S. 
degree and who have had an adequate course in science, or 
graduates in dentistry or pharmacy, who possess the proper 
preliminary education, to enter the sophomore class. 

3 Before a student can be eligible for the degree of doc- 
tor of medicine he must have attended in a well-equipped 
medical school, four courses of lectures of at least six months 
each. These courses must embrace at least 3300 hours' 
actual work in the school, including besides didactic lectures 
and recitations, 

a 500 hours of laboratory work ; 

b 1 50 hours of practical work ; 

c One or more obstetric cases personally attended by each 
student ; 

d 750 hours of clinical teaching. 

At least 45 months must intervene between a student's 
matriculation and the date of his graduation. All of the 
work should be fairly apportioned throughout the four 
years. 

4 No school can be considered capable of giving the 
requisite instruction that can not command each year at least 
3000 hospital or dispensary patients for presentation to its 
classes. 



513] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 49 

Medical sects — As commonly understood, regular phy- 
sicians have no distinctive theory or practice ; homeopaths 
treat diseases with drugs that excite in healthy persons 
symptoms similar to the morbid condition treated ; eclectics 
make use of what they regard as specific remedies, chiefly 
botanical ; physiomedicalists use only botanical remedies, 
discarding those which are poisonous. In practice these 
distinctions are not always observed. 

In addition to the medical sects to which detailed ref- 
erence is made in this work a number of pathies flourish in 
many states unmolested under such names as osteopath, 
vitapath, electropath, hydropath, divine healer, magnetic 
healer, Christian scientist, faith curist, mind curist, sun curist, 
etc. Men and women without preliminary or professional 
training treat diseases under these or similar systems to such 
an extent that the health of the people is endangered. 
These so-called systems are followed with impunity in many 
states in what seems to be open violation of laws restricting 
the practice of medicine. This is due largely to the fact that 
so many statutes lack specific definitions as to what consti- 
tutes the practice of medicine, and without these definitions 
the conviction of such practitioners can not be secured 
through the courts. 1 

Osteopathy was " discovered " in 1874. It is based on the 
theory that " a natural flow of blood is health " and that the 
bones may be " used as levers to relieve pressure on nerves, 
veins and arteries." Osteopathy is now recognized by law 
in Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, North and South Dakota, Ten- 
nessee and Vermont. Practice of " the system, method or 

1 In Illinois the medical practice act provides special state examinations in 
obstetrics for midwives, and in anatomy, physiology, physiologic chemistry, his- 
tology and pathology and hygiene for those desiring to practise systems of treat- 
ing human ailments in which medicines are not used internally or externally 
and operative surgery is not followed. The act does not apply, however, to any 
person who " treats the sick or suffering by mental or spiritual means, without 
the use of any drug or material remedy." It is encouraging to note that notwith- 
standing this broad exemption Justice Everett of Chicago ruled against "divine 
healing" in August 1899. If his opinion is sustained in the higher court the 
" Zion curers " can no longer practise the "laying on of hands." 



50 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [5H 

science of osteopathy" is restricted to licensed physicians 
and to graduates of " a legally chartered and regularly con- 
ducted school of osteopathy." The use of drugs and opera- 
tions in "major or operative surgery" are not permitted in 
the practice of osteopathy. 

In Georgia, Kentucky, Nebraska, New Jersey, New 
Mexico, Montana, Ohio ' and West Virginia there are 
stringent laws against non-medical practitioners. In some 
other states, like Illinois, they receive such legal protection 
that any person may treat "the sick or suffering by mental 
or spiritual means, without the' use of any drug or material 
remedy." Under these conditions any person in Connecti- 
cut, Maine, Massachusetts and New Hampshire is free to 
practise " the sun cure, mind cure, hypnotism, magnetic heal- 
ing, Christian science, etc." The greater part of New Eng- 
land 2 seems to be on about the same footing in this respect 
with the Cherokee nation, Indian territory, where entire lib- 
erty is given to "enchantments in any form." In striking 
contrast Hawaii inflicts heavy fines on any person convicted 
of an attempt to cure "another by practice of sorcery, witch- 
craft, anaana, hoopiopio, hoounauna, hoomanamana, etc." 

1 In spite of this the court (6 Ohio Dec. 296) held in January 1897 that an 
osteopath was not practising medicine by kneading and manipulations, using only 
his hands and no medicines. In Kentucky and West Virginia, however, the courts 
have upheld the statutes which provide that manipulations or other expedient 
shall constitute the act of practising medicine. In Nebraska the court (40 Neb. 
158) ruled in 1894 that the " object of the statute is to protect the afflicted from 
the pretensions of the ignorant and avaricious, and its provisions are not limited 
to those who attempt to follow beaten paths and established usages." In Ameri- 
cus, Georgia in 1899 six prominent citizens, Christian scientists, were sentenced 
to fines and imprisonment for refusing to submit to vaccination. 

5 In Customs and fashions in old New England Alice Morse Earle tells us that in 
" 1631, one Nicholas Knapp was fined and whipped for pretending ' to cure the 
scurvey by a water of noe worth nor value which he sold at a very deare rate.'" 
One is almost tempted to suspect that this whipping took as much out of the New 
England officials as it did out of Mr Nicholas Knapp, for since that remote date 
scarcely a rumor has reached us of any equally vigorous remonstrance with 
unqualified practitioners. As a result New England has been a specially promis- 
ing field for quacks, not many of whom were considerate enough to follow the 
example of the celebrated " rain water doctor." Of this worthy it is recorded that 
he " worked wondrous miracles and did a vast and lucrative business" till he 
opportunely ended his career by tumbling into a hogshead of his own medicine. 



515] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 5 1 

There is much misunderstanding in this country regarding 
the duty of the state in relation to the health of the people. 
It does not consist in discriminating between schools or sys- 
tems of medicine, but in requiring without prejudice or par- 
tiality of all who seek a license to practise for gain on the 
lives of fellow beings a minimum preliminary and profes- 
sional training. 1 

Midwifery — Special tests for certificates of registration as 
midwives are required in : 



Arizona 


Illinois 


Louisiana 


Puerto Rico 


Connecticut 


Indiana 2 


New Jersey 


Utah 


Dist. of Col. 


Iowa 


Ohio 


Wyoming 



In the following political divisions the provisions of the 
medical practice acts do not apply to women engaged in the 
practice of midwifery : 

Alabama Kentucky New Mexico Texas 

Arkansas Maine North Carolina Vermont 3 

Florida Maryland Rhode Island Virginia 

Georgia Mississippi South Carolina Washington 

Idaho Montana Tennessee West Virginia 

In other political divisions, though there are some special 
provisions for certain localities, the general acts regulating 
the practice of medicine make no reference whatever to the 
practice of midwifery by women. 4 It would seem, there- 
fore, that these laws restrict the practice of midwifery to 

1 In the November 1898 Medical record, W. A. Purrington of New York asks if 
we are to punish the physician who fails to report contagious diseases and allow 
a person who boasts his ignorance of medical and sanitary science to treat and 
conceal such cases. Medical laws provide only, at most, that no person shall 
practise medicine who has not studied medicine ; a licentiate may practise as he 
pleases. But there is no reason why unqualified persons should be allowed to 
pretend to cure disease, by their pretenses deprive the sick of the benefits of sci- 
ence, and yet escape the just consequences of their imposture. 

8 Either examination or approval of diploma. 

3 Those practising midwifery without a certificate can not enforce collection of 
fee, but this does not apply to the practice of midwifery by women in the town 
or locality in which they reside. 

4 In Nebraska, North and South Dakota the practice of " medicine, surgery or 
obstetrics" without a license is prohibited. 



52 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [516 

licensed physicians. Nevertheless a large proportion of the 
children in these political divisions are brought into the 
world by ignorant midwives, and as stated by Dr M. J. Lewi 
of New York, many women are physical wrecks through 
their incompetence. Practically the conditions in political 
divisions where the laws seem to restrict the practice of mid- 
wifery to licensed physicians are little better than in political 
divisions where the practice of midwifery by women without 
a license is authorized by statute. There will probably be 
little chancre for the better till the midwife receives lec;al 
recognition and the practice of midwifery is regulated by 
definite statutory provisions. 1 

Graded system of instruction — In 1859 the Chicago medi- 
cal college, now the medical department of Northwestern 
university, was established to test the practicability of a 
thoroughly graded system of instruction. Students were 
divided into three classes, and each class was examined at 
the close of the year. Each of the three courses was six 
months in duration. Attendance on hospital clinical instruc- 
tion and practical work in the chemical, anatomic and micro- 
scopic or histologic laboratories were required for gradua- 
tion. In 1 87 1 the Harvard medical school adopted a similar 
plan. The Syracuse medical school followed and today the 
graded system of consecutive lectures is the rule. 

In 1896 Pres. Eliot wrote substantially as follows : Within 
25 years the whole method of teaching medicine has been 
revolutionized throughout the United States. The old medi- 
cal teaching was largely exposition ; it gave information at 
long range about things and processes which were not 
within reach or sight at the moment. The main means of 
instruction were lectures, surgical exhibitions in large rooms 
appropriately called theaters, rude dissecting rooms with 
scanty supervision, and clinical visits in large groups. The 
lectures were repeated year after year with little change, and 

1 In New York no agreement has yet been reached regarding a midwifery stat- 
ute. At the November 1899 meeting of the Federation of women's clubs a reso- 
lution favoring the licensing of trained nurses by the University of the State of 
New York was adopted. 



517] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 53 

no graded course was laid down. There was little oppor- 
tunity for laboratory work. The new medical education aims 
at imparting manual and ocular skill, and cultivating the 
mental powers of close attention through prolonged investi- 
gations at close quarters with the facts, and of just reasoning 
on the evidence. The subjects of instruction are arranged, 
as at the Harvard medical school, in a carefully graded 
course, which carries the student forward in an orderly and 
logical way from year to year. Laboratory work in anat- 
omy, medical chemistry, physiology, histology, embryology, 
pathology and bacteriology demands a large part of the 
student's attention. In clinical teaching, also, the change is 
great. Formerly a large group of students accompanied a 
visiting physician on his rounds, and saw what they could 
under very disadvantageous conditions. Now instruction 
has become, in many clinical departments, absolutely indi- 
vidual, the instructor dealing with one student at a time, and 
personally showing him how to see, hear, and touch for him- 
self in all sorts of difficult observation and manipulation. 
Much instruction is given to small groups of students, three 
or four at a time — no more than can actually see and touch 
for themselves. 

Medical schools and medical students in 1899 — In 1899 there 
were excluding graduate schools 156 medical schools in the 
United States with 24,119 students. The growth in medi- 
cal students in 21 years has been 142 per cent. Of the 156 
schools 125 are regular 1 (21,619 students), 21 homeopathic 
(1833 students), 7 eclectic (582 students), and 3 physiomedi- 
cal (85 students). 

Of the 156 medical schools, 135 hold day sessions, 5 have 
evening sessions, 9 have both and 7 do not report this item. 
74 are departments of colleges or universities, 82 are sepa- 
rate institutions. 152 grant degrees. 

In addition to the undergraduate schools there are 8 
graduate medical schools which had in 1898, 624 instructors 

1 The name commonly applied to the traditional school of medicine. Other 
designations are the " old," " allopathic " or " heteropathic " school. 



54 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [5 1 8 

and 181 3 students of whom 59 were women. In 1899 these 
schools had 1916 students of whom 73 were women. Nearly 
half of the students were in the New York schools. 

The ratio of physicians to population is 1 to less than 600 
in the United States while in foreign countries it varies from 
1 to about 1 100 in the British isles to 1 to about 8500 in 
Russia. We are said to have in proportion to our popula- 
tion four times as many physicians as France, five times as 
many as Germany, six times as many as Italy. 

There are more medical schools in the United States alone 
than in countries whose total population is six times as great, 
and yet few of these medical schools in the United States 
have endowments corresponding to those so lavishly made 
to other educational institutions or in any way proportioned 
to their needs. Fortunately the closing years of this cen- 
tury seem to indicate a change in the attitude of philan- 
thropists toward medical schools. In 1897, 14 medical 
schools reported endowments of $648,262. In 1898, 19 
medical schools reported endowments of $1,906,072/ In 
New York the advanced requirements for license have been 
accompanied by extraordinary growth in the property of 
medical schools, specially in greater New York. A fine 
building was erected in 1897 by the faculty of the Bellevue 
hospital medical college. The College of physicians and 
surgeons, with the Vanderbilt clinic, doubled in size by the 
additional gift in 1895 of $350,000, and the Sloane mater- 
nity hospital, greatly enlarged in 1897, now make the most 
complete plant in existence for scientific medical education. 
The Polhemus memorial clinic has been completed and 
thoroughly equipped, providing accommodations for the out- 
patient and medical school departments of the Long Island 
college hospital. In the medical division of the Flower hos- 
pital, opened in 1896, the New York homeopathic medical 
college now gives excellent opportunity for the study of 
practical medicine. The New York medical college and 

1 From 1894 to 1898 the most notable gifts and bequests amounted to $2,631,000 
for medical schools and $16,593,701 for hospitals. 



519] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 55 

hospital for women opened in 1898 its handsome building in 
West 1 01 st street. An amount reported at $1,500,000 was 
given in 1898 to build, equip and endow the new medical 
department of Cornell university in New York city. 1 

Hygiene and state medicine — More attention should be 
paid in the United States to instruction in hygiene and 
state medicine. In Great Britain no one can be appointed a 
medical officer unless he has a special diploma in public 
health. In this country little opportunity is afforded for 
general or special sanitary work on broad lines. This sub- 
ject is now under discussion and doubtless progressive states 
will soon provide places where medical officers of health or 
other persons engaged in sanitary work can obtain practical 
and scientific training. The scientific investigations which 
would be made in the laboratories of such schools would be 
of great value to the public. 

In Medical education of the future, an essay in Educa- 
tional reform which every thoughtful man should read, Pres. 
Eliot writes : " State medicine has many objects in view. 
It aims not only to protect the public health, but also to 
increase it. In state medicine individualism is impracticable 
for it is impossible for the individual to protect himself. 
The social cooperation, which in our days the state alone 
can enforce, is needed to promote security against disease 
and progress toward better average health and longer life. 
To take all possible precautions against the spread of infec- 
tious diseases is simply an act of good citizenship. Nothing 
but medical supervision will accomplish the objects of state 
medicine ; and there are no agents so effective as physicians 
to spread through all classes of the community an educated 
sense of sanitary decency. Only the state can guard against 
dirty milk, corrupted water-supplies, impure ice, adulterated 
drugs, spoilt meat and fruit, and filthy and over-crowded tene- 
ments. Only the state can enforce the isolation of cases of 
contagious disease, the suppression of epidemics, and the 

1 Our medical school will be splendidly housed and endowed. Any statement 
beyond this is purely unofficial. — Pres. Schnrman, Sep. 27, 1899. 



56 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [520 

exclusion of pestilences like cholera and yellow fever. In 
exercising such control the state needs every aid which 
medical experts in chemistry, bacteriology, and comparative 
pathology can place at its disposal. The medical profession 
itself hardly recognizes as yet how great promise there is in 
the further study of the connections between diseases in 
animals and in man — connections which smallpox, scarlatina 
in cows, tuberculosis in men and animals, and diphtheria 
already illustrate. Not even the state — that is, a single 
state or nation — can deal effectively with such a problem 
as the suppression of cholera or yellow fever. That is an 
international problem. The evils which the social and gre- 
garious instincts of men create, by inducing the modern 
crowding into cities, must be socially remedied ; and the 
most effective force which society can exert to this end is the 
influence of the highly trained medical officer. Every phy- 
sician should be a medical philanthropist and missionary, 
zealous to disseminate knowledge of public hygiene." 

Present tendencies — - Dr Bayard Holmes, secretary of the 
Association of American medical colleges, writes as follows 
touching present tendencies in medical education : 

" Two stages of educational development are already mani- 
fest in the medical schools of the United States. About 
half the schools have finished the first stage and are entering 
on the second, while the remainder are laboring tardily to 
complete the first. In the first stage of development, from 
the medieval lectures on the ' seven branches of medicine,' 
the course of study has been lengthened, some entrance 
requirements instituted and the number of distinct and sepa- 
rate studies greatly increased. Laboratory and recitation 
work have been introduced, written examinations have been 
made frequent, once a month or oftener, and a sort of graded 
medical school established. In this condition are most of 
the schools that maintain the standard established by the 
Association of American medical colleges. 

Some few schools, however, have already outgrown this 
system of educational lock-step and are organizing a cur- 



52 1] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 57 

riculum adapted to the needs of students of differing tastes 
or abilities. This curriculum is planned not to instruct but 
to educate ; not from the standpoint of the teacher's con- 
venience, but from that of the student's advantage. The 
first stage of educational development multiplied the teach- 
ers, scattered the energies of the student (in some cases 
requiring him to go before 10 different professors each week) 
and dissociated related topics. The second stage of devel- 
opment early introduces the student to the study of the live 
man, makes continuous clinical study on single cases by 
each of the students a means of unifying the whole curric- 
ulum, and requires thesis work of each student, necessitating 
on his part clinical, laboratory, experimental and library 
work on the same subject. This introduces intensity in the 
place of diffuseness ; independence in the place of subordi- 
nation and original investigation in the place of catechism. 
To assert that the elective method for any large part of the 
medical curriculum is already established in any considerable 
number of medical schools, would be misleading, but this is 
certainly the tendency of the day. 

The growth of medical libraries in the medical schools, 
the establishment of thoroughly equipped accessory labora- 
tories, the publication of bulletins and theses and the 
numerous articles on medical pedagogy written by active 
medical teachers testify to the intense struggle for the lib- 
eration of the medical student and the medical teacher from 
the iron-clad course of study. When this second stage of 
development has been realized, the medical schools will do 
more than furnish quiz classes, preparatory to state board 
and hospital examinations ; they will become fountains of 
original investigation pouring out every year both well- 
trained medical men, and large and important contributions 
to medical science, these contributions produced as a means 
to a rational education." 

Early legislation — The earliest law relating exclusively to 
physicians was passed by Virginia in 1639, ^ ut ^^ e tne l ater 
act of 1 736 it was designed mainly to regulate their fees. 



58 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [522 

The act of 1 736 made concessions to physicians who held 
university degrees. In only 2 of the 13 colonies were well- 
considered laws enacted to define the qualifications of phy- 
sicians. The general assembly of New York in 1760 
decreed that no person should practise as physician or sur- 
geon in the city of New York till examined in physic and 
surgery and admitted by one of his majesty's council, the 
judges of the supreme court, the king's attorney-general and 
the mayor of the city of New York. Such candidates as 
were approved received certificates conferring the right to 
practise throughout the whole province, and a penalty of £5 
was prescribed for all violations of this law. A similar act 
was passed by the general assembly of New Jersey in 1772. 

In 1840 laws had been enacted by the legislatures of 
nearly all the states to protect citizens from the imposition 
of quacks. Between 1840 and 1850, however, most of 
these laws were either repealed or not enforced as a result of 
the cry that restrictions against unlicensed practitioners were 
designed only to create a monopoly. 

Synopsis of present requirements — In the following politi- 
cal divisions medical diplomas do not now confer the right 
to practise medicine, an examination being required in all 
cases : 

Alabama Illinois Minnesota Oregon 

Arizona Indian ter. Mississippi Pennsylvania 

Connecticut Cherokee nat. Montana South Carolina 

Delaware Iowa New Hampshire Utah 

Dist. of Col. Louisiana New Jersey Vermont 

Florida Maine New York Virginia 

Georgia Maryland North Carolina Washington 

Hawaii Massachusetts North Dakota West Virginia 
Idaho 

In some tables Texas is classed with the states in which 
diplomas confer no right to practise, but the Texas laws 
conflict. 

The following require for admission to the licensing 
examination : 



523] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 59 

Alabama, requirements of State medical association 

Arizona, diploma from recognized medical school 

Delaware, competent common school education, diploma 
from legally incorporated medical school 

District of Columbia, diploma of school authorized by law 
to confer M.D. degree 

Florida, diploma from recognized medical school 

Georgia, diploma from legally organized medical school 

Idaho, diploma from legally chartered medical school 

Illinois, less than one year of high school work, diploma 
from approved medical school 

Indian territory, Cherokee nation, diploma from reputable 
medical school 

Iowa, less than one year of high school work, diploma 
from recognized medical school 

Louisiana, fair primary education, diploma of recognized 
medical school 

Maryland, common school education, diploma from legally 
incorporated medical school 

Minnesota, four full courses of lectures at recognized 
medical school 

Montana, diploma from legally chartered medical school 

New Hampshire, full high school course or its equivalent, 
diploma from regularly organized medical school 

New Jersey, common school education, diploma from 
legally incorporated medical school 

New York, four years' high school course or its equiva- 
lent, diploma from registered medical school 

North Carolina, diploma from medical school in good 
standing (after Jan. i, 1900) 

North Dakota, 3 six months' lecture courses 

Pennsylvania, common school education, diploma from 
legally chartered medical school 

South Carolina, diploma of recognized medical school 

Utah, diploma from chartered medical school in good 
standing 

Vermont, high school course or equivalent and diploma 
from a U. S. medical school 



60 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [5 2 4 

Virginia, evidence of a preliminary education 

The following require the licensing examination only : 

Connecticut Massachusetts Oregon West Virginia 

Hawaii Mississippi Washington 

Maine North Carolina (diploma after 1900) 

The following require approval of medical diploma by 
duly qualified boards : 

California Kentucky Nebraska Ohio South Dakota 

The following require either approval of medical diploma 
or examination by state or other duly qualified boards : 

Arkansas Creek nat. Nevada Rhode Island 

Colorado Indiana New Mexico Wisconsin 

Indian ter. Michigan Oklahoma Wyoming 

Choctaw nat. Missouri Tennessee 

The following requiring either approval of medical 
diploma or examination, admit to examination on : 

Arkansas, a good literary education 

Nevada, five years' practice in the state just prior to 
act or diploma from reputable school without the United 
States 

Oklahoma, full course of lectures 

Kansas requires only presentation of diploma or other 
certificate of qualification to unqualified local officer 

Alaska has no law. In Cuba, the Philippines r and Puerto 
Rico 2 the requirements are in process of transition. 

The following political divisions have mixed examining 
boards, that is the boards are composed of representatives of 
the several schools of medicine : 

1 The assistant secretary to the military governor in the Philippines writes Sep. 
4, 1899 that " the Spanish law as to admission to practise still governs. In general 
this requires a diploma from a reputable college, school or university of such pro- 
fession, or in lieu thereof an examination." 

2 General Davis established Sep. 30, 1899 in Puerto Rico an examining commit- 
tee for licenses to practise medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, midwifery and profes- 
sional nursing. Only those with satisfactory credentials are admitted to 
examination. 



525] 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



61 



Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

Colorado 

Hawaii 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indian territory 

Indiana 

Iowa 



Kentucky 

Maine 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 



New Jersey 
New Mexico 
North Carolina 
North Dakota 
Ohio 

Oklahoma 
Oregon 
Rhode Island 
South Carolina 



South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



The following have separate examining boards for each 
recognized school of medicine : 

California Dist. of Col. Louisiana New York 

Connecticut Florida Maryland Pennsylvania 

Delaware Georgia New Hampshire Vermont 

Alaska and Kansas have no examining boards. 



62 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [5 2 6 



5 DENTISTRY 1 

Independent dental schools — From the earliest times den- 
tistry was practised as a branch of surgery. Herodotus, 
speaks of means of preserving the teeth, and artificial teeth 
are alluded to by Greek and Latin poets. Within the last 
half century dentistry has become a distinct profession. 
John Greenwood who carved in ivory a set of teeth for 
George Washington is said to have been the first American 
to establish himself as a dentist. His office was in New 
York and the work for Gen. Washington was done in 1 790 
and 1795. 

The Baltimore college of dental surgery, established in 
1839, was tne fi rst institution of the kind in the world. It 
was the direct result of an agitation to put dentists on a 
higher professional plane, and followed an unsuccessful 
attempt to found dental chairs in medical schools. It had 
been argued that oral pathology and dental mechanics 
should be taught in the medical schools as branches of medi- 
cine and that graduates choosing these courses should receive 
the degree of M. D. as in the case of other branches of 
medicine. 2 In the same year the American journal of den- 
tal science, the first dental periodical in the world, was estab- 
lished. 

In 1845 tne Ohio college of dental surgery (since 1888 
the dental department of the University of Cincinnati), in 
1856 the Pennsylvania college of dental surgery, in 1863 
the Philadelphia dental college were founded. These sepa- 
rate schools taught at first very little medicine but paid 
attention almost entirely to mechanical training and to those 
branches which a dentist must know. All conferred the 
degree of D. D. S. In 1865 the New York college of den- 

1 See Shepard's Inaugural address at the World's Columbian dental congress. • 

2 Dr William Carr of New York writes substantially as follows: Dentistry 
should be recognized as a specialty of medicine, and the dentist should hold a 
degree in medicine. The education of a physician is as necessary to one who 
undertakes the treatment of lesions, maladies and defects within the oral cavity 
as to one whose treatment is confined to the tracts of the nose, the ear and the 
throat. 



527] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 63 

tistry was founded with the purpose of educating men to 
practise dental surgery as a specialty of medicine. The 
curriculum included the fundamental departments of medi- 
cine with operative dentistry and oral prosthetics. 

Dental departments — In 1867 Harvard university opened 
a dental department and began to teach dentistry as a 
branch of medicine with the special degree D. M. D. (Den- 
tariae medicinae doctor). In 1875 the University of Michi- 
gan and in 1878 the University of Pennsylvania followed 
the example of Harvard in opening dental departments. 36 
of the 56 dental schools are now departments of other 
institutions. 

Growth — Since 1878 there has been a most astonishing 
increase in dental schools and dental students, due largely 
to the fact that the dental laws in many states now require 
graduation from a dental school as a condition for license. 
In 1878 there were 12 schools and 701 students; in 1899 
there were 56 schools and 7633 students. The growth in 
dental students in 21 years has been 988 per cent. Of the 
56 dental schools now existing in the United States, 2 were 
established between 1826 and 1850, 7 between 1851 and 
1875, 47 between 1876 and 1900. 

47 dental schools hold day sessions, 4 evening sessions, 
and 5 do not report this item. Degrees are granted to 
graduates of all schools. 1 

Discoveries and inventions — The discovery of the anes- 
thetic power of drugs, the most important step in the pro- 
gress of medicine, was made by an American dentist Wil- 
liam Jennings Morton, though the honor of this discovery is 
shared with another dentist Charles W. Wells of Hartford, 
Ct, who in 1844 rendered the extraction of teeth painless 
by the use of nitrous oxid. In his History of European 
morals Lecky says: "It is probable that the American 
inventor of the first anesthetic has done more for the real 

1 Graduates of the New York dental school receive degrees through the Uni- 
versity of the State of New York which also countersigns the degrees of the New 
York college of dentistry. 



64 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [528 

happiness of mankind than all the philosophers from 
Socrates to Mill." 

Between 1850 and i860, the use of crystal gold and the 
discovery of the cohesiveness of freshly annealed foil 
opened a new field for operative dentistry. The next decade 
witnessed the introduction of such improved instruments as 
the mallet, the rubber dam and the engine. The invention 
of the modern artificial crown and the bridge is another 
important event of about this period. In the 20 years just 
preceding 1893 more than 100 different crowns and bridges 
are said to have been invented. 

Dental societies — In 1840 the American society of dental 
surgeons, the pioneer of the associations to which dentistry 
owes so much of its progress, was organized in New York. 

The National association of dental faculties, organized in 
1884, has done much to strengthen courses of study in den- 
tal schools. At the time of its organization only those 
schools were admitted which had proper facilities for instruc- 
tion and a corps of competent teachers. From time to time 
standards have been raised by rules governing attendance, 
instruction and graduation. There are at present 47 schools 
in the association, all of which require three full courses of 
dental lectures. The main defect of these schools as a rule 
is failure to require a sufficient preliminary general educa- 
tion for admission. The efforts of the association in this 
direction have not accomplished much as yet. 

The National association of dental examiners, 1 organized 
in 1883 to secure higher and more uniform standards for 
admission to dental practice voted in 1898 to refuse recog- 
nition to any dental school that did not have 1) entrance 
requirements equivalent to at least two years of high school 
work, 2) attendance on three courses of lectures of at least 

1 At its July 1899 meeting this association created an advisory committee to pro- 
mote uniformity in administering dental laws. Dr H. J. Allen, secretary of the 
committee, writes November 15, 1899 for "a comprehensive report from the New 
York examiners, as the entire committee regards the New York dental law as the 
best in the country." Dr Allen states that boards in about 15 states have agreed 
to enter this compact to secure uniform standards. 



529] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 65 

six months each in different years as a condition for gradu- 
ation, 3) a faculty of at least six, 4) a course of study embrac- 
ing operative dentistry, dental pathology, dental prosthetics, 
oral surgery, anatomy, physiology, general pathology, mate- 
ria medica, therapeutics and general surgery, 5) suitable 
chemical and bacteriologic laboratories under competent 
instructors, 6) suitable lecture rooms, a well-appointed den- 
tal infirmary and a general prosthetic laboratory. These 
rules were not approved by the National association of den- 
tal faculties and efforts to enforce them proved unsuccessful. 1 

A joint meeting of committees of these two national asso- 
ciations was held at Niagara Falls in 1899, and it is prob- 
able that both will now work harmoniously toward higher 
standards, the progress to be made by degrees. The com- 
mittees agreed on one year of high school work as the min- 
imum requirement for admission to dental schools and by 
vesting the determination of this requirement in the hands 
of state superintendents of education they recognized the 
importance of removing this power from those who might 
exercise it unwisely through a desire to attract students. 
The motion of Dr Barrett to extend the requirement to two 
years of high school work after the session of 1 901-1902 is 
to be acted on at the 1900 meeting of the National associa- 
tion of dental faculties. Other requirements of this associa- 
tion, as printed in the new rules, are the same as those given 
above under the National association of dental examiners 
except that each course of lectures is to be seven months in 
duration and general surgery is not mentioned as a special 
topic. 

Subjects discussed — Among the subjects which have 
attracted much attention recently in dental literature and 
dental societies are the increasing use of plastics and of por- 
celain, the modification in practice through laboratory 

1 In 19 political divisions the latest prescribed preliminary and professional 
requirements are those of the National association of dental examiners, in 4 
political divisions those of the National association of dental faculties. Differ- 
ences between these associations having been adjusted their requirements will 
probably become uniform. 



66 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [530 

investigation, the germ theory of disease, antiseptics, the 
uses of electricity and the tendency of prophylaxis to develop 
along physiologic lines by attention to the laws of health. 
Among important topics discussed by the National associa- 
tion of dental faculties the undue multiplication of dental 
schools without proper facilities and detrimental effects of 
scholarships have been prominent. 1 

The question of interchange of licenses has been discussed 
frequently during the last few years. The correspondent of 
the New York state dental society at the May 1899 meeting 
submitted a proposition that all state boards, members of 
the National association of dental examiners, use identical 
question papers prepared by a committee of the national 
body, and that licenses granted as a result of such examina- 
tions be interchangeable among the states represented in the 
National association. This scheme had been submitted to 
dental examiners throughout the country and had been 
approved by most of those from whom replies had been 
received. 

Interchange of licenses is highly desirable and will doubt- 
less be brought about to some extent in the near future. 
An examination, however, should not be made the only test. 
A reasonable preliminary general education and a diploma 
from an accredited school should be required for admission 
to the final test which should be both theoretic and practi- 
cal, and should be carefully guarded from danger of fraud or 
indirection. 

An important step toward interchange of licenses was 
taken in 1898 when the New York dental law was amended 
so that the regents may now issue their license to any appli- 
cant who holds a license to practise dentistry granted by a 
state board of dental examiners, indorsed by the dental 
society of the state of New York, provided that his prelimi- 
nary and professional education meets the New York statu- 

1 This association voted August I, 1899 that no school in the association should 
grant free or beneficiary scholarships not absolutely obligatory under charter 
provisions. 



53 1] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 6/ 

tory requirements. The dental examiners of New Jersey 
and Pennsylvania having been indorsed by the New York 
state dental society as more nearly approximating the New 
York standard than any other state boards, the New York 
state dental examiners, at a meeting held Oct. 7, 1899 recom- 
mended to the regents the indorsement of New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania licenses granted under the new plan, pro- 
vided the preliminary and professional education of appli- 
cants meets the New York statutory requirements. The 
regents will probably act favorably on the recommendation if 
the New Jersey and Pennsylvania boards agree to establish 
a standard in preliminary general education fully equal to 
that required by the New York law. 1 

Legislation — In Alabama in 1841, the first state law regu- 
lating the practice of dentistry was enacted. This was prob- 
ably the first dental legislation in any country. The next 
state to pass a dental law was New York, but this action was 
not taken till 1868. The English law was enacted in 1878, 
and those of other countries about that time or later. 

The practice of dentistry is now regulated by statute in 
almost all political divisions of the United States. 

Synopsis of present requirements — In 23 states dental 
diplomas do not now confer the right to practise, an exami- 
nation being required in all cases : 

Alabama Connecticut Florida Idaho 

Colorado Delaware Georgia Maine 

1 The New Jersey statute demands "a preliminary education equal to that fur- 
nished by the common schools." The secretary of the New Jersey dental com- 
mission writes Oct. 17, 1899 that this has been construed to mean graduation 
from a registered four years' high school course. " We have, however, agreed to 
require only a three years' high school course up to Jan. 1, 1901 when the full 
requirement shall take effect simultaneously with New York. This agreement is 
made with the full knowledge and approval of the governor and the superintend- 
ent of public instruction and you may rest assured that New Jersey will live up 
to the spirit as well as the letter of the agreement . . . We look on the inter- 
change of licenses with New York as the greatest educational advance that has 
yet been made in the dental profession, the formation of a nucleus around which 
all other states must rally." 



68 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [532 

Massachusetts New Jersey Pennsylvania Virginia 

Minnesota New York Rhode Island Washington 

Mississippi North Carolina South Carolina West Virginia 

New Hampshire Oregon Vermont 

The following require for admission to the licensing 
examination : 

Colorado, diploma from legally organized reputable dental 
school 

Connecticut, diploma from recognized dental school, or 
three years' instruction or three years' practice 

Delaware, diploma of recognized dental school 

Florida, diploma from reputable dental school 

Georgia, diploma from reputable dental school 

Idaho, three years' experience, certificate from another 
state board, or diploma from legally organized dental school 

Minnesota, diploma from reputable dental school, or evi- 
dence of 10 years' continuous practice previous to Septem- 
ber 1889 

New Jersey, common school education, diploma from 
recognized dental school or a written recommendation from 
five experienced dentists 

New York, full high school course, degree from regis- 
tered dental school or medical degree with a special one 
year's dental course 

Oregon, diploma from dental school in good standing, or 
study and practice in Oregon prior to this act 

Pennsylvania, good common school education, diploma of 
recognized dental school 

Virginia, a fair academic education 

Washington, diploma from recognized dental school or 
evidence of 10 years' practice 

The following require the licensing examination only : 

Alabama Mississippi Rhode Island Vermont 

Maine New Hampshire South Carolina West Virginia 

Massachusetts North Carolina 



533] 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 



6 9 



In the following political divisions either approval of 
dental diploma or examination by state or other duly quali- 
fied board is required : 



Arizona 

California 

Dist. of Col. 

Hawaii 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 



Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Michigan 

Missouri 



Montana 

Nebraska 
Nevada 
New Mexico 
North Dakota 
Ohio 



Oklahoma 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Wisconsin 



The following requiring either approval of diploma or 
examination, admit to examination on : 

Iowa, satisfactory evidence of three years' study 

Missouri, three years' study with legally registered dentist 
or license from another state 

Montana, three years' practice or three years' study under 
licensed dentist 

North Dakota, three years' active practice or three years' 
study with practitioner 

Utah, two years' practice or two years' study under licensed 
dentist 

Arkansas requires only a diploma approved by the board 

One state, Wyoming, requires only presentation of diploma 
to unqualified local officers 

In Cuba, the Philippines 1 and Puerto Rico 1 the require- 
ments are in process of transition 

Alaska and Indian territory have no laws 



1 See note under medicine. 



*JQ PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [534 

6 PHARMACY 

Early schools of pharmacy — The first meeting in this coun- 
try to consider the question of systematic pharmaceutic edu- 
cation was held in Philadelphia in 182 1. At this meeting 
the apothecaries of Philadelphia formed a society to provide 
a system of instruction in pharmacy and to regulate the con- 
duct of their business. The outcome of this action was the 
Philadelphia college of pharmacy, which was chartered by 
the Pennsylvania legislature in 1822. The school opened 
in 1821-22 with a course of lectures on materia medica and 
pharmacy, and a course on pharmaceutic and general chem- 
istry. The first class was graduated in 1826. In the early 
years of the institution committees were appointed to expose 
adulterations of drugs and a library and cabinet were estab- 
lished. The need of a medium of publication was soon felt. 
In 1825 the Journal of the Philadelphia college of pharmacy 
was started, which became in 1835 the American journal of 
pharmacy. 

The Philadelphia college of pharmacy was followed in 
1823 by the Massachusetts college of pharmacy, in 1829 by 
the New York college of pharmacy, in 1838 by the depart- 
ment of pharmacy of Tulane university, in 1841 by the 
Maryland college of pharmacy. 

Prior to 1840 pharmacists were not recognized in pharma- 
copceial conventions. In 1850 the chartered schools were 
invited to send delegates to the decennial convention. In that 
revision and in the revisions of i860, 1870 and 1880 pharma- 
cists were well represented. In the convention of 1890, 16 
of the 26 members composing the committee on final revis- 
ion were pharmacists. 

Growth — There has been a remarkable increase in schools 
of pharmacy and students of pharmacy in the past 21 years. 
In 1878 there were 13 schools with 1187 students. In 1899 
there were 52 schools, with 3563 students. The increase in 
students in 21 years has been 200 per cent. 36 of these 



535] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION *]\ 

schools maintain day sessions, 9 have evening sessions, 4 
have both, 3 do not report this item. 14 are separate insti- 
tutions, 38 are departments of other institutions. 45 grant 
degrees. 2 of the 52 schools were established between 1801 
and 1825, 4 between 1826 and 1850, 8 between 1851 and 
1875, ^8 between 1876 and 1900. 

Apprenticeship — The University of Michigan is said to 
have been the first institution in this country to graduate 
pharmacists without any practical experience. In 1898, 24 
schools of pharmacy reported that they did not require any 
practical training. The original object of the early schools 
of pharmacy was to give a theoretic knowledge of pharmacy 
as a science and a higher degree of familiarity with botany 
and chemistry than could be attained in the limited term of 
apprenticeship. It was not intended that these schools 
should take the place of an apprenticeship in a pharmacy. 

In recent years there has been no little discussion as to 
whether schools of pharmacy should require work with a 
druggist as a condition for graduation. The schools that 
do not exact this requirement admit its necessity to success 
as a pharmacist, but they claim that it is impracticable to 
determine whether or not the necessary practical training 
has been acquired by their matriculates, and that by provid- 
ing under proper instructors suitable laboratory facilities for 
actual work with the drugs, they can give more practical 
experience than that afforded in many pharmacies where the 
prescription department is of little importance. There is 
force in this position in the case of schools that give thor- 
ough courses requiring the full time of students, specially if 
matriculation requirements insure a fair general preliminary 
education. Dr Gregory, dean of the Buffalo college of 
pharmacy writes as follows touching this matter : " Prior to 
1880 the diploma of a school of pharmacy was generally 
the sole evidence of fitness as a pharmacist. Now the 
license is demanded. No one denies the value of experience 
in a pharmacy, but the responsibility of testing its character 



72 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [536 

now rests with boards of examiners, leaving the schools free 
to attend to the primary function of teaching." ' 

Present tendencies — Dr A. B. Huested of the New York 
pharmacy board writes as follows touching present tendencies 
in the teaching of pharmacy : 

" These tendencies are all in the line of advancement, in 
teaching more thoroughly the fundamental subjects of 
chemistry, pharmacy, materia medica and botany, and includ- 
ing the allied subjects, microscopy, analytic examination of 
medicines, foods, secretions and excretions of the human 
system and bacteriology. In the past, the instruction in all 
schools of pharmacy was confined to evening hours, all the 
students, and they were few, working during the day in the 
near by retail and wholesale pharmacies. The establish- 
ment of chemical laboratories, where the student practically 
demonstrated what was taught in the class-room, was the 
first advance. Next came the pharmaceutic laboratory, 
devoted to the practical demonstration of the preparation of 
organic compounds ; then the pharmacognosy room, and the 
microscopic laboratory, and today analytic and bacteriologic 
laboratories are being established. These extended courses 
of instruction demand that more time shall be devoted to 
the work, so that in place of all instruction being confined 
to evening hours, most schools now use a part of the day, 
and some occupy the entire time of the student, in courses 
extending over nine months in the year. Very many schools 
afford opportunity for farther work in optional and graduate 
courses. 

Notwithstanding the increase in work and time demanded 
of the student of pharmacy, the number pursuing this study 
is greater than during any previous period. It will be 

1 " It should be remembered that the schools which led in the abandonment of 
the apprenticeship requirement did not take this course through any lack of 
appreciation of the value of actual experience, but because the requirement as 
frequently enforced was a farce. Very properly the university schools took the 
ground that their degrees should stand for school work only, and that no institu- 
tion could honestly vouch for the value of something for which there could be no 
effective standard and which in many cases was of absolutely no value." /. H. Beat. 



537] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 73 

inferred from what has been stated, that those who are now 
engaged in retail pharmacies are more competent than their 
predecessors, and have a more thorough knowledge of the 
agents in which they deal. This is true if the average edu- 
cation is considered, but nevertheless commercial tendencies 
have exercised a disadvantageous influence. The conditions 
of trade in the past were such as to allow those pharmacists 
who were so inclined, to devote their entire time to the study, 
care and preparation of medicines. Today the greater part 
of the time of the pharmacist must be devoted to the com- 
mercial side of his work, or he will soon find himself without 
patrons, and therefore without the means to carry on his 
business. Again, many if not a majority of the agents in 
which he deals, may and must be had from the large manu- 
facturer. These conditions have attracted the more studious 
and therefore the better educated pharmacists to those pur- 
suits that foster the educational side of pharmacy, leaving 
the retail pharmacies in charge of those in whom the com- 
mercial spirit predominates. When the educational attain- 
ments of the retail pharmacist are considered, I question if 
he has made the advance that the teaching of the schools 
would indicate." 

Legislation — Apothecaries were organized into a privi- 
leged body in civilized parts of Europe in the middle ages, 
and from that period those who dispense drugs have been 
required to possess certain qualifications. In the United 
States there have not been till lately any legal restrictions 
worthy of the name, but any ignorant boy whom an apothe- 
cary chose to employ has been free to dispense drugs. 

Georgia seems to have been the first state that attempted 
to restrict the practice of pharmacy throughout the state to 
competent persons. The law, enacted in 1825, gave the 
state medical board power to examine and license apotheca- 
ries. The Alabama code of 1852 contained a similar pro- 
vision. In 1868 a member of the Georgia board reported 
that he knew of only five licentiates of the board that were 
then engaged in business in the state. An act was passed 



74 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [53^ 

in New York in 1839 that applied solely to New York city, 
in Pennsylvania in 1866 that applied solely to Lycoming 
county. These early acts had little effect in protecting the 
public from ignorant apothecaries. 

In 1869 a draft of a pharmacy law was recommended by 
the American pharmaceutical association which required 
graduation in pharmacy as a condition for license. It was 
hoped in this way to secure through the schools of pharmacy 
men better fitted by preliminary education and professional 
training for the practice of the profession. Rhode Island 
was the only state which enacted this law (March 1870), 
and it was amended in the following year. At present there 
is no pharmacy law in the United States which requires 
attendance and graduation at a school of pharmacy as a con- 
dition for license. 

Since 1869 laws restricting the practice of pharmacy have 
been enacted in almost every state through the efforts of 
members of the profession. The American pharmaceutical 
association, organized in 1852, has been a potent factor in 
the attempt to give pharmacy a professional standing equal 
to that of other branches of medicine. Its work in this direc- 
tion has been of special value since the creation in 1887 of the 
sections of education and legislation. A mass of material 
on pharmaceutic education and legislation in this country 
and abroad has been collected and made available through 
the annual reports of the association. 

The 1898 report of the section on education and legisla- 
tion of the American pharmaceutical association summarizes 
as follows the fundamental defects in present laws regu- 
lating the practice of pharmacy in the United States : 

1 Failure to require a sufficient preliminary general 
education. 

2 Failure to demand graduation from a school of phar- 
macy for admission to the licensing examination or for 
registration. 

3 The privileges accorded to physicians, manufacturers, 
wholesalers, etc. 



539] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 75 

4 Failure to provide periods of apprenticeship and courses 
of study that would make it impracticable for any one to 
engage in the practice of pharmacy on his own account 
before the age of 24 or 25 years. 

Dr J. H. Beal of the Department of pharmacy at Scio 
college, Ohio, was appointed by the section on education and 
legislation of the American pharmaceutical association at its 
1899 meeting to draft a model pharmacy law. If approved 
this law can be introduced simultaneously into the legisla- 
tures of all the states. Dr Beal writes November 16, 1899 : 
" Foreigners are often puzzled to account for the diversity 
in our legislation. The fact should be emphasized that all 
matters of internal police control are left exclusively to the 
several states, so that national laws regulating professional 
practice can not be enacted." 

That a preliminary general education equivalent to gradu- 
ation from an accredited high school will be required even- 
tually for admission to the study of pharmacy is highly 
probable, but this demand will not be made for some time 
to come except by a few progressive states. Present ten- 
dencies indicate that graduation from an accredited school 
of pharmacy will also be required eventually for admission 
to the licensing test or for registration. The American 
pharmaceutical association and a number of state associa- 
tions have within the last year favored this requirement. 

Synopsis of present requirements — In 17 states a diploma 
in pharmacy does not now admit to practise, an examination 
being required in all cases : 

New Hampshire Pennsylvania 
New York South Dakota 

Ohio Tennessee 

Oregon Wisconsin 

The following 14 states require for admission to the 
licensing examination : 

Georgia, three years' experience or diploma 



Georgia 


Massachusetts 


Illinois 


Michigan 


Indiana 


Minnesota 


Kentucky 


Nebraska 


Maine 





76 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [540 

Illinois, four years' practical experience in compounding 

prescriptions ; the physician a certificate from state board of 

health and four years' experience filling his own prescriptions 

Indiana, four years' experience, two years in a pharmacy, 

time spent in approved school may be substituted 

Kentucky, three years' practical experience in compound- 
ing physicians' prescriptions 

Maine, three years' experience in compounding physicians' 
prescriptions or diploma of regularly incorporated school of 
medicine or pharmacy 

Michigan, grammar school education, three years' 
experience 

Minnesota, four years' experience in a pharmacy 
Nebraska, three years' practical experience in pharmacy 
New York, four years' experience in pharmacy 
Ohio, four years' practical experience in a pharmacy, time 
spent in an approved school is deducted 

Oregon, three years' experience in a pharmacy 
Pennsylvania, four years' practical experience 
South Dakota, common school education, three years' 
practice of pharmacy, or diploma from department of phar- 
macy, state agricultural college, and one year's practice in a 
pharmacy 

Wisconsin, five years' practical experience in a pharmacy, 
or diploma of approved college and two years' practical 
experience 

The following 4 require the licensing examination only : 

Indiana Massachusetts New Hampshire Tennessee 

The following political divisions require either an approved 
diploma or examination by state or other duly qualified 
boards : 

Arkansas Iowa New Mexico Texas 

California Kansas New York city Utah 

Colorado Louisiana North Dakota Washington 

Connecticut Baltimore, Md. Oklahoma West Virginia 

Delaware Montana South Carolina Wyoming 

Dist. of Col. Erie co., N. Y. 



54 1 ] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION JJ 

The following political divisions in case of examination 
admit to it on : 

California, grammar school education, four years' experi- 
ence in a pharmacy 

Colorado, four years' experience in compounding phy- 
sicians' prescriptions 

Connecticut, three years' instruction in pharmacy 

Delaware, three years' continuous practical experience in 
retail drug business 

District of Columbia, diploma of respectable medical 
school, or four years' experience in a pharmacy 

Iowa, two years' practical experience in pharmacy, one 
year allowed for time spent in recognized school, or medical 
diploma with three years' actual practice of medicine 

Kansas, four years' experience in compounding physicians' 
prescriptions 

Louisiana, grammar school education, sufficient knowledge 
of chemistry and practice of pharmacy 

Montana, four years' experience in compounding phy- 
sicians' prescriptions 

New Jersey, four years' experience in a pharmacy 

New York city and Erie county, New York, four years' 
experience in a pharmacy 

North Dakota, four successive years' practical experience 
in a pharmacy 

Oklahoma, four years' experience in compounding 
prescriptions 

South Carolina, three years' experience in a pharmacy 

Utah, four years' practical experience in a pharmacy 

Vermont, practice in pharmacy or served apprenticeship 
for three years 

Virginia, four years' practical experience in a pharmacy 

Washington, three years' practical experience in a 
pharmacy 

Wyoming, two years' practical experience in a pharmacy 

Vermont accepts also an approved diploma of medical 
school. 



78 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [542 

The following grant licenses on examination by state 
boards and to physicians in certain cases : 

Mississippi New Jersey North Carolina Virginia 

Alabama and Missouri accept also an approved diploma. 

Rhode Island grants license on examination by state 
board and to practitioners in certain cases. 

Idaho requires approved diploma or examination by county 
board. 

Florida requires approved diploma or examination by 
state board or by local physicians. Authorized physicians 
are licensed without examination. 

In Cuba, the Philippines 1 and Puerto Rico 1 the require- 
ments are in process of transition. 

Alaska, Arizona, Hawaii, Indian territory and Nevada 
have no laws. 

1 See note under Synopsis of present requirements in medicine. 



543] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 79 



7 VETERINARY MEDICINE 1 

Early veterinary schools — Veterinary medicine was pur- 
sued as a science by the ancient Egyptians and by the 
Greeks, but after the destruction of the eastern empire 
little progress was made in this science till the establishment 
of a veterinary school at Lyons in 1762. This institution 
was soon followed by similar schools in other European 
countries. 

Before 1850 graduates in veterinary medicine were almost 
unknown in America, some of the larger cities only being 
able to furnish isolated veterinarians who had been educated 
in the veterinary schools of Europe. The country as a 
whole, including most of the large cities, had to be satisfied 
with such service as could be had from the blacksmith, from 
the physician who sought to apply to animals the principles 
taught in the medical schools and from the horse doctor who, 
with no basis whatever of medical knowledge, boldly and 
recklessly administered drugs. 

The first step toward systematic veterinary education was 
the granting of a charter in 1852 by the legislature of 
Pennsylvania, and the securing of a subscription of $40,000, 
to serve in the organization of a veterinary school in Phila- 
delphia. This school opened in 1853 but no students 
responded. In 1859-60 two students were secured, one of 
whom was a graduate of the Boston veterinary college 
which had been chartered in 1855. Both of these schools 
had a short life, but the same cities have now each its vet- 
erinary school in connection with the University of Penn- 
sylvania and Harvard respectively. Each of these schools 
has a matriculation examination and a three years' course of 
eight months each. In 1857 the New York college of 
veterinary surgeons was chartered and in 1875 tne American 
veterinary college was opened. These two New York city 
schools were maintained as proprietary institutions till 

1 The historical part of this outline was prepared mainly by Prof. James Law of 
Cornell university. 



80 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [544 

1899 when they were placed on a strictly university footing 
by consolidation under New York university. 

In the succeeding years veterinary schools sprang into, 
existence in many of the large cities, Chicago, Kansas City, 
Cincinnati, Baltimore, Washington, Grand Rapids, Detroit, 
etc., all like the earlier schools in Boston, Philadelphia and 
New York, being private ventures, dependent on their 
financial returns, and with a curriculum of 10 or 12 months 
representing two years of five or six months each. 

Advances made by state schools — The necessity for a fuller, 
graded course based on matriculation requirements which 
would be a guaranty of fitness to pursue such course 
profitably, was first voiced by schools connected with state 
colleges and universities. As early as 1868, Illinois indus- 
trial university 1 and Cornell university instituted 2 veteri- 
nary chairs, and filled them with graduates of the Royal 
college of veterinary surgeons, England. Students were 
admitted only on the basis of the regular university matric- 
ulation and were held to a course of 4 years. Illinois 
industrial university is said to have turned out several good 
practitioners, while Cornell graduated 4 veterinarians, 3 of 
whom have been prominent and valued members of the 
United States bureau of animal industry, 1 being its chief. 
These institutions were followed in 1879 by the veterinary 
department of the Iowa agricultural and mechanical college 
with moderate matriculation requirements, and a three years' 
graded course, in 1889 by the veterinary department of the 
Ohio state university with equal or still greater require- 
ments, and in 1890 by the veterinary department of the uni- 
versity of Minnesota with similar standards. 

The important advances made by these state schools of 
veterinary medicine may be better illustrated by the fact 
that their academic year extends to eight or nine months, 
while the year of the private school covered but five or six 
months. The total curriculum of the state veterinary school 
therefore extended from 24 to 27 months or in the case of 

1 Became University of Illinois in 1885. 



545] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 8r 

Cornell university to 36 months, as against the 10 or 12 
months of the private school. 

Requirements of American veterinary medical association — 
The United States veterinary medical association, 1 adopted 
in 1 89 1 an article providing that all applicants for member- 
ship should be graduates of a recognized veterinary school 
with a curriculum of at least three years, of six months each, 
and a corps of instructors comprising at least four veterina- 
rians. Nearly all the schools which had not already 
done so soon placed themselves in harmony with these 
requirements. 

New York's leadership — The next step in advance came in 
1895 when the New York legislature enacted that at least a 
high school diploma representing four years of high school 
work should be offered for admission to a veterinary school, 
that the veterinary curriculum should embrace three full 
years, and that only those who had met both requirements 
could be admitted to the regents veterinary examination for 
license to practise in the state. For the present this places 
New York in the lead. To begin practice in this state the 
candidate must reach a standard which is not demanded in 
any other state in the Union. But even within New York 
state there have been inequalities in the curriculum. In the 
private veterinary schools in New York city, the old session 
of six months has stood for a year, while in the New York 
state veterinary college, Cornell university, a nine-month 
year is required. To the legal requirement for matricula- 
tion, therefore, which is common to all schools in the state, 
the period devoted to veterinary education in the state school 
at Cornell is one half longer than that which has been 
required in the private schools in New York city. Now 
that these schools have consolidated under New York uni- 
versity, it is hoped that these inequalities will disappear. 
As a means of extending the benefits of its curriculum to 
their full legal possibilities, Cornell offers tuition free to all 
residents of the state, and opens to competition by the 

1 Now the American veterinary medical association. 



82 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [546 

entering veterinary student 18 scholarships of an annual 
value of $200 and to veterinary graduates a fellowship of 
an annual value of $500. 

Action in Massachusetts — The legislature of Massachu- 
setts has recently appropriated $25,000 for a veterinary 
laboratory and stable hospital in connection with the state 
agricultural college. Beginning with Jan. 1, 1899 there is 
to be an annual appropriation of $1000 as a fund for the 
maintenance of the veterinary laboratory. 

Higher standards — An impartial survey of the entire field 
shows a marked tendency toward higher standards and, as 
an important step in this direction, the assumption of the 
work of veterinary education by the state under such uni- 
versity supervision as will give it character and eliminate 
the disturbing element of personal pecuniary speculation. 

Army veterinary service — The United States army has 
long had its nominal veterinarians, but many of these were 
uneducated men, appointed by political influence or advanced 
from the position of farrier major, and there was little to 
tempt professional men of character and ability into this 
service. The army veterinarian had practically no army 
status, no rights, no prospects. He was not even enlisted, 
there was no special provision for him during service and 
no pension if he had to retire disabled. In the last session 
of congress the first step was taken for the improvement of 
the army veterinary service by enacting that the army veteri- 
narian of the first grade must enter on the basis of an exam- 
ination to be prescribed by the secretary of war, and that 
he shall have the pay and allowances of a second lieutenant 
of cavalry, while those of the second grade shall have $75 
a month and the allowances of a sergeant major. 

Veterinary workers in agricultural colleges and experiment 
stations — A steadily increasing recognition of the veterinary 
profession is seen in the appointment of veterinarians to 
chairs in state agricultural colleges and to positions in agri- 
cultural experiment stations. Here too the selection thor- 
oughly sustains the growing demand for higher standards. 



547] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 83 

32 such positions are filled, practically without exception, by 
men who have passed an exacting matriculation examination 
and have had a prolonged course of veterinary study. 
Many add to their veterinary degree the academic B. A., 
B. S., B. Agr., or the professional M. D. 

Municipal, state and national veterinarians — Since its organ- 
ization in 1882 the United States bureau of animal industry 
has provided the different states with the funds necessary 
for the eradication of the cattle lung plague which had been 
imported from Europe in 1848, the expert and other employ- 
ees having been made both national and state officers so 
that they could act as one or the other as the case demanded. 
It has done most valuable work on Texas fever, anthrax, 
emphysematous anthrax, hog cholera, swine plague and 
many other epizootic, enzootic, dietetic and contagious dis- 
eases, following the lines of prevention, immunization and 
serum therapy. It has continued the quarantine of imported 
animals since it superseded the treasury cattle commission 
in 1882. It has instituted meat inspection by experts 
in national employ, at the great packing centers, of meats 
intended for the export or interstate trade. In a num- 
ber of states, a state veterinarian and even assistant 
state veterinarians have been appointed and, though in some 
instances the old spoils system has retained sufficient vitality 
to have the inexpert appointed to do expert work, yet in 
the main the interests of the public and of the profession 
have been consulted in the appointment of men educated 
in the duties of the office. In many of the larger cities 
too, the veterinarian has been recognized in his appointment 
as municipal meat inspector or as stock inspector. With the 
continued improvement of the civil service and the impera- 
tive demand for public servants who are specially trained 
and efficient in performing their respective duties, this recog- 
nition must soon become the rule. 

Indications from veterinary literature — A review of recent 
veterinary literature shows much thought and research, 
yet as an indication of the predominant influence of sani- 



84 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [548 

tary science and the control of contagious diseases, it need 
only be said that of papers presented before the American 
veterinary medical association two thirds have been on such 
subjects. This indicates a healthful interest in the most 
vital and promising fields of veterinary research, and speaks 
well for the supply of experts to work in this held in the 
future. It is worthy of note that in all strong veterinary 
schools work in bacteriology is made a first consideration. 

Field for educated veterinarians — In 1888 there were 6 
veterinary schools with 323 students. In 1899 there were 
17 schools with 249 instructors and 378 students. 6 of these 
1 7 schools are separate institutions, 1 1 are departments of 
other institutions. 7 maintain day sessions, 3 have both day 
and evening sessions, 7 do not report this item. 16 schools 
confer degrees. 

There is a broad field in the United States for educated 
veterinarians, and in view of this fact it is surprising that 
there are not more veterinary medical students. To assert 
that this is due to the lengthening to three years of the 
courses in the veterinary medical schools and to the use of 
bicycles and electric cars as substitutes for horses is not a 
satisfactory explanation. Horses will always be in large 
demand. Furthermore, the close relation between the 
health of man and that of the domestic animals, specially 
those that furnish meat and milk, shows the necessity of 
careful attention to their health. The reports of the depart- 
ment of agriculture give a value of about $2,000,000,000 to 
the live stock of the United States, and the protection of 
these enormous interests demands the services of trained 
veterinarians. The science of meat inspection has not as 
yet commanded with us the attention it should receive. 
The work of the national government in this respect is con- 
fined to international and interstate trade, principally to the 
large western packing houses. Local municipal inspection 
is in its infancy and state legislatures have not as a rule 
enacted special measures of protection. There now seems 
to be, however, an increasing demand for scientific work 



549J PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 85 

along these lines and the best veterinary schools are recog- 
nizing this necessity in their courses of study. 

Synopsis of requirements — The first law restricting the 
practice of veterinary medicine was enacted in New York in 
1886. In 1899, 12 states had veterinary medical laws. 

In 5 states a veterinary diploma does not admit to the 
practice of veterinary medicine, an examination being 
required in all cases : 
Minnesota New York North Dakota Pennsylvania Virginia 

The following require for admission to the licensing 
examination : 

Minnesota, diploma from veterinary school 

New York, full high school course, diploma of veterinary 
school with satisfactory standard 

North Dakota, diploma from veterinary school 

Pennsylvania, competent common school education, 
approved diploma from legally incorporated veterinary 
school having a course of three years 

Virginia requires the licensing examination only 

Illinois requires approved veterinary diploma or 3 years' 
practice or examination 

Ohio requires approved veterinary diploma or examina- 
tion by state board 

California and Maryland require veterinary diploma 
approved by state board 

New Jersey admits on veterinary diploma submitted to 
unqualified local authority 

Wisconsin admits on veterinary diploma or certificate 
submitted to unqualified local authority, and practitioners 
five years prior to 1887 

Michigan registers veterinary medical degrees without 
examination and issues certificates of "veterinary surgeon" 
to those who pass the examinations of the state veterinary 
board. 

The other states and territories have no laws on the 
subject. 



11 

SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND 
ENGINEERING EDUCATION 



BY 

T. C. MENDENHALL 

Sometime President of the Technological Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts. 



SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING 

SCHOOLS 1 



The development of the schools of science and technology 
in the United States is, practically, an affair of the last half 
of the nineteenth century. In a large measure the same is 
true of similar institutions in Europe, for although there are 
isolated examples of earlier foundations both in Europe and 
America, it is only during the past fifty years that in num- 
ber and importance they have come to rank with older sys- 
tems of intellectual and professional training. Their com- 
paratively recent origin is readily accounted for when it is 
remembered that they are nearly all schools in which science 
is taught with a view to its practical application and that the 
admission to the college curriculum of any part of what is 
now generally included under the term " science" was a rare 
novelty in the early part of the century. The modern sci- 
entific school or engineering college is largely indebted for its 
being to Archimedes, Galileo, Bacon, Kepler, Newton and a 
host of others who by creating exact science made applied 
science possible. The idea of a school oi science or of a col- 
lege in which the applications of scientific discovery might 
be taught was of slow growth at the beginning, and natu- 
rally so, for their successful development demanded the evo- 
lution of methods of instruction entirely new and often in 
violation of accepted tradition. 

A class of professional schools had existed, indeed, almost 
as long as education itself, namely, schools for training can- 
didates for the so-called "learned" professions, law, medicine 
and theology, but it wilLnot be claimed that they had much 

1 The author begs to express his appreciation of the assistance generously ren- 
dered by officers of many of the institutions referred to in this paper who kindly 
furnished information in the form of printed circulars, catalogues and other 
important publications, much of which he has made use of, and much more of 
which he would have gladly used had the limits of space permitted. 



4 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [554 

in common, either as to method or material, with the 
modern school of science. 

The earliest technical schools, those of a hundred years 
ago or more, almost without exception grew out of the 
industrial demands of the locality in which they were 
founded. One of the best examples is the famous School of 
mines at Freiberg which has enjoyed a long and illustrious 
career and many of the earlier European schools belong to 
the same class. To these and the more modern schools of 
science and technology the United States is greatly indebted, 
especially on account of the generous welcome that has 
always been extended to American students and for the 
inspiration with which many of them have returned to take 
their part in the wonderful educational evolution which the 
last half century has witnessed. 

But in all cases European methods have been adapted 
rather than adopted. Political, social and material condi- 
tions have largely influenced educational foundations, and 
while the nearly one hundred schools of science and engi- 
neering scattered over the United States have many points 
of resemblance, there is much individuality, particularly 
among the strongest and best, and it is believed that their 
several types represent important advances in the direction 
of scientific and technical education which will not be with- 
out interest to educators in other parts of the world. 

The limit necessarily put upon the length of this paper 
makes it impossible to consider historically or otherwise all 
of the institutions which would properly come under its 
title. A not very exact classification based on organization 
easily divides all into three groups, and the end in view will 
be best accomplished by selecting for more careful descrip- 
tion some of the more important representatives of each 
group. The order of presentation will be, in the main, 
chronological according to the date of establishment, and 
this will be departed from only when necessary to include 
the leading types of the several groups. 

In the first group will be included those schools and col- 



555] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 5 

leges devoted practically exclusively to science and tech- 
nology, which have independent foundations and which are 
not under state or government control. These have almost 
invariably originated in private endowment, often of one 
man, and rely for their support upon the income from their 
endowment and from tuition fees. 

The second group embraces those schools which are 
closely affiliated with other colleges or schools forming uni- 
versities, sometimes without a distinctly separate faculty or 
special organization, whose work has been largely individu- 
alized, sometimes having a distinguishing name, and not 
under state or government control. Some members of this 
group are wholly or partly supported by separate endow- 
ments and fix and collect their own tuition fees, while others 
depend upon sharing the common resources of the larger 
whole of which they are a part. 

In the third group are included that very large and 
important class of schools supported largely, if not entirely, 
by state and government appropriation. 

The organization of some of these resembles in an 
important particular that of the first group in the fact that 
they enjoy a separate existence as schools of science or 
technology, being independent of any college or university 
affiliation. The majority, however, are not thus independ- 
ent, and must be regarded as departments of a college, or 
schools or colleges of a university. A few of them origi- 
nated in private endowments and do not rely entirely on the 
state or national government for support, but yet are so 
largely dependent on that source of revenue that they fairly 
belong to the group. Something of the origin, history and 
development of a few of the principal representatives of 
these three groups will be given, to be followed by some 
general statements relating to requirements for admission, 
courses of study, degrees and other matters of interest or 
importance. 

The first endowment and organization of a school of 
science in the United States was that of the Rensselaer 



6 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [556 

polytechnic institute in 1824. The founder, Stephen Van 
Rensselaer, was born in New York November 1, 1765, and 
died in Albany January 26, 1839. He was known as the 
" eighth patroon," having inherited his rank and estates from 
ancestors who had for o-enerations ruled over that enormous 
feudal estate purchased and colonized early in the 17th cen- 
tury by Killian Van Rensselaer of Amsterdam, Holland. 
Stephen Van Rensselaer lost his baronial rights on the 
establishment of the colonial government during the revolu- 
tionary war, and the extent and value of the estate, which 
included the entire territory now comprised in the counties 
of Albany, Columbia and Rensselaer, were considerably 
diminished, but after graduating from Harvard college, he 
took active steps looking to the improvement of the very 
large property still remaining, and also rapidly became a 
prominent figure in the politics of the new nation, being in 
many ways peculiarly fitted for public duties and responsi- 
bilities. His early interest in engineering is proved by the 
fact that he was the first to propose a canal connecting the 
Hudson river with the great lakes. As a commissioner of 
the state, he made a personal investigation of the route, 
and in 1 8 1 1 a report which was received with favor. The war 
of 181 2 with Great Britain intervening to postpone action 
upon this important enterprise, he entered the military service 
as commander of the United States forces on the northern 
frontier. At the close of the war he again took hold of the 
canal project and became chairman of the canal commission. 
In the discharge of his duty as such, he caused to be made 
by Professor Amos Eaton in 1821-23, a geological survey 
along the line of the canal from Albany to Buffalo, the 
examination being also extended some distance into Massa- 
chusetts. The importance of the results of this work so 
impressed itself upon him, together with the lack of men 
capable of properly conducting such enterprises, as to con- 
vince him of the desirability and necessity for scientific and 
technical education. Professor Eaton, who executed this 
early geological survey for Van Rensselaer, was a man of many 



557] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 7 

and varied accomplishments, ready to adapt himself to the 
conditions under which his work was done, and possessed of 
much ingenuity and skill in inventing and constructing simple 
devices for taking the place of more elaborate but inaccessible 
instruments. Such a man was likely to make an impression 
upon the patroon, who was himself a man of liberal education 
and broad views. It is to this combination that the Rensse- 
laer polytechnic institute owes its origin. Professor Eaton, 
its first director, was a native of the state of New York, born 
in 1776. When fourteen or fifteen years of age, having 
acted as chainman during a land survey, he determined to 
become a surveyor. He negotiated with a skillful black- 
smith who agreed to work for him at night if he would 
" blow and strike " during the day. A needle and a good 
working chain resulted and an old pewter plate, smoothed, 
polished and graduated, served as a compass circle. At the 
age of 16 years he did actual surveying with these instru- 
ments. Later he entered Williams college and was gradu- 
ated in 1799. His love for science led him to Yale college 
in 181 5, where he received instruction from Professor Silli- 
man. He gave courses of lectures at Williams college in 
18 1 7, developing a remarkable talent for popular exposition 
of scientific discovery, which resulted in his giving a course 
of lectures before the members of the New York legisla- 
ture in 1 81 8 on the invitation of Governor De Witt Clinton, 
and eventually in the geological survey already referred to 
at the request of Van Rensselaer. In his first letter to those 
selected to constitute the board of trustees Van Rensselaer 
named Professor Eaton as professor of chemistry and 
experimental philosophy, his office to be designated the 
" senior professorship." 

This was dated November 5th, 1824, and something 
of the founder's idea of what his school oucrht to do is 
shown in " Order 7 " of the same communication. He says : 
" These are not to be taught by seeing experiments and 
hearing lectures, according to the usual method. But they 
are to lecture and experiment by turn, under the immediate 



8 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [558 

direction of a professor or competent assistant. Thus by a 
term of labor, like apprentices to a trade, they are to become 
operative chemists." The opening of the school occurred on 
Monday, January 3rd, 1825. It was incorporated in March, 
1826, the act providing that the clear annual income of the 
invested funds of the institution should not exceed twenty 
thousand dollars. It was at first named the " Rensselaer 
school ; " afterward the " Rensselaer institute " and after- 
wards the " Rensselaer polytechnic institute." Professor 
Eaton served for seventeen years as the senior professor, 
and during this period the course of study covered only one 
year. An important epoch in the history of the institution 
was the appointment of Professor B. Franklin Greene as 
senior professor in 1846, who became director on the estab- 
lishment of that office in 1850. From that time the insti- 
tute became more distinctly a school of civil engineering. 
The course of study was lengthened to three years and the 
corps of instructors was enlarged. The buildings and much 
of the equipment were destroyed by fire in 1862, but they 
were replaced by friends of the school and more extensive 
equipment was provided. 

The Rensselaer polytechnic institute offers two courses of 
four years each, one in civil engineering and one in natural 
science. Upon those who complete the first it bestows the 
degree of C. E., and for the second that of B. S. In 1899 its 
instructors were fifteen in number and its students 143. It 
has graduated 12 19 men, of whom 874 are living. Being 
the first school of its kind its list of graduates doubtless 
excels all others in the number of men who have reached 
distinction in professional life. It is supported by the 
income from its endowment funds and by tuition fees. Its 
government is rested in a board of twenty trustees, with the 
mayor of the city of Troy, ex-officio. 

The next in order of time and one of the foremost in the 
country is the Massachusetts institute of technology at 
Boston. 

This now famous institution owes its existence to the wise 



559] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 9 

foresight, the earnest and never-flagging enthusiasm, and 
the rare personal charm of Professor William B. Rogers, its 
first president and real founder. Professor Rogers was born 
in Philadelphia in 1804, his father, Dr. Patrick K. Rogers, 
having emigrated from Ireland a few years earlier. In 1819 
Dr. P. K. Rogers became professor of natural philosophy in 
William and Mary college, Virginia, and there Professor W. 
B. Rogers was educated. At an early age he was distin- 
guished for his scientific attainments and for an eloquent 
and persuasive speech which greatly increased his influence 
among men. For a long time he was professor of natural 
philosophy in the University of Virginia and he also served 
as state geologist for many years. It was while still a pro- 
fessor in the university that his mind was turned to the 
problem of scientific and technical training, and in 1846 he 
drew up a scheme for a school of technology which some 
years later and with slight modifications he brought to a 
realization in the Massachusetts institute of technology. 
Although not a New England man by birth or education, 
he had occasionally visited Boston and was greatly impressed 
with it as a suitable locality for such an institution. He left 
Virginia to reside in Boston in 1853, and here, for a period 
of nearly ten years he worked, wrote and lectured, keeping 
all the time in mind the organization and development of 
the school of technology, the plans of which he had so long 
and so carefully considered. On April 10, 1861, the act 
incorporating the Massachusetts institute of technology 
received the approval of Governor Andrews, just as the 
nation was plunging into what proved to be a mighty 
struggle for its existence. A year later Professor Rogers 
was formally elected president of the institution, which as 
yet had no material existence. Indeed the war for the 
preservation of the Union delayed the consummation of 
his desires until February, 1865, at which time instruc- 
tion in the new school was actually begun. During these 
years, as well as during the earlier years of the actual 
existence of the school, the organization was maintained 



IO SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [560 

and the work carried on under great discouragement, mainly 
through the personal exertions and influence of Dr. Rogers, 
its president. He had already attained a high reputation 
as a scientific man, and to this he added a rare power of 
lucid explanation and popular exposition of scientific dis- 
covery. This, with his simple and engaging manner, enabled 
him to gather about the young and feeble educational 
experiment a number of men, many of them distinguished 
in various walks of life, who loyally put themselves under 
his leadership in all matters relating to the institute. The 
earliest financial support came from two citizens of Boston, 
Dr. Walker and Mr. Huntington, who contributed $50,000 
towards the erection of a building. When instruction began 
in 1865 there were enrolled 15 students, but the marvellous 
material development of the country which followed the 
civil war was favorable to the growth of the school and its 
prosperity rapidly increased. In 1870, owing to ill health, 
Dr. Rogers retired from the presidency and was succeeded 
by Professor John D. Runkle, who had been professor of 
mathematics from the beginning. In 1878 Dr. Rogers, hav- 
ing partially recovered his health, was induced to return to 
the presidency, holding that office until 1881, when, on his 
recommendation, General Francis A. Walker was elected as 
his successor. A year later, at noon of May 30th, 1882, 
Dr. Rogers, in the midst of an address to the graduating 
class of the institute, in which his hearers were delighted 
with an apparent revival of the spirit and eloquence with 
which he was accustomed to enrich every occasion for dig- 
nified address, fell upon the platform of Huntington hall, 
surrounded by the material realization of his dreams of 
nearly forty years earlier, and by those who, by the closest 
associations, had learned to love him as few are loved. 

Under the able leadership of his distinguished successor, 
the Massachusetts institute of technology entered upon a 
new career of growth and development which has placed it 
in the front rank of its kind throughout the world. 

By the act of incorporation of 1861 William Barton 



561] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS II 

Rogers and his twenty associates were made a body corpo- 
porate " for the purpose of instituting and maintaining a 
society of arts, a museum of arts and a school of industrial 
science." The latter has become the prominent feature of 
the institute. "It is devoted to the investigation and 
teaching of science as applied to the various engineering 
professions, namely, civil, mechanical, mining, electrical, 
chemical and sanitary engineering, and naval architecture, 
as well as to architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, biology, 
physics and geology. A course of a less technical nature, 
designed as a preparation for business callings, is also pro- 
vided." There is also affiliated with it the Lowell school 
of practical design, established in 1872 by the trustee of 
the Lowell institute for the purpose of promoting industrial 
art in the United States. The course in this school covers 
three years of instruction in the art of design including 
technical manipulations ; copying and variation of designs ; 
original designs and the making of working designs. 

The institute offers thirteen distinct courses, each of four 
years' duration, in civil engineering, mechanical engineer- 
ing, mining engineering and metallurgy, architecture, chem- 
istry, electrical engineering, biology, physics, general studies, 
chemical engineering, sanitary engineering, geology and 
naval architecture. It is amply equipped with laboratories, 
museums and libraries. Its officers of instruction number 
136 in all departments. Students in all departments num- 
bered 1 1 71 in 1899, and the number of graduates from the 
beginning is nearly two thousand. 

The institute is supported for the most part by the income 
from private endowments and from fees received from 
tuition. It receives, however, one-third of the income of 
the commonwealth of Massachusetts from the national land 
grant funds and subsequent national appropriations for land 
grant colleges. During the past two years it has received 
from private bequests something over one million dollars. 
It furnishes free tuition to forty students from the public 
schools of Massachusetts from which it is reimbursed by 



12 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [562 

legislative appropriation. Its government is vested in a 
corporation consisting of not more than fifty members, 
including the governor of the commonwealth, the chief 
justice of the supreme judicial court and the secretary of the 
state board of education. The corporators, excepting the 
ex-officiis members, hold office for life and vacancies are 
filled by the corporation. It confers the degree of bachelor 
of science on the completion of any of the regular courses 
of study and that of master of science for graduate courses 
of at least one year. 

The Worcester polytechnic institute at Worcester, Massa- 
chusetts, was incorporated in May, 1865, only a few weeks 
after the Massachusetts institute of technology received its 
first class of fifteen students in rented rooms in Boston. In 
the latter part of 1864 Mr. John Boynton of Templeton, in 
Worcester county, a merchant who by thrift and economy 
had accumulated a considerable fortune, made known to Mr. 
David Whitcomb of Worcester, who had been his partner 
and was his most trusted friend, his desire to devote the 
major portion of his savings to the establishment of a school 
for training young men for industrial pursuits. He was 
wisely advised by Mr. Whitcomb, a man of rare sagacity, 
and Rev. Dr. Seth Sweetser, then pastor of the Central 
church of Worcester, was also consulted. It developed that 
a distinguished citizen of Worcester, Mr. Ichabod Wash- 
burn, the founder of the great Washburn & Moen steel and 
wire manufactory, long the leading establishment of its kind 
in the world, had about a year earlier confided to Dr. 
Sweetser his own desire to contribute towards the establish- 
ment of an institution of like nature. A conference, includ- 
ing among others the Hon. Emory Washburn, President 
Hill of Harvard university, the Hon. George F. Hoar and 
the Hon. Stephen Salisbury, resulted in a union of the two 
schemes, Mr. Washburn contributing the cost of the erection, 
equipment and endowment of extensive workshops, since 
known as the Washburn shops, to form a part of the means 
provided for the proper training of mechanical engineers. 



563] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 1 3 

Mr. Boynton's gift was $ 100,000. The citizens of Worcester 
undertook to provide for the erection of a suitable building 
upon a beautiful and convenient site given by Stephen Salis- 
bury, who was also one of the most generous contributors 
to the building fund. It is interesting to note that many of 
the subscribers gave small sums, tradesmen and others 
uniting, to the number of about five hundred, to swell the 
amount. The corporation organized with the Hon. Stephen 
Salisbury as president, and in 1868 the first building, Boyn- 
ton hall, was dedicated and the work of the school inaugu- 
rated. Its first president was Dr. Charles O. Thompson, a 
man most admirably fitted for the development of the new 
and somewhat novel plans of the trustees and donors. Dr. 
Thompson made a special study of European technical 
schools, particularly of the Russian schools, the imperial 
technical school at Moscow and the institute of technology 
at St. Petersburg. 

In these schools the experiment was first made of com- 
bining in the engineering courses the study of text-books, 
lectures and other exercises long known to form a necessary 
part of scholastic training, with practical exercises in Work- 
shops in which the student was made familiar with machines, 
their construction and use, and the nature of the materials 
upon which they worked. Dr. Thompson was especially 
impressed with this plan as representing very closely the 
ideas of the founders of the Worcester polytechnic institute, 
and under his able direction it became the central idea about 
which the organization of the school crystallized. He 
remained at its head for fourteen years, during which it 
developed the distinctive qualities by which it has since 
been characterized. During the thirty years of its existence 
it has received numerous additions to its original funds, 
mostly from citizens of Worcester and especially from the 
Salisburys, including Stephen Salisbury 2d, the first presi- 
dent of the board of trustees, and Stephen Salisbury 3d, 
the present (1899) head of the corporation. As the school 
grew, and with it the demands of new methods of instruc- 



14 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [564 

tion, several large and commodious buildings were added to 
the original, notably the Salisbury laboratories for physics 
and chemistry, the gift of the present Stephen Salisbury ; 
the engineering building, with its mechanical laboratories, 
erected by means of an appropriation by the state of Massa- 
chusetts of $100,000; the power laboratory, the hydraulic 
laboratory, etc. Perhaps the distinctive feature of the 
school is the large utilization of workshops in connection 
with instruction in mechanical and electrical engineering. 
The constructive principle is dominant in the workshop 
training, and the student during his course, or sometimes in 
conjunction with a small group of his fellows, actually pro- 
duces all the parts of a tolerably complex machine, involv- 
ing the use of a wide variety of machine tools and of mate- 
rials used in construction. The excellence of his work or 
design is tested as an actual commercial product, which is 
held to be the final test, and to secure the best results the 
Washburn shops maintain a commercial side, the greater 
part of the output of which consists of special machines, 
appliances and devices originally designed and developed 
there, representing the results of actual engineering prac- 
tice on the part of students and professors. 

The institute offers five courses, each of four years dura- 
tion, namely, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, 
chemistry (including sanitary and industrial chemistry), 
electrical engineering and general science. It grants the 
degree of bachelor of science to those who complete any 
one of its courses, and the master's degree for graduate 
study of not less than one year. Professional degrees of 
mechanical, civil and electrical engineering are granted upon 
conditions requiring still further work and several years of 
successful professional experience. 

Its corps of instructors numbers 31 and its students 
(1899) 236. Its graduates number (1899) 823. Its support 
is derived from the income of its endowment and fees for 
tuition. It gives free tuition to forty students from the 
state of Massachusetts for which it is reimbursed by annual 



565] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS I 5 

appropriation from the state. It also furnishes free tuition 
to about thirty young men, residents of Worcester county, 
for which funds have been provided by donation. Its gov- 
ernment is vested in a board of twelve trustees, one being 
appointed by the state board of education, and the mayor 
of "the city of Worcester being a member ex-officio. Other 
members are chosen by the board and serve for life. 

The Lehigh university, at South Bethlehem, Pennsylva- 
nia, although by name a university, is and has always been 
pre-eminently a technical or engineering college of a high 
grade. The original object of its founder was to afford the 
young men of the Lehigh valley a complete education, tech- 
nical, literary and scientific, suitable to fit them for those 
professions represented in the development of the peculiar 
resources of the rich mining territory in which it is located. 

In 1865 the Hon. Asa Packer signified his intention of 
providing such an institution by announcing his willingness 
to donate to it the sum of $500,000 and one hundred and 
fifteen acres of land in South Bethlehem on which the build- 
ings might be placed. Judge Packer was born in Groton, 
Connecticut, in 1806, and died in Philadelphia in 1879. 
After receiving a common school education he began learn- 
ing the trade of tanning, but gave it up to serve an appren- 
ticeship as a carpenter. He worked at this trade for some 
time, but while still under twenty years of age, on the open- 
ing of the Lehigh Valley canal, he established himself at 
Mauch Chunk, becoming the owner and master of a canal 
boat for carrying coal to Philadelphia. Although entirely 
lacking preliminary training, he possessed the instincts of 
an engineer, and was soon extensively engaged in the build- 
ing of locks and boats and in the mining and transportation 
of coal. He projected the Lehigh Valley railroad, and 
through his varied and extensive operations in mining and 
transporting coal became the richest man of his day in the 
state of Pennsylvania. He filled important political orifices, 
was a member of congress and was the candidate of his 
party for governor of the state in 1869. He gave to the 



1 6 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [566 

newly-established institution more liberally during his life 
than he had at first announced, and at his death bequeathed 
to it an endowment of nearly $2,000,000, the total amount 
of his benefactions reaching over two and a half million 
dollars. 

The institution was incorporated in 1866, and its first class 
was graduated in 1869. Its first president was Professor 
Henry Coppee, LL.D. It is well equipped with suitably- 
appointed laboratories, an astronomical observatory, a 
museum which is especially rich in minerals, and a large 
and well-endowed library. While it offers a classical course, 
its resources are almost exclusively devoted to the school of 
technology. In this six courses are offered as follows : Civil 
engineering, mechanical engineering, metallurgy, mining, 
electrical engineering and chemistry. Its corps of instructors 
numbers 41 and its students (1899) 325, of whom all except 
ten were in the technical or scientific courses. Up to 1899 
its graduates numbered nearly one thousand. 

The Lehigh university is supported by the income from 
its endowments and the fees charged for tuition, although it 
has received occasional appropriations from the state. It is 
governed by a board of ten trustees, together with nine 
honorary trustees, four of whom are chosen from the alumni 
to serve for a fixed term of years. 

The Stevens institute of technology, at Hoboken, New Jer- 
sey, was opened for the admission of students in September, 
1871. Mr. Edwin A. Stevens, its founder, was a member of 
a distinguished family of engineers. His grandfather, John 
Stevens, had been a member of the continental congress, 
and his father, also John, had filled offices of trust and 
responsibility during the revolutionary war, besides being 
the most famous engineer of his time. At the close of the 
war for independence he was a man of independent wealth, 
owning the island of Hoboken on which he lived during the 
summer, and he devoted practically the remainder of his life 
to experimental engineering at his own cost for the common 
good. Through his influence the American patent law was 



567] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 1 7 

enacted. He was one of the earliest users of steam and he 
made important improvements in the method of generating 
it. He was the first to navigate the Hudson by means of a 
steamboat, which he did successfully in 1804, and by a ves- 
sel propelled by twin screws, essentially the same in form as 
those now universally in use, and he was always a warm 
advocate of the screw propeller. He established the first 
steam ferry in the world, was the first to navigate the ocean 
by steam and in 1812 he made the first experiments in the 
use of artillery against iron armor, and about the same time 
he strongly urged the construction of a railroad between the 
seaboard and the great lakes instead of a canal which was 
then being talked of. His suggestions were rejected by 
the commissioners, who considered them impracticable and 
visionary. 

His sons, Robert L. and Edwin A., inherited the engi- 
neering tastes of their father and added new lustre to the 
fame of the family by remarkable achievements in the field 
of railroad development and marine engineering. The ear- 
liest railroads of importance in the United States were built 
under their direction and the two brothers were the joint 
inventors of many improvements in track, rolling stock, 
power, etc. Both were greatly interested in the application 
of engineering to warfare and especially in improving naval 
attack and defense, and Robert L. Stevens built the first 
ironclad vessel ever constructed. In the will of Edwin A. 
Stevens, dated April 15th, 1867, he bequeathed a block of 
ground in the city of Hoboken, with $150,000, for the erec- 
tion of buildings thereon " suitable for the uses of an insti- 
tution of learning, and also $500,000 as an endowment 
fund for the support of the same. In 1870 Professor 
Henry Morton, Ph. D., at that time professor of chemistry 
in the University of Pennsylvania and also secretary of the 
Franklin institute, was selected as the president of the new 
institution for which a charter had been obtained in Febru- 
ary of the same year. Dr. Morton, to whom the success 
and high character of the school is largely due, has contin- 



1 8 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [568 

lied to serve as its president from the beginning. In 1875 
a mechanical laboratory was established under the direction 
of Professor R. H. Thurston, who was the first professor of 
mechanical engineering in the institute. The Stevens insti- 
tute is essentially a school of mechanical engineering alone, 
and it offers but one course of study, which requires four 
years for its completion. Much attention is given to practi- 
cal laboratory and workshop methods. There is a depart- 
ment of tests in which are undertaken measurements of the 
performance of steam engines and other motors, of the effi- 
ciency of boilers, electrical and hydraulic apparatus, of the 
strength of materials and kindred problems. Its officers of 
instruction are 21 in number and its students (1899) 214. 
Since its organization the institute had graduated about 700 
students. It grants the degree of mechanical engineer to 
those who have completed its course of study and it has 
bestowed honorary degrees of doctor of philosophy and 
doctor of engineering. Since the original bequest of Mr. 
Stevens it has received considerable additions to its endow- 
ment fund, and its president, Dr. Morton, has been among 
the liberal donors. It derives its support from the income 
from its invested funds and from its tuition fees. Its gov- 
ernment is in the hands of a board of twelve trustees, one 
of the number being an alumnus. 

The Case school of applied science, at Cleveland, Ohio, 
was incorporated on March 29th, 1880. Leonard Case, its 
founder, was born in Cleveland on June 27th, 1820. His 
father, also Leonard Case, had come to Ohio from Pennsyl- 
vania at the beginning of the century. By judicious pur- 
chases of public lands in and near Cleveland, then a village, 
now (1899) a flourishing city of over 300,000 inhabitants, 
and by active participation in early railroad enterprises, he 
accumulated a large estate, all of which his son, Leonard, 
inherited. The latter was educated at Yale college, being 
a member of the class which was graduated in 1842. He 
was, as a young man, inclined rather to literary and scien- 
tific pursuits than to business. He was especially fond of 



569] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 19 

scientific and mathematical studies, but he possessed con- 
siderable real literary ability, as was evidenced by occasional 
poems and translations, some of which were published in the 
best magazines of the day. In 1876 he had already deter- 
mined upon founding a school of science, and in 1877 he 
executed a deed of trust setting apart certain real estate for 
the support of the institution, to take effect upon his death, 
which occurred on January 6th, 1880. 

In this he directed the trustees "to cause to be formed 
and to be regularly incorporated under the laws of Ohio an 
institution of learning to be called ■ Case school of applied 
science,' and located in said city of Cleveland, in which 
shall be taught by competent professors and teachers 
mathematics, physics, engineering — mechanical and civil — 
chemistry, economic geology, mining and metallurgy, natu- 
ral history, drawing and modern languages, and such other 
kindred branches of learning as the trustees of said institu- 
tion may deem desirable." Instruction began in 1881, with 
a class of 16 students, the school being carried on from that 
time until the summer of 1885 in the old Case homestead. 
A commodious building having been erected for the use of 
the school, it was occupied at the beginning of the term in 
September, 1885. A year later the building with all that it 
contained was destroyed by fire. It was promptly rebuilt 
and occupied in 1888. Since that time several additional 
buildings for laboratory and shop exercises have been 
erected. 

The Case school of applied science offers eight regular 
courses of instruction, each requiring four years. They are 
civil engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engi- 
neering, mining engineering, physics, chemistry, architecture 
and general science. In 1899 there were 21 instructors and 
218 students. From the beginning it has graduated about 
230 men. The degree of bachelor of science is granted to 
all who complete one of the regular courses. That of mas- 
ter of science may be conferred upon graduates who have 
devoted at least one year exclusively to graduate study. 



20 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [57O 

Professional degrees, namely, civil engineer, mechanical 
engineer, electrical engineer and engineer of mines may also 
be conferred after one year of graduate study or after pro- 
fessional work in positions of responsibility, for three years 
after graduation. The property left by Mr. Case as an 
endowment for the support of the school is valued at about 
$2,000,000, and the amount invested in buildings and equip- 
ment is about $350,000. The school derives its support 
from the income from its endowment and tuition fees. Its 
government rests with a corporation consisting of twenty 
men, from whom six known as trustees are selected. 

The Rose polytechnic institute, at Terre Haute, Indiana, 
was organized as early as 1874, but it was not open to stu- 
dents until 1883. The intervening years were spent in the 
erection of buildings for the accommodation of the school 
and in the personal examination by members of the board 
of managers of the leading schools of science and tech- 
nology in the country. Its founder was Chauncy Rose, 
born in Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1794, died in Terre 
Haute in 1877, having settled in Indiana in 181 7. Mr. 
Rose was a successful business man, made judicious invest- 
ments in real estate and was active in the early railroad 
development of Indiana. Throughout his long life he was 
distinguished for the sturdiest integrity in all business mat- 
ters and for his generous and philanthropic disposition. An 
incident of the latter part of his life forcibly illustrates those 
qualities which made him the founder of schools, orphan 
asylums, free dispensaries, etc. His brother John lived in 
New York city and had also become a man of great wealth, 
concerning the disposition of which, after his death, he had 
very clear and well-defined ideas. Through a serious error 
in the preparation of his will, it appeared that if executed 
under the laws of New York it would fail in accomplishing 
the evident desires of the testator. Chauncy Rose at once 
instituted legal proceedings to have the will set aside, in 
which he succeeded after six years of litigation. He was 
himself the sole heir, and the estate of over $1,500,000 



57 1] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 21 

became his, but he immediately expended the whole in the 
exact manner desired by his brother, mostly in various 
charities in New York city. 

He carefully attended to the erection of the buildings for 
the school he was to found, and on his death left an endow- 
ment for it of over half a million dollars. The trustees, in 
their examination of various other institutions, were much 
impressed with the organization and character of the Wor- 
cester polytechnic institute, and accordingly they invited Dr. 
Charles O. Thompson, its president, to come to Terre 
Haute as the first president of the Rose polytechnic. He 
accepted the invitation, and, after nearly a year in Europe, 
engaged in a renewal of his acquaintance with the leading 
schools of science and technology to be found there, he 
began the work of organizing the new institution which was 
opened to students in 1883. Dr. Thompson's work at the 
Rose polytechnic was unhappily cut short by his death only 
a little more than a year after the opening of the institute, 
but in that time its organization was practically completed, 
following closely the lines which he had previously estab- 
lished at Worcester, to which full reference has already been 
made. 

The Rose polytechnic institute offers four separate 
courses of study each of four years' duration. They are in 
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engi- 
neering and architecture, and in chemistry. Its faculty of 
instruction (1899) included 15, and its students numbered 
100. The total number of its graduates is about 260. It 
confers the degree of bachelor of science upon those who 
have completed any of its courses. That of master of sci- 
ence is conferred two years after graduation, at least one of 
which must be spent in graduate study, approved by the 
faculty. Professional degrees, mechanical engineer, elec- 
trical engineer or civil engineer will be conferred upon those 
who have already received their master's degree and who 
have subsequently spent at least two years in the successful 
practice of their profession. The institute derives its sup- 



22 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [572 

port from its endowment funds and tuition fees. Additions 
to the endowment fund have been received since the death 
of the founder. It is governed by a board of managers 
consisting of nine men, with power to fill vacancies. By- 
arrangement one member of the board is an alumnus, elected 
by the alumni, to serve for one year. 

The Polytechnic institute of Brooklyn, at Brooklyn, New 
York, was originally an academy or preparatory school of 
high grade, existing since 1854 under the name " Brooklyn 
collegiate and polytechnic institute." Two courses of 
advanced study were provided in 1870, and in 1889 it was 
reorganized and rechartered under the name it now bears. 
One of its courses of study is called the " liberal " course 
and leads to the degree of bachelor of arts, but the princi- 
pal work of the institute is in applied science. Here three 
courses are provided, engineering, chemical and electrical. 
Those who complete these courses, which are each four years 
in length, receive the degree of bachelor of science. Post 
graduate courses are provided. In 1899 the corps of 
instructors numbered 11, and there were 79 students. In 
its technical and engineering courses it has graduated nearly 
a hundred men. Its income is derived from endowment 
funds and tuition fees. 

The Armour institute of technology, at Chicago, Illinois, 
was founded by Philip D. Armour in 1892, and originally 
chartered as " the Armour institute." Mr. Armour was born 
in Stockbridge, N. Y., in 1832. He received only a common 
school training, and after spending some time as a miner in 
California, he engaged in a commission business in Mil- 
waukee. In 1863 he began his career as a grain and pork 
merchant, and since 1875 ne nas been at the head of the firm 
of Armour & Company of Chicago, the largest dealers in 
dressed meats and provisions in the world. He has given 
generously towards the establishment and maintenance of a 
mission in Chicago known as the Armour mission. His 
gifts to the institute of technology which bears his name 
already amount to more than $2,500,000. In the first public 



573] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 23 

announcement of his gift he said : " This institution is 
founded for the purpose of giving to young men and women 
an opportunity to secure a liberal education. . . . It is 
not intended for the poor or the rich, as sections of society, 
but for any and all who are earnestly seeking practical edu- 
cation. . . . The institute is not a free school, but its 
charges for instruction are in harmony with the spirit which 
animates alike the founder, the trustees and the faculty, 
namely, the desire to help those who wish to help them- 
selves." Instruction began in 1893, and in 1895 it was some- 
what reorganized, full four years' courses were arranged for, 
and the name changred to the " Armour institute of technol- 
ogy." The principal feature of the school is what is known 
as " the technical college," to which are allied, under the 
general organization, the department of domestic arts, the 
kindergarten normal department, the department of music 
and the department of shorthand and typewriting. In the 
technical college five courses of study are offered, a course 
in mechanical engineering, in electrical engineering, in archi- 
tecture, in science and in civil engineering. In 1899 the 
corps of instructors numbered 31. No information concern- 
ing the number of students is given in the published year- 
book. Its graduates probably number about 60. It confers 
the degree of bachelor of science. It is especially well 
equipped in apparatus relating to electric measurements. 
Its government is vested in a board of six trustees of which 
the founder is one, as is also the president of the institute. 
The limits to which this monograph is restricted will not 
permit detailed reference to a greater number of institutions 
belonging to the group of independently organized and 
endowed schools of technology, although there are several 
others that, by reason, of their excellent facilities and com- 
prehensive courses of study, are quite as important as some 
of the above which have been selected as types. Within 
two or three years additions to the list have been made, 
among which may be mentioned the Bradley polytechnic 
institute at Peoria, Illinois, and the Clarkson institute of 



24 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [574 

technology at Potsdam, N. Y. There are a number of excel- 
lent schools in the southern states, mostly supported, how- 
ever, by state appropriations. 

Several of the most important schools of science and 
engineering in the United States belong to the second 
group, being affiliated with universities and colleges and 
sharing with other departments the income from private 
endowments, facilities and faculties of instruction. Less 
detailed consideration will be given them here on that 
account, as they will doubtless receive a large measure of 
attention in monographs relating to these institutions. This 
exposition would be quite incomplete, however,- without ref- 
erence to them, and, at the risk of duplication, a brief 
description of some of the leading examples will be given. 

The Sheffield scientific school of Yale university, at New 
Haven, Connecticut, was organized in 1847 as a school of 
applied chemistry. In i860 it received its first considerable 
endowment from Joseph E. Sheffield of New Haven. Mr. 
Sheffield was a native of Connecticut, born in 1793. After 
receiving a common school education he began, at the early 
age of fifteen years, a long and successful business career. 
For more than a quarter of a century he lived in the south, 
becoming the chief cotton merchant in Mobile, Alabama, 
but in 1835 ne returned to his native state and established 
himself in New Haven. He was active in canal and rail- 
road development, both in New England and the west, 
accumulating a large fortune from which he made munifi- 
cent donations to Yale college. In i860 he provided suit- 
able buildings for the scientific department and made liberal 
endowments for its support. The Sheffield scientific school 
is devoted to " instruction and researches in the mathemati- 
cal, physical and natural sciences, with reference to the pro- 
motion and diffusion of science, and also to the preparation 
of young men for such pursuits as require special proficiency 
in those departments of learning." Instruction is specially 
planned for two classes of students: 1st, graduates of Yale 
and other universities or colleges, and others specially quali- 



575] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 25 

fied for advanced or special scientific study ; 2nd, under- 
graduates who desire a training chiefly mathematical and 
scientific to fit them for higher scientific studies or for such 
occupations as demand such training. The undergraduate 
courses extend through three years, but the requirements 
for admission are considerably in advance of those in institu- 
tions whose courses are of four years. A number of courses 
of study are provided, at least ten being distinctly separate. 
They include chemistry, civil engineering, mechanical engi- 
neering, electrical engineering, agriculture, natural history, 
mineralogy, biology, mining and metallurgy. There are 
also a number of graduate courses. The degree of bach- 
elor of philosophy is conferred upon those completing any 
of the three years' courses of study. The degree of master 
of science is conferred upon those who have taken their first 
degree in science and who have had at least one year of resi- 
dent graduate study, under the direction of the governing 
board. Two additional years are required for the degree of 
civil engineer, or mechanical engineer and the degree of 
doctor of philosophy is also conferred. In 1899 there were 
59 graduate students, 13 special students and a total of 597. 
The total number of professors and instructors is 63. The 
faculty is distinct from that of the academic department 
of Yale colleee, but some of the instructors are connected 
with other departments. The governing board consists of 
the president of the university with the director of the sci- 
entific school and members of the faculty permanently 
attached to the school. Degrees are conferred by the 
president of the university on the regular university com- 
mencement day and the corporate control of the school is 
that of Yale university. 

The Lawrence scientific school of Harvard university, Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts, was founded by Abbott Lawrence in 
1847. He was the younger of two brothers, born in Groton, 
Massachusetts, late in the last century, who were the most 
famous merchants in Boston during the first half of this. 
He was a graduate of Harvard college and was distin- 



26 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [576 

guished not only for great success in mercantile and manu- 
facturing operations, but also for the important public serv- 
ices with which he was occupied during the later years of 
his life. He was a member of congress, a commissioner 
for negotiating the northeast boundary treaty with Great 
Britain, and served as minister to England from 1849 to 
1852. His first gift for the endowment of the school which 
bears his name was $50,000, to which large additions were 
afterwards made by himself and members of his family. 
The primary object of the institution was to afford an 
opportunity for special study and training in science which 
the then existing foundations and departments of the univer- 
sity did not offer. Not the least of the important benefits 
it conferred during the earlier years of its existence was the 
bringing of Professor Louis Agassiz into close relations with 
the university, a special chair of zoology and geology in the 
scientific school having been created for him by Mr. Law- 
rence in 1848. It was originally intended that the Lawrence 
scientific school should be independent of Harvard college, 
and for many years it was so maintained, but in recent years 
it has gradually become merged with it until it now forms a 
part of the university, its government together with that of 
the college and the graduate school being under the faculty 
of arts and sciences. It confers or rather prepares for the 
degree of bachelor of science by four years' courses, eleven 
in number, including civil engineering, electrical engineer- 
ing, mechanical engineering, mining and metallurgy, archi- 
tecture, chemistry, geology, biology, general science, science 
for teachers, and anatomy and physiology. These courses 
are essentially required, while those of the college are 
largely elective. The particular object of the school is 
to afford to men of sound preliminary training a liberal- 
ized education in various branches of science. So far as 
possible the instruction relates rather to the principles of 
science than to technical work, the intention being to make 
the graduates ready for the apprenticeship of their profes- 
sions. It avails itself of the great resources of Harvard 



577] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 2J 

university, its museums, libraries, laboratories, etc., these 
being used in common by students who are candidates for 
the degrees of bachelor of science, bachelor of arts, or for 
the several graduate degrees conferred by the faculty of 
arts and sciences. While there are certain professors whose 
duties are confined to the scientific school, a great part of 
the instruction is in common with the college. It is so 
closely linked with Harvard college that no clear discrim- 
ination can be made in the funds which support the scien- 
tific school and other foundations. There is considerable 
election in the subjects required for admission and their 
range is essentially the same as with the college. In 1899 
there were 425 students in the scientific school. 

The Chandler school of science of Dartmouth college, 
Hanover, New Hampshire, was established in 1851 by the 
trustees of Dartmouth college, on the receipt of a bequest 
of $50,000, from Abiel Chandler, who left it to them in 
trust "for the establishment and support of a permanent 
department or school of instruction in the college, in the 
practical and useful arts of life." Mr. Chandler was born in 
Concord, New Hampshire, in 1777. Until he was twenty- 
one years of age he worked upon a farm but soon after he 
entered Harvard college from which he was graduated in 
1806. For several years he was a teacher but afterwards 
engaged in business in Boston, retiring with a fortune in 
1845. In addition to his bequest to Dartmouth college he 
distributed most of his estate in charity. The Chandler 
school was maintained as a separate department of the col- 
lege for many years but it has recently been formally incorpo- 
rated into the college and it is now known as the Chandler 
scientific course leading to the degree of bachelor of science. 
This course covers four years and is best described as a 
course in general science, including modern languages, 
mathematics, history, political science, etc., along with a 
good representation of the exact and natural history sci- 
ences. About 150 students are in the Chandler course. 

Affiliated with Dartmouth college is the very important 



28 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [578 

graduate school of civil engineering known as The Thayer 
school of civil engineering. It was founded in 1867 by 
Gen. Sylvanus Thayer, U. S. A., who gave a fund of $70,000. 
General Thayer was born in Massachusetts in 1785. He 
was graduated from Dartmouth college in 1807 an d from 
the U. S. military academy at West Point, which was then 
in a very elemental stage, in 1808. He became one of the 
most distinguished engineers of the army, was sent to 
Europe to study military works and schools, and on his 
return in 181 7 was made superintendent of the U. S. mili- 
tary academy at West Point, a position which he held for 
sixteen years. During this time he entirely reorganized the 
school, putting it upon the same plane as the best military 
schools of Europe. So important were his services to the 
academy that his monument at West Point bears the inscrip- 
tion " Colonel Thayer, father of the United States military 
academy." It was his desire to found at Dartmouth college 
a graduate school of engineering, exacting in its require- 
ments and complete and thorough in its work. Being a 
graduate school, its course, which occupies two years, is 
essentially professional. It devotes itself exclusively to civil 
engineering in the broader sense, and the high standard of 
admission has necessarily restricted the number of students. 
The first class was admitted in 1871, and from that year to 
1897, inclusive, 123 have entered, at an average age exceed- 
ing 23 years. Of these 79 were graduated with the degree 
of civil engineer. The government of the school is vested 
in a board of overseers consisting of the president of Dart- 
mouth college, with four officers of the engineer corps of 
the United States army, active or retired. 

The School of mines of Columbia college, now Columbia 
university, New York city, began its work in 1864. Its 
establishment was due, primarily, to Professor Thomas 
Egfleston. Professor Egdeston was graduated at Yale in 
1854, and at the Ecole des mines in Paris in i860. In 1863 
he prepared and published a plan for a school of mines 
which was the basis of the organization at Columbia college. 



579] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 2g 

Up to that time the enormous mineral resources of the 
United States were almost unknown; at least there had 
been little systematic effort towards their development. 
Such mining as was carried on was mostly under the direc- 
tion of so-called " practical " miners, whose methods were 
wasteful and extravagant. A few experts had come from 
European schools, but the full exploitation of the rich 
deposits which the country possessed demanded a large num- 
ber of trained and educated men. This demand the School 
of mines was destined to supply in a large measure, and it is 
difficult to overestimate the importance of its work during 
the quarter of a century following its foundation. The 
trustees of Columbia college permitted the use of certain 
rooms in the college buildings-for the school and such col- 
lections of minerals, etc., as it might obtain. Professor 
Egleston was made professor of mineralogy and metallurgy, 
without salary, and he was shortly after joined by Professors 
Charles F. Chandler and F. L. Vinton on the same condi- 
tions, the faculty being expected to depend upon fees for 
support. The School of mines opened on November 15th, 
1864, with 29 students, and its success was a gratifying sur- 
prise from the very beginning. The students were generally 
of somewhat mature age, and many of them were college 
graduates. Although the college had in no way committed 
itself to the financial support of the school, small sums of 
money were granted, and the importance of the school to 
Columbia college became more and more evident. Early 
in 1865 the School of mines was formally adopted as a 
co-ordinate branch of the college, and it is not too much to 
say that for many years the college was most widely known 
by reason of this connection. The primary object of the 
school was the education and training of mining engineers 
and metallurgists. It gathered together a faculty of men 
distinguished in their specialties, and it was soon evident 
that it could wisely extend its operations so as to cover 
other branches of engineering and applied science. Courses 
of study in civil engineering, applied chemistry, sanitary 



3<D SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [580 

engineering, geology and architecture were added, although 
it still continued under the original name, School of mines. 
In 1889 a course in electrical engineering was added, and 
later on in mechanical engineering. In 1896 the title 
" Columbia university " was adopted as covering all the 
departments of instruction and research previously associ- 
ated with or forming a part of Columbia college, and the 
title "School of mines" is now restricted to its original sig- 
nificance. The various engfineerino- and science courses are 
now collectively directed by the " faculty of applied sci- 
ence," under which are the four schools of mines, chemistry, 
engineering and architecture. There is also a school of 
pure science under the direction of a faculty of pure science. 

The School of engineering offers courses in civil, electri- 
cal and mechanical engineering, all of four years' duration, 
and corresponding degrees are granted. All of these 
schools are extensively equipped, and much attention is 
given to graduate courses and work. 

In the School of pure science instruction is given in 
anatomy, astronomy, bacteriology, botany, chemistry, geol- 
ogy, mathematics, mechanics, mineralogy, physics, physiol- 
ogy, and zoology. The faculty of pure science exercises 
special supervision over the instruction and work of all can- 
didates for the degrees of master of arts and doctor of 
philosophy in pure science. The several faculties of instruc- 
tion in the university are not entirely distinct, but the total 
number of those giving instruction, in one way or another, 
in the courses in pure and applied science, is probably not 
far from 100, including professors, adjunct and associate 
professors, instructors, tutors and assistants. In 1899 there 
were registered 470 students under the faculty of applied 
sciences. The registration in the School of pure science 
was approximately 100. On January 1st, 1899, the total 
number of graduates in science was 11 72. 

Practically all colleges or universities in the United States 
offer courses in pure or applied science, and while their work 
may not be differentiated from that of the departments suf- 



581] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 3 1 

ficiently to constitute a distinct school, it is often of high 
quality and the material appliances and equipment, every- 
thing that could be desired. Of the older of those giving 
special attention to science and engineering a few will be 
briefly mentioned. They will doubtless receive full con- 
sideration under another division of the educational institu- 
tions of the United States. 

The College of the university of Pennsylvania provides, 
under a foundation known as the Towne scientific school, 
courses in architecture, mechanical and electrical engineer- 
ing, chemistry and chemical engineering. They are of four 
years' duration and lead to the degree of bachelor of sci- 
ence. Ample facilities in the way of laboratories, machinery 
and apparatus, libraries, etc., are provided. Besides these 
courses in engineering, there is a course in biology, and all 
departments are represented in the university curricula and 
faculty of instruction. The University of Pennsylvania was 
among the earliest in its class to undertake systematic 
instruction in science, technology and engineering. In 1852 
it was resolved to establish a department of mines, arts and 
manufactures, and professorships in geology and miner- 
alogy, and civil engineering and mining, and two regular 
courses in science were offered. In 1874 John Henry 
Towne, a trustee of the university, made the university the 
residuary legatee of his large estate. Whatever sum might 
accrue from this bequest was to form a portion of the 
endowment fund of the university, and the income from it 
was to be devoted exclusively to the payment of the salaries 
of professors and instructors in the department of science. 
In recognition of this generosity the department was 
named "the Towne scientific school of the University of 
Pennsylvania." 

The John C. Green school of science is one of the depart- 
ments of Princeton university. Mr. Green was a wealthy 
merchant in New York city, who devoted much of his large 
fortune to charitable and educational foundations. He con- 
tributed generously to Princeton university aside from his 



32 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [582 

gift of $50,000 to found the school of science in 1873. 
This amount was subsequently much increased by the 
residuary legatees of his estate. Instruction is given in 
general science, civil engineering and electrical engineering. 
The courses are four years in length and lead to the degree 
of bachelor of science. In 1899 the number of students in 
the science department of the university was 338. 

Union college, at Schenectady, New York, founded in 
1795, was one of the earliest institutions to furnish instruc- 
tion in engineering and general science. It was among the 
first to recognize the importance of modern languages, and 
at an early date it added a " scientific course " to the time- 
honored curriculum, which included little besides Latin, 
Greek and mathematics. In 1845 lt offered courses in civil 
engineering, and there has been added recently a depart- 
ment of electrical engineering which will enjoy exceptional 
opportunities, owing to the fact that the great manufactur- 
ing plant of the General electric company is located at 
Schenectady. 

Washington university, at St. Louis, Missouri, has long 
maintained a school or department of engineering of excel- 
lent reputation. It offers five courses of study, namely, in 
civil engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engi- 
neering, chemistry, and science and literature. They 
are of four years' duration and lead to the degree of 
bachelor of science. Advanced and professional degrees 
are conferred on about the usual conditions as to study and 
experience. The testing laboratory of the department of 
civil engineering is one of the best known, especially for the 
large amount of timber testing for the U. S. government 
which has been done in it. The total number of graduates 
of the School of engineering, up to 1899, was 186. 

The University of Cincinnati, at Cincinnati, Ohio, founded 
in 1872 upon a bequest of Charles McMicken, a wealthy 
merchant of Cincinnati, provides courses in general science 
and in civil engineering. Instruction is also given in applied 
electricity, but no distinctive course in electrical engineering 



583] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 33 

is offered. The courses are of four years' duration and lead 
to the degree of bachelor of science. There is also a course 
in astronomy, instruction in which is facilitated by an excel- 
lent astronomical observatory well equipped with modern 
instruments and appliances. A course in mathematics, 
announced in 1890, leads to the bachelor of science degree. 
In addition to the income from the McMicken fund, the 
university receives annually a considerable sum collected as 
a tax upon the taxable property of the city of Cincinnati. 

The University of California, at Berkeley, California, 
includes in its departments a college of agriculture, of 
mechanics, of civil engineering and of chemistry. A course 
in electrical engineering is offered in the College of mechanics. 
They are all of four years' duration and lead to the degree 
of bachelor of science. There is also an astronomical depart- 
ment in which is included the celebrated Lick observatory 
at Mt. Hamilton. 

There is also in California the well-known Leland Stan- 
ford, Junior, university, which offers courses in the natural 
sciences and in civil, mechanical and electrical engineering. 

The College of technology of Tulane university of Louisi- 
ana at New Orleans, Louisiana, is an important school not 
only on account of the excellence of its courses and facilities 
for instruction, but specially by reason of its location, and it 
is destined to be an important factor in the development of 
the great resources of the southern part of the United States. 
It offers five courses, namely, mechanical engineering, which 
includes electrical engineering, chemical engineering, sugar 
engineering, civil engineering and architecture. The course 
in "sugar engineering" is unique, and of special value to 
the sugar producing interests of the region in which the col- 
lege is located. It includes not only the chemistry and 
physics of sugar preparation and cultivation, but the 
mechanics and engineering of all machinery and appliances 
used in a modern sugar-making plant. The degree of bach- 
elor of engineering is conferred upon all who complete one 
of the courses of the college of technology. 



34 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [584 

Vanderbilt university, at Nashville, Tenn., maintains a well- 
equipped engineering department. In 1888 Mr. Cornelius 
Vanderbilt, the grandson of the founder, made a donation 
to the university of $30,000 for the erection of a building 
for mechanical engineering. Previous to that time, and in 
fact, from the opening of the institution in 1876, courses of 
science and civil engineering had been provided and in 1899 
mechanical and mining engineering were added. In 1895 a 
course in electrical engineering was established. Four years 
are required to complete any of the courses and the degree 
of bachelor of engineering is conferred upon those who suc- 
cessfully accomplish the work in either course. In 1899 
there were 18 students in the engineering department. 

There remains to be considered the third group of schools 
of science and engineering, which includes those depending 
for support largely upon state or national appropriations, 
or related to the universities or colleges deriving a large 
part or all of their income from these sources. 

Among the best known schools of engineering in the 
country are those forming a part of Cornell university, Ith- 
aca, N. Y. Those branches of engineering which depend 
principally upon mechanics are represented in Sibley college, 
while civil and hydraulic engineering, geodesy and kindred 
branches are included in the " college of civil engineering." 

The Sibley college of mechanical engineering and the 
mechanic arts was established through the generosity of 
Hiram Sibley who had been interested with Mr. Cornell in 
the great telegraph enterprises out of which grew the West- 
ern Union telegraph company. He was born in Masachu- 
setts in 1807 and died in Rochester, N. Y., in 1888. His 
interest in the telegraph began with the early experiments 
of Morse, and he was actively engaged in the attempt to 
connect Europe and America telegraphically by way of 
Bering Straits. He was also interested in railroad enter- 
prises and in farming on a large scale, being at one time the 
largest owner of improved lands in the United States. The 
college of mechanical engineering was begun by a gift from 



585] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 35 

Mr. Sibley sufficient for the erection of a building and 
for the support of a chair of "practical mechanics and 
machine construction." He continued making additions to 
his first donations, and in 1885 the trustees of the university 
organized the college under the name by which it is now 
known. Mr. Sibley's gifts amounted to $180,000, and 
$50,000 additional have been contributed by other mem- 
bers of the family. The Sibley college includes eight 
departments ; mechanical engineering, experimental engi- 
neering, electrical engineering, machine design, mechanic 
arts or shop work, industrial drawing and art, and graduate 
schools of marine engineering and naval architecture, and 
of railway mechanical engineering. Courses of study are 
four years in length and the degree of mechanical engineer, 
electrical engineer, etc., are conferred upon those who suc- 
cessfully complete the respective courses. In 1899 the num- 
ber of students in Sibley college was 492. The laboratories, 
museums, shops and other parts of the college are very 
completely furnished and equipped. 

The College of civil engineering provides instruction in 
all departments of that subject and particularly in some of 
the more advanced developments of the science. Special 
instruction is given in bridge engineering, railroad engineer- 
ing, sanitary, municipal, hydraulic and geodetic engineering. 
Numerous graduate courses are provided, for illustrating 
which an astronomical observatory or laboratory, a magnetic 
laboratory, an extensive hydraulic laboratory and other 
laboratories furnish ample means. The museums of the 
College of civil engineering are rich in collections of models, 
instruments of precision, base line and gravity apparatus, 
together with a large assortment of the usual field instru- 
ments, such as transits, theodolites, levels, etc. In 1899 
there were registered 186 students in this college. 

The University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, Michigan, 
was organized by legislative act in 1837, which made pro- 
vision for instruction in engineering. Regular instruction 
was not begun, however, until 1853, and the first degrees 



36 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [586 

were conferred in i860. The engineering courses were 
included in the department of literature, science and the arts 
until 1895, at which time the department of engineering was 
established. Courses are offered in civil, mechanical, elec- 
trical and chemical engineering, and four years are usually 
required to complete any one of these. All lead to the 
degree of bachelor of science. Advanced degrees are con- 
ferred for graduate courses of study. In 1899 there were 
registered 218 students in the department of engineering. 

Purdue university, at Lafayette, Indiana, is in reality the 
Indiana institute of technology. It was originally organized 
under the Morrill act, but assumed the name which it now 
bears in 1869 when, by legislative enactment, the state 
accepted a gift of $150,000 and one hundred acres of land 
from John Purdue. It receives support from the state and 
national government, tuition being free to all residents of 
Indiana. The university embraces six special schools. 
They are as follows : A School of mechanical engineering, 
of civil engineering, of electrical engineering, of agriculture, 
of science and of pharmacy. Courses of study in these 
schools are four years in length, except in the School of 
pharmacy, in which the course is completed in two annual 
sessions of thirty-seven weeks each. The degree of bach- 
elor of science is conferred upon those completing one of 
the four-year courses, and that of graduate in pharmacy 
(Ph. G.) upon those who complete the course in pharmacy. 
There is an exceptionally large and well-arranged engineer- 
ing building which accommodates the departments of civil 
and mechanical engineering, and the equipment of the 
School of mechanical engineering is excellent. It is pro- 
vided with a locomotive testing plant and other appliances 
for railway mechanical engineering. The biological, chemi- 
cal and other laboratories are well furnished. In 1899 the 
total enrollment of students was 730, including 130 in the 
School of pharmacy and in a special class in agriculture, 
and the total number of instructors was about 65. 

The University of Wisconsin, at Madison, Wisconsin, was 



587] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS $7 

established by act of the legislature in 1838, but no action 
was taken under the act except the selection of two town- 
ships of land as allowed by congress, for the future support of 
the institution. The first meeting of the board of regents for 
the purpose of organizing the university was held in 1849, 
and the first building was erected in 1851. In 1866 the 
university was reorganized to secure the land grant under 
the Morrill act, and in the following year the state began to 
support the institution by annual appropriations. The Col- 
lege of engineering was opened in 1870, and has established 
and maintained a high reputation for the excellence of its 
work. The College of "mechanics and engineering," as it 
is now called, provides courses of four years' duration in 
civil, sanitary, mechanical and electrical engineering, and in 
applied electro-chemistry. These courses all lead to the 
degree of bachelor of scienceo Advanced and professional 
decrees are conferred under certain conditions as to oradu- 
ate study and experience. An excellent astronomical 
observatory is available for the instruction of students in 
civil engineering, and the college is well furnished with 
laboratories, apparatus, museums, etc. In 1899 there were 
242 students registered in the College of mechanics and 
engineering. 

The University of Illinois, at Urbana, Illinois, was founded 
in acceptance of the national land grant under the Morrill 
act in 1862, and named at first the Illinois industrial uni- 
versity. Power to confer degrees was granted by the state 
legislature in 1877, and in 1885 the name of the institution 
was changed to that which it now bears. The organization 
includes four " colleges " and six "schools." The colleges 
are of literature and arts, of engineering, of science and of 
agriculture. The College of science offers courses arranged 
in four groups, including the chemical and physical group, 
the mathematical group, the natural science group and the 
philosophical group. The College of engineering offers 
courses in architecture, architectural eno-ineerinp; civil eno;i- 
neering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering and 



38 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [588 

municipal and sanitary engineering. There are also gradu- 
ate courses in science and in engineering. The degree of 
bachelor of science is conferred upon those completing one 
of the courses of four years in the College of engineering 
and also in the College of science. 

Similar in origin, and in many respects similar in organi- 
zation, is the Ohio state university, at Columbus, Ohio. 
The institution opened its doors to students in September 
1873. From the beginning instruction in science and 
engineering has been the most prominent feature of its 
work. As now organized, the university embraces six col- 
leges, the College of engineering being one. In this col- 
lege are offered courses in civil engineering, mine engineer- 
ing, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, ceramics, 
industrial arts, chemistry and architecture. There is also a 
short course in mining, in clay working and in industrial 
arts. To those who complete these courses, which are of 
four years' duration (except as explained above), degrees of 
civil engineer, engineer of mines, mechanical engineer, etc., 
etc., are granted, and in chemistry and some other courses 
the degree is bachelor of science. The College of arts, 
philosophy and science offers a course in general science, 
leading to the degree of bachelor of science. The university 
is especially well equipped in its laboratories and museums 
of geology, agriculture, mechanics and metallurgy. In 
1898 there were registered 302 students in the College of 
engineering;. 

The University of Minnesota, at Minneapolis, Minnesota, 
is another example of an important and extensive develop- 
ment upon the land grant foundation. Originally organized 
in 1 85 1, it dates its real beginning from 1868, when by act 
of the legislature it was reorganized as the recipient of the 
Morrill act endowments. Its organization includes a School 
of technical and applied chemistry, the College of engineer- 
ing and mechanical arts and the School of mines. The 
course in the School of chemistry is of four years' duration 
and leads to the degree of bachelor of science. 



589] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 39 

The College of engineering and mechanic arts offers 
courses of four years each in civil, mechanical and electrical 
engineering, for which the degrees C. E., M. E. and E. E. 
are conferred. There is also a four years' course in drawing 
and industrial art for which no degree is granted. In the 
School of mines there are two regular courses of study, in 
mining and in metallugy, leading to the degree of engineer of 
mines (E. M.) and metallurgical engineer (Met. E.) respec- 
tively. In 1898 there were registered in the College of engi- 
neering 129 students, in the School of mines 54, and in the 
School of chemistry 6. 

The University of Tennessee, at Knoxville, Tenn., char- 
tered in 1794 as " Blount college," becoming in 1807 " East 
Tennessee college," in 1840 "East Tennessee university," 
and finally receiving in 1869 the national land grant endow- 
ment, was given the name which it now bears by act of the 
legislature in 1879. 1° lts College of agriculture, mechanic 
arts and sciences it provides courses in civil, mechanical and 
electrical engineering, in chemistry and in general science. 
Its buildings, laboratories, apparatus and general facilities 
are well up to the requirements of a high standard of work. 

The State college of Pennsylvania, at State College, Penn- 
sylvania, is another institution of pronounced success and 
high character which owes its origin to the Morrill act of 
1862 and in which ample provision is made for instruction 
in pure and applied science in courses and under conditions 
not varying greatly from those already set forth in describ- 
ing other institutions of the same type. 

Indeed, the list might easily be extended until it included 
the entire list of state institutions founded under this act or 
made the recipient of the income which it provides. 

If space permitted it would be profitable to consider in 
some detail two or three special schools, such as the Michi- 
gan School of mines, the Colorado School of mines, institu- 
tions which have grown out of the demands of their respec- 
tive localities, very much as did the famous school at Frei- 
berg long ago. Much might well be said, also, concerning 



4-0 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [59O 

the efforts made in the United States to establish trade 
schools, and of their great success in New York, in Phila- 
delphia, and under the direction of the Pratt institute in 
Brooklyn, and in Cincinnati, and elsewhere, notwithstanding 
the occasional opposition of trades' unions and other 
unfriendly organizations. 

It is greatly regretted that limitations of space make it 
impossible to give something of a detailed exposition of the 
organization and methods of work in a few institutions like 
the Pratt institute at Brooklyn, the Drexel institute in Phil- 
adelphia, each of which is unique, and all of which are doing 
a most important work. 

It will be noted that the leading institutions or depart- 
ments of institutions in which special attention is given to 
pure and applied science do not differ materially in their 
organization, courses of study or degrees conferred. Prac- 
tically all courses are four years in length, in nearly all the 
first two years are largely preparatory to the special or pro- 
fessional work of the last two, embracing modern languages, 
mathematics and a few other subjects, most of which are 
common to all courses offered. The differentiation begins 
generally at the opening of the junior or third year, although 
in some cases it must commence earlier. In the matter of 
degrees the great majority of schools confer only the degree 
of bachelor of science at the end of the four years' course, 
but there are a few that offer the so-called professional 
degrees such as C. E., M. E., etc., for the mastery of a four 
years' course. The requirements for graduate degrees are 
tolerably uniform, being usually a year of resident study 
with the preparation of a thesis for the master's degree, and 
in addition to this usually three years' successful profes- 
sional work with an acceptable thesis for a professional 
degree. 

The requirements for admission are by no means uniform, 
nor are they extremely varied. Perhaps the typical average 
requirements for admission to schools of science or engi- 
neering colleges would include — besides the "common 



59 1] SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS 41 

English branches " — algebra, plane geometry, English lit- 
erature, history of the United States and either the French 
or German language. About two to three years' study of 
the latter would be required, and to this list will often be 
added solid geometry, plane trigonometry, the elements of 
physics or chemistry, and sometimes a year or two of Latin. 
There seems to be a growing tendency towards the intro- 
duction of a large number of electives among the subjects 
required for admission. 

It is hoped that a sufficient number of institutions have 
been considered and that enough has been said of them to 
exhibit in some degree the enormous educational advance 
which has taken place during the past fifteen or twenty 
years throughout the whole country, and especially in what 
is known as the "middle west." At no previous period in 
the history of the world has there been so rapid and pro- 
ductive an evolution of educational forces as this period has 
witnessed, and it will not escape notice that it has largely 
been a development of methods and appliances for the study 
of science, pure and applied. No sketch of the origin, 
growth and present condition of the schools of science and 
engineering in the United States would be complete with- 
out reference to the Johns Hopkins university, an institution 
which, although giving little attention to applied science and 
technology, has been a very large factor in determining 
the character and methods of instruction to which these 
schools owe their success. Although not 'yet twenty-five 
years old, it is impossible to overestimate its influence 
upon higher education in this country, and especially is 
this true in all things relating to science. There is 
scarcely a college faculty that has not been enriched by the 
presence of one or more of its graduates, bringing with 
them at least something of the spirit of that institution, its 
respect for exact scholarship and regard for scientific truth. 
For the schools of engineering and technology in the 
United States are, and are intended to be, something more 
than a mere avenue leading to increased money-making 



42 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING SCHOOLS [592 

power. They are intended to fit for the responsibilities of 
citizenship, and, if worthy of the name, their methods of 
instruction are such as to cultivate independence of thinking 
and personal responsibility in judgment. Nor are they 
deficient in that intellectual discipline and culture which 
constitute a liberal education. Although not specifically 
organized for original research, their methods of work nat- 
urally lead to and encourage it, and during the past quarter 
of a century they have contributed generously to the 
advancement of pure science, to which, however, they must 
always be in debt. As a whole, they represent one of the 
most important achievements of an age whose chief glory 
is found in the increase and diffusion of science and its 
applications. 



12 

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



BY 

CHARLES W. DABNEY 

President of the University of Cincinnati 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



The earliest farmers in America had to contend with 
innumerable and great obstacles ; with the wildness of 
nature, the attacks of Indians and wild beasts upon their stock, 
the difficulty of obtaining farming implements and seeds, and 
with conditions of climate and soil, very different from those 
of the old countries whence they derived all their methods. 
The colonial farmer was compelled to use the crudest 
methods. He cut down, heaped and burned the small trees 
and undergrowth, and belted the large ones. He scratched 
the surface a little with a home-made plow, and cultivated 
his corn and tobacco with a wooden hoe. He harvested the 
crop that nature gave him in a careless manner and used it 
wastefully. He cultivated the same field until it was worn 
out, when he cleared another and moved his family near to 
it. So long as land was so abundant, no attention was paid 
to the conservation of fertility of the soil. America was 
such a vast and fertile country that it took the people over 
a century to find out that there was any limit to its produc- 
tiveness. These conditions were quite sufficient to explain 
the slow progress made in agriculture during the first century 
or more after the settlement of America. 

It was not until the close of the eighteenth century that 
the attention of practical men commenced to be directed to 
the discoveries of science, and hopes were excited that 
immediate benefits would accrue from them to agriculture 
as they had to the other arts. Lavoisier's discoveries and 
teachings had aroused the hope that chemistry could do a 
great deal to promote the advancement of farming. Ameri- 
cans commenced to appreciate their disadvantages as com- 
pared with British and continental farmers, and to seek 
better implements and methods for their work. The newly- 



4 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [50 

awakened interest in agriculture was marked first by the 
formation of agricultural societies. George Washington 
was one of the best technically educated men in America in 
his day, and was especially interested in everything pertain- 
ing to agriculture. His various state papers show that he 
not only knew the needs of the country, but that he fully 
realized that schools for the education of the people and 
societies for the distribution of knowledge were necessary 
for the safety of the republic. A few extracts will recall 
his strong opinions on this subject. In his first annual mes- 
sage to congress (Jan. 8, 1790) he expressed the hope that 
the " advancement of agriculture, commerce, and manufac- 
tures, by all proper means, will not, I trust, need recom- 
mendation," and adds, " Nor am I less persuaded that you 
will agree with me in the opinion that there is nothing which 
can better deserve your patronage than the promotion of 
science and literature. * * * Whether this desirable 
object will be best promoted by affording aids to seminaries 
already established, or by the institution of a national uni- 
versity, or by any other expedients, will be well worthy of a 
place in the deliberations of the legislature." Notice how 
agriculture and a national university for the promotion of 
science and arts were always associated in Washington's 
mind. He mentions the advancement of agriculture and 
the establishment of a national university in the same con- 
nection in his first message. He discusses them together 
in many of his writings during eight years, and finally 
in his eighth annual message he says, "It will not be 
doubted that with reference either to individual or national 
welfare agriculture is of primary importance. In pro- 
portion as nations advance in population and other cir- 
cumstances of maturity, this truth becomes more appar- 
ent, and renders the cultivation of the soil more and 
more an object of public patronage. Institutions for pro- 
moting it grow up, supported by the public purse ; and to 
what object can it be dedicated with greater propriety? 
Among the means which have been employed to this end, 



597] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 5 

none have been attended with greater success than the estab- 
lishment of boards (composed of proper characters) charged 
with collecting and diffusing information, and enabled by 
premiums and small pecuniary aids to encourage and assist 
a spirit of discovery and improvement. This species of 
establishment contributes doubly to the increase of improve- 
ment by stimulating to enterprise and experiment, and by 
drawing to a common center the results everywhere of 
individual skill and observation, and spreading them thence 
over the whole nation. Experience accordingly has shown 
that they are very cheap instruments of immense national 
benefits." * * * "I have heretofore proposed to the 
consideration of congress the expediency of establishing a 
national university and also a military academy. The 
desirableness of both these institutions has so constantly 
increased with every new view I have taken of the subject 
that I cannot omit the opportunity of once for all calling 
your attention to them." With marvelous foresight Wash- 
ington urged the necessity for scientific research and educa- 
tion in America, and he planned at the same time for insti- 
tutions to discover and collect knowledge, and societies to 
disseminate it. He saw also that agriculture was to be the 
chief industry in the country, and that it would need the 
assistance of science. Thus he appears to have associated 
plans for the advancement of agriculture with those for a 
national university. 

Congress promptly established the military academy, and 
some years later the naval academy and the department of 
agriculture. But it has not yet established the national uni- 
versity, which was the chief agency in Washington's mind 
for the development of all the sciences and arts of peace. 

THE FIRST AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AND FAIRS 

Where did Washington get this conception of the work 
of boards of agriculture ? The first society for the pro- 
motion of agriculture in the United States was organized 
at Philadelphia on March I, 1785; and on the 4th of July 



6 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [598 

following George Washington and Benjamin Franklin were 
elected members. A similar society was incorporated in 
South Carolina in the same year, which proposed, among 
other things, to establish an experimental farm — the first 
sueeestion of the kind in our history. The New York 
society for the promotion of agriculture, arts and manufac- 
tures, which had been organized on the 26th of February, 
1 791, published its first small volume of transactions in 1792. 
The Massachusetts society for the promotion of agriculture 
was established March 7, 1792, and commenced, in 1797, 
the publication of bulletins. The Society for promoting 
agriculture in the state of Connecticut was organized in 
1794, and published its first volume of proceedings in 1802. 
Washington was evidently familiar with the work of these 
agricultural societies ; but his knowledge of such agencies 
was not limited to his own country. In Great Britain, the 
Bath and the West of England agricultural societies had 
been established. Sir John Sinclair, the " inventor of statis- 
tics" and president of the Highland society, had established, 
in 1 791, the British wool society and the sheep fair at New- 
halls Inn. After agitating the subject for a number of years, 
Sinclair secured the establishment of the Royal board of 
agriculture, and was appointed its first president in 1793. 
Washington's correspondence with Sir John Sinclair shows 
that he had the benefit of all the information to be obtained 
from the father of the British board of agriculture. 

Agricultural societies naturally led to the establishment 
of fairs and exhibitions. A member of the Massachusetts 
society suggested first in 1801 that agricultural fairs should 
be held regularly at Cambridge spring and fall, and pre- 
miums be given for farm products. No action appears, 
however, to have been taken with regard to this suggestion. 
Dr. Thornton, the first commissioner of patents at Wash- 
ington, suggested in 1804 that the sale of agricultural pro- 
ducts and of cattle would be promoted by the holding of 
fairs on market days, as in England. As a result of this 
suggestion we learn from the "National Intelligencer" of 



599] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 7 

that year that fairs were held " in the mall on the south side 
of the Tiber." The first fair proved such a success that the 
citizens raised an appropriation of $50 for premiums for the 
next one, which was held in April, 1805. The third fair, 
held in November, 1805, appears to have been the last.. 

Governor Edward Winslow, of Massachusetts, is said to 
have brought to Plymouth, in the ship Charity, in 1694, 
"the first neat cattle that came into New England." It 
was appropriate that his descendant, Elkanah Watson, of 
Plymouth, should import the first pair of Spanish Merino 
sheep into Massachusetts, and should then give notice of an 
exhibition of them at Pittsfield. This small exhibit led to 
a larger enterprise and the establishment of stock shows in 
America. An invitation was published by Watson and some 
twenty other persons calling an exhibition of stock at the 
same place on the first of October. This cattle show was 
so successful that it became a permanent institution in 
Massachusetts. A number of public spirited citizens of 
Maryland, Virginia and the District of Columbia had in the 
meantime formed, in 1809, the Columbian agricultural 
society, which was for many years actively engaged in the 
work of educating the farmer through the agency of fairs. 
From these beginnings agricultural societies have spread all 
over our country, and agricultural fairs have become a 
potent agency for the dissemination of valuable information 
with regard to new crops, implements, stock and improve- 
ment in agriculture generally. 

Nearly all of the states now have either boards of agri- 
culture or commissioners or secretaries of agriculture in 
charge of the farming interests. Their work varies, but 
usually includes the collection of agricultural statistics, the 
preparation of weather and crop reports and the oversight 
of the stock interests, and frequently also the inspection and 
analysis of fertilizers and mixed cattle feeds, the testing 
and examination of dairy and other food products. Some 
of the state boards conduct the agricultural colleges, hold 
fairs, give premiums for fine stock and hold farmers' insti- 



8 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [6oO 

tutes. The boards, commissioners and societies all publish 
reports and bulletins and many of them accomplish a great 
deal of admirable educational work. 

The Patrons of husbandry (Grange) and National farmers' 
alliance are organizations with many subordinate branches 
and local societies and have exerted great influence especially 
in educating the farmers and their families. The Farmers' 
national congress meets once a year for the discussion of 
questions of general interest. For the stock interests, we 
have in this country a national live stock association, five 
national dairy unions, and fifty-six state dairy associations. 
There are fourteen cattle breeders associations representing 
the interests of as many different important breeds, eight- 
een horse breeders associations, twenty-nine sheep breeders 
associations, seventeen associations of swine breeders, etc. 
Nearly all of the states protect their stock from diseases 
through the agency of sanitary boards or veterinarians 
under the direction of the state boards or commissioners. 

There is a national league for good roads that is doing 
much to educate public opinion. Ten states have forestry 
commissions or provide for forest protection and improve- 
ment in some way. There are besides eighteen forestry 
associations which are doing much educational work. Eleven 
national or interstate, and fifty-four state horticultural and 
kindred societies are at work. (For the names of these 
societies and the addresses of their officers, see the Year- 
book of the United States department of agriculture for 
1898.) 

THE RISE OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS 

The origin and development of agricultural schools in 
America was a part of a general educational movement 
against the old classical college and in favor of scientific and 
technical education. Perhaps the demand for agricultural 
education was the first one to be heard ; but it had its origin 
in the same causes which gave rise to the demand for the 
application of science to all the arts and professions in life. 

As the great universities of Europe grew out of monastic 



6oi] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION ' 9 

and cathedral schools, so our first American colleges were 
all the children of the churches. The preachers were in the 
early days almost the only learned men, and therefore the 
only teachers. In the case of the rural schools the preacher 
was both school director and teacher. The institutions for 
higher education were also founded and controlled by the 
associations and presbyteries of the different denominations, 
and the most learned of their clergy became the instructors. 
Naturally enough, as their founders and teachers were all 
preachers, these early colleges were devoted almost exclu- 
sively to the cultivation of theology, classics and philosophy. 
Their parson-teachers taught what they held to be the only 
thing worth learning, and they were right in putting charac- 
ter and culture above everything else. Their methods pro- 
duced a race of preachers, teachers, lawyers, statesmen, and 
soldiers scarcely equalled and never surpassed in any coun- 
try. But a new and rapidly growing country like America 
needed engineers, chemists, miners, and manufacturers, and 
an ambitious and intelligent people were not slow to make 
their wants heard. 

Some of the physical sciences, notably chemistry and 
geology, had already made great progress, and had revolu- 
tionized some of the arts. The popular writings of great 
scientific men, notably Liebig's Letters on chemistry, were 
eagerly read, and people everywhere cherished bright hopes 
of the benefits to be derived from the application of science 
to the industries of life, and especially to agriculture. Dis- 
covery and invention were already doing much to develop 
the material resources of the world and to change the occu- 
pations of men. Steam was beginning to be used for the 
purpose of transportation, chemistry was being applied in 
working iron, in dyeing fabrics, and in many other arts. 
Great railroads were to be built, but with the exception of 
the military academy at West Point, there was no school 
to train the engineers to survey them. Mines of coal and 
iron were to be opened, but miners had to be imported to 
open them. Factories needed to be built, but engineers 



IO AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [602 

had to be brought over from England or Holland to build 
them. Iron works and many other important industries 
were calling loudly for chemists, who had to be obtained 
from Germany or France. These influences, but more 
especially the need of scientific knowledge in a rapidly 
developing country, produced a profound effect on the theo- 
ries and practice of education ; and thus a vigorous demand 
arose for the sciences and their applications to the arts of 
life. The old college was not meeting the new demands ; 
but what the new college was to be, and what its methods, 
no one knew for a lono- time. 

Columbia college, in the city of New York, appointed, in 
1792, Samuel L. Mitchell "professor of natural history, 
chemistry and agriculture." The records of the college do 
not show what instruction he gave in agricultural science, 
if any, but Professor Mitchell, as far as we know, was, by 
title at least, the first professor of agriculture in America. 
We are told that he prepared a number of essays on manures 
and other subjects for the New York society for the promo- 
tion of agriculture, and that his influence in behalf of the 
sciences related to agriculture was very evident in the men 
he trained. Many of them became prominent in science, 
and some were influential in the movement for agricultural 
schools. 

The Philadelphia Society for the promotion of agricul- 
ture, of which Washington was an honorary member, 
appointed a committee on January 21, 1 794, " to prepare a 
plan for establishing the State society for the promotion of 
agriculture, connecting with it the education of youth in the 
knowledge of that most important art." This committee 
made a report offering several alternative propositions for 
promoting agricultural education. One suggestion made 
was " the endowment of professorships to be annexed to the 
University of Pennsylvania and the College of Carlisle, and 
other seminaries of learning, for the purpose of teaching the 
chemical, philosophical and elementary arts of the theory of 
agriculture." Another suo-aestion was to use the common 



603] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION I I 

school system of the state to educate the farmer in his busi- 
ness, " the county school masters being made secretaries of 
the county societies, and the school houses the places of 
meeting and the repositories of their transactions, models, 
etc. The legislature may enjoin on these school masters 
the combination of the subject of agriculture with other 
parts of education." This is, so far as we know, the first 
formal effort made in the United States to present the 
claims of agricultural education to a legislature and to incor- 
porate instruction in agriculture in the common schools. 

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF 

AGRICULTURE 

The war with England, the expansion of territory, the 
rapid development of manufacturing and many other causes, 
contributed to retard the progress of agricultural education 
for several decades after the beginning of the century. The 
agitation continued, but little was accomplished until after 
1 840. 

Upon the motion of Elkanah Watson, the Berkshire 
agricultural society of Massachusetts presented in 181 7 a 
memorial to congress praying for "the establishment of a 
national board of agriculture in accordance with the original 
suggestion of President Washington." The bill reported 
in the house of representatives was promply defeated by a 
large vote. It was well known that President Madison was 
opposed to it on constitutional grounds. Others based their 
opposition on the indifference of the farmers of the country 
and the idea that such a board was not needed. 

The only striking event in the agricultural history of the 
country during the next decade was the agitation of silk 
culture, commonly called the " Morus multicaulis" craze 
from the variety of the mulberry tree which was introduced 
everywhere to supply food for the silk worm. Congress 
responded to the popular demand for information on this 
subject by ordering the preparation and publication of a 
manual of silk culture, which was done. 



12 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [604 

The United States department of agriculture grew finally 
out of the recommendation of President Washington for a 
national board of agriculture, but more immediately out of 
the seed distribution originated in the department of state 
during the presidency of John Quincy Adams. The patent 
office was first in the hands of the department of state, and the 
seeds collected by consuls in various parts of the world were 
turned over to it, as the scientific branch of the government, 
for distribution. So it came about that when on the 4th of 
July, 1836, the patent office was made a separate bureau and 
Henry L. Ellsworth, a practical farmer of Connecticut, 
was appointed commissioner, he found it one of his duties to 
distribute seeds and plants. It was a congenial duty and one 
for which he was well qualified both by education and expe- 
rience. During his travels over the country as Indian com- 
missioner, Mr. Ellsworth had been deeply impressed with 
the agricultural possibilities of the western prairies and also 
with the great ignorance and destitution of the settlers upon 
them. He believed that what they needed was better imple- 
ments and seeds adapted to the climate and soils. So deeply 
impressed was he with the necessities of these people that, 
without the authority of congress and outside of business 
hours, he collected seeds and plants, which he distributed to 
farmers in all sections of the country, but especially to those 
in the far west, using the postal franks of members of congress 
for this purpose. This was the beginning of the seed distri- 
bution by the United States government, which has since 
grown to such colossal proportions. Thus also was born the 
United States department of agriculture. In his first annual 
report Mr. Ellsworth begged earnestly for an appropriation 
to continue and enlarge this distribution of seeds and one 
was made during the last days of the twenty-fifth congress 
which provided $1,000 from the patent office fund "for 
the purpose of collecting and distributing seeds, prosecuting 
agricultural investigations, and procuring agricultural statis- 
tics." With the exception of the years 1840, 1841 and 1846 
congress made a small appropriation for this purpose each 



605] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 1 3 

year from the patent office fund. The first separate appro- 
priation for agriculture, made in the year 1854, was 
$35,000, and it has never been less than that sum. An agent 
was authorized also at this time to " investigate and report 
upon the habits of insects, injurious and beneficial to vege- 
tation," and a botanical garden was established. The same 
year arrangements were made with the Smithsonian institu- 
tion for collecting meteorological statistics. The present 
United States department of agriculture was established by 
an act of congress, approved by President Lincoln on May 
15, 1862. This act was chiefly due to the strong plea made 
by Commissioner of Patents David P. Holloway, of Indiana. 
It is remarkable that the other great act for the promotion 
of agriculture in America, known as the land-grant act estab- 
lishing colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, was passed 
by the same congress and approved by President Lincoln on 
July 2nd of the same year, both in the midst of the terrors of 
the civil war. 

The act of May 15, 1862, did not establish an independent 
department of the government. Its chief officer was styled 
simply " commissioner of agriculture." He did not become 
a member of the cabinet until the nth of February, 1889, 
when President Cleveland approved another act of congress 
making the department of agriculture an executive depart- 
ment. The duties of the department of agriculture were 
(act of 1862) : "To acquire and diffuse among the people 
of the United States useful information on subjects con- 
nected with agriculture, in the most general and comprehen- 
sive sense of the word, and to procure and propagate among 
the people new and valuable seeds and plants." 

So much of the history of the United States department 
of agriculture appears necessary to this discussion of agri- 
cultural education in the United States. Through its sur- 
veys and laboratories, its experiment stations and especially 
through its numerous and valuable publications it has been 
the chief agency of agricultural education in America. 



14 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [606 



THE FIRST AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 

The demand for scientific and technical education did not 
cease as the years passed by, but grew louder and louder 
with the development of the country. The history of the 
agitation in New York may be taken as an illustration. In 
1819 there was published anonymously at Albany a pam- 
phlet on " the necessity of establishing an agricultural col- 
lege," which has been commonly attributed to that active 
and intelligent man, Simeon De Witt, surveyor-general of 
New York. He proposed the establishment of an institu- 
tion to be called the agricultural college of the state of New 
York, to be endowed by the state and conducted under state 
authority. The transactions of the New York agricultural 
society for 1822 contain allusions to the same subjects, and 
the matter was never allowed to drop entirely out of sight. 
About 1825 a private agricultural college or school was 
undertaken in Columbia county. This was the period (1830 
to 1850) of the agitation for the so-called "manual labor 
schools," and many of the schools of the time took that form. 
The Oneida institute was one of the first of these schools, 
and it is said to have had a course of instruction in practical 
agriculture. These' were not manual training schools or 
technical schools in the modern sense, but schools having 
farms attached where the students could support themselves 
by manual labor while pursuing their studies. This plan, 
which found much popular favor for a time and led to the 
establishment of numerous schools, was soon found to be 
impracticable and abandoned. 

The demand for agricultural education in New York grew 
steadily, and by 1838 petitions bearing six thousand signa- 
tures were presented to the legislature demanding state aid 
in behalf of agricultural schools. The committee to whom 
the petitions were referred deplored in strong language 
" that there is no school, no seminary, no department of any 
school in which the science of agriculture is taught," and 
recommended very strongly the establishment of a school of 



607] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 1 5 

agriculture. No action was taken at this time, but the mat- 
ter came up in a different form at each succeeding session 
of the legislature, and appears to have grown steadily in 
favor. The State agricultural society helped greatly to 
advance the interests of the cause, and in 1844 appointed a 
committee of which Governor Seward, Lieutenant-Governor 
Dickinson, and James S. Wadsworth, were members, to pro- 
mote " the introduction of agricultural studies in the schools 
of the state," and also " for the purpose of selecting books 
for family and school libraries." It was resolved at the same 
time, " That this society regards the establishment of an 
agricultural institute and pattern farm in this state, where 
shall be taught thoroughly and alike the science, the prac- 
tice, and the profits of good husbandry, as an object of great 
importance." This committee co-operated with the associa- 
tion of school superintendents, with the result that that body 
adopted, in June, 1844, a resolution drawn by Professor 
Potter, of Union college, setting forth the opinion that "the 
time has arrived when the elements and scientific principles 
of agriculture should be taught in all schools." Still the 
state took no action. Numerous private agricultural schools 
were established however. 

Governor Hamilton Fish first recommended, in January, 
1849, in his annual message to the legislature, the establish- 
ment of a state agricultural college. During the following 
session of the legislature Professor Johnson, the great agri- 
cultural chemist of Scotland, was invited to Albany and 
delivered a course of lectures under the auspices of the New 
York agricultural society. The same year this society estab- 
lished a chemical laboratory at Albany for the analysis of 
manures, fertilizers, etc. Still nothing was done about the 
school. 

Professor William H. Brewer, from whose writings many 
of these facts have been derived, thus described the first 
industrial college established in New York: "In 1850 Mr. 
John Delafield, a graduate of Columbia college, where he 
may have received instruction from Professor Mitchell, was 



l6 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [608 

livine on one of the best farms of the state, in the town of 
Fayette, Seneca county. He was at one time president of 
the New York state agricultural society, and originated and 
carried out an agricultural survey of Seneca county. He 
took a deep interest in the cause of agricultural education, 
and owing to his action and energy on April 15, 1853, the 
state passed an act establishing an agricultural college. 
This act created a board of ten trustees, of which Mr. Dela- 
field was president, but appropriated no money. The col- 
lege was to be located on Mr. Delafield's farm in the town 
of Fayette, but as he died October 22 of the same year 
nothing more was done about building a college there." 
The Rev. Amos Brown, principal of Ovid academy, situated 
fifteen miles south of Fayette, who was to become later the 
chief assistant of Senator Morrill in securing the passage of 
the land-grant act establishing agricultural colleges, appears 
to have gotten his inspiration and information from Mr. 
Delafield. At least when the school at Fayette failed, Mr. 
Brown conceived the idea of having the charter of the agri- 
cultural college transferred to his academy at Ovid. He 
secured an act for this purpose from the general assembly in 
1856, which provided a loan by the state of $40,000. The 
citizens of Fayette and vicinity had in the meantime sub- 
scribed about $50,000. The board of trustees was organ- 
ized, buildings were erected, and the college was formally 
opened as the New York state agricultural college in the fall 
of i860, with M. R. Patrick as president of the college. 
The affairs of the institution appear to have been poorly 
managed, however, as it was found to be too heavily in debt 
to begin active operations. When the civil war broke out 
President Patrick went off with the army, and the college 
was closed never again to be opened. Amos Brown after- 
wards became president of the People's college near Havana, 
New York, and after the passage of the Morrill act in 1862 
secured an act from the legislature of New York giving 
the whole of its share of the land-grant to this college. But 
that institution failed to comply with the conditions of the 



609] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 1 7 

law, and the land-grant of the state of New York was turned 
over to Cornell university, which thus became the agricul- 
tural college of the state. This narrative has been intro- 
duced to show the growth of the idea which led to the 
establishment of Cornell university, probably our greatest 
agricultural institution. 

The first agricultural college to be actually established 
and put in operation was that of the state of Michigan. 
Article 13, section 11 of the constitution of the state of 
Michigan adopted in 1850, says: "The legislature shall 
encourage the promotion of intellectual, scientific, and agri- 
cultural improvement ; and shall as soon as practicable, pro- 
vide for the establishment of an agricultural school." This 
was the first state constitution to provide for the establish- 
ment of an agricultural school. It is noteworthy, also, that 
it was the first one to provide that all instruction in the dis- 
trict schools should be conducted in the English language. 
The act establishing the state agricultural college of Michi- 
gan was passed on February 12, 1855. The college was 
located upon a farm of some 500 acres, situated about four 
miles east of the city of Lansing ; buildings were erected, 
and the college was formally opened in May, 1847. 

The legislature of Maryland incorporated the next agri- 
cultural college in 1856, which was, however, in part a pri- 
vate institution. Some five hundred citizens of Maryland, 
and of the District of Columbia, together with a few from 
adjacent states, subscribed to a certain amount of stock, 
which the legislature required should be provided. The 
stockholders elected a board of trustees, and this body 
located the college upon the estate of Charles B. Calvert, 
situated in Prince George county, about nine miles east of 
the city of Washington. The institution was opened for 
students in September, 1859, when Professor Joseph Henry 
of the Smithsonian institution, delivered a handsome oration. 

Marshall P. Wilder first urged the importance of estab- 
lishing an agricultural college in Massachusetts, in an address 
before the Norfolk agricultural society made in 1849. The 



1 8 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [6lO 

state senate of Massachusetts passed a bill in 1850 establish- 
ing such a school, but it failed in the house. A committee 
was appointed to investigate the matter, and they sent Pro- 
fessor Hitchcock to the continent of Europe to visit agricul- 
tural schools. His report was transmitted to the legislature 
by the governor in the following year, with the result that 
the Massachusetts board of agriculture was established in 
1852. Mr. Wilder kept up the agitation, however, and 
finally in 1856 succeeded in obtaining from the legislature a 
charter of the Massachusetts school of agriculture. The 
Massachusetts agricultural college was not regularly opened, 
however, until 1867. 

The general assembly of the state of Pennsylvania incor. 
porated the Farmers' high school, now the State college, in 
1854. The act provided that people of different sections-of 
the state might offer land and property and thereby secure 
its location in their midst. Funds for building and equip- 
ment were provided from the state treasury. The State 
agricultural society made certain donations, and the college 
was opened for students in the winter of 1859. These were 
the leading agricultural schools established before the pas- 
sage of the land-grant act in 1862. 

Closely related to these agricultural schools were the 
scientific schools established at Yale and Harvard between 
1840 and 1850, in response to the same demand for a new 
education. John P. Norton was appointed professor of agri- 
cultural chemistry, vegetable and animal physiology at Yale 
college, New Haven, Connecticut, in 1846. Thus was 
begun the Sheffield scientific school, which was more of an 
agricultural institution than any of the other schools of that 
time. Professor Norton began his lectures in 1847, and for 
some years wrote voluminously for agricultural journals. 
He also prepared and published his first work, The Elements 
of agriculture. Among his first students in the course in 
agricultural chemistry was the distinguished Professor W. 
H. Brewer, of the Sheffield scientific school at Yale. The 
Lawrence scientific school at Harvard, established about 



6ll] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 1 9 

the same time, was founded upon an endowment of $40,000, 
given by the Lawrences, who, being interested in factories, 
caused this school to direct its attention more to the appli- 
cations of chemistry to manufactures. 

Francis Wayland, president of Brown university, became 
greatly interested at this time in scientific and technical edu- 
cation, and took a prominent part in the discussion of the 
reforms needed to adapt the institutions of America to the 
requirements of the time. In his little book on the Present 
collegiate system of the United States he argued earnestly 
in favor of the introduction of scientific subjects into the 
college curriculum and the adoption of a system ofelectives. 
A science hall and a museum of geology were erected at 
Brown in 1840; but means failed to support the scientific 
work, and Dr. Wayland was constrained to resign in 1855, 
when the old classical course was re-established. These 
changes were all parts of a general movement for the modi- 
fication of the classical curriculum, and the introduction of 
scientific and technical study. Wherever this was done the 
sciences pertaining to agriculture were sure to be introduced. 

THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES 

As the plans for the new college education won support in 
these states, the friends of the cause took courage to con- 
quer new fields. Their activity was soon extended from 
the halls of state legislation to those of the government at 
Washington. The agitation first voiced itself there in peti- 
tions to congress for national aid for agricultural colleges. 
After several years the friends of the movement secured the 
interest and co-operation of Justin S. Morrill, then a mem- 
ber of the house of representatives from the state of Ver- 
mont, who was destined to be known as the father of the 
agricultural colleges and to live to see them firmly estab- 
lished in all the states and territories in the union and well 
supported by congressional appropriations, made in three 
acts, secured largely by his efforts extending over thirty 
years. Mr. Morrill introduced the first bill in the lower 



20 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [6 1 2 

house on December 14, 1857, and saw the last one approved 
on August 30, 1890. His first bill authorized the establish- 
ment of colleges in all the states and provided 20,000 acres 
of public land for each member of congress for their main- 
tenance. The committee on public lands, to which it was 
referred, brought in an adverse report on April 15, 1858. 
The bill however passed both houses at the following session, 
but was vetoed by President Buchanan. Nothing daunted 
by this defeat, Mr. Morrill introduced a new bill in the house 
in December, 1861, bestowing 30,000 acres of land for each 
member of congress upon the several states for the estab- 
lishment of industrial colleges. Ben Wade of Ohio intro- 
duced the bill in the senate on May 2. It passed both 
houses in spite of an adverse report by the house committee 
on public lands, and was approved by President Lincoln 
July 2, 1862, the day of McClellan's retreat after the battle 
of Malvern Hill in Virginia. We have shown how Presi- 
dent Lincoln approved the bill for the department of agri- 
culture on May 15 preceding. In the midst of the excite- 
ment of the great war little attention was paid to this most 
remarkable gift of about 13,000,000 acres of land to promote 
the cause of education. Having been passed during a war, 
it is not surprising that the act provided that every college 
receiving the benefits of the land-grant should give its stu- 
dents instruction in military science. 

This great grant, the greatest ever made to education, 
which was the foundation of industrial education in America, 
and represented the consummation of a great revolution in 
the system of higher instruction in this country, demands 
somewhat careful study. The act was entitled " An Act 
donating public lands to the several states and territories 
who may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and 
the mechanic arts." It granted to each state an amount of 
public land equal to 30,000 acres for each senator and repre- 
sentative in congress to which the states were entitled by 
the apportionment of the census of i860. The object of the 
grant is expressed in remarkably broad terms, as follows : 



613] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 21 

" The endowment, support and maintenance of at least one 
college where the leading object shall be, without excluding 
other scientific and classical studies, and including military 
tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to 
agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the 
legislatures of the states may respectively prescribe, in order 
to promote the liberal and practical education of the indus- 
trial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life." 
This paragraph has been the silbject of a vast deal of dis- 
cussion which must be briefly noticed. First, let us hear 
what Senator Morrill himself has said with regard to its 
meaning. Says he : " It is perhaps needless to say that 
these colleges were not established or endowed for the 
sole purpose of teaching agriculture. Their object was to 
give an opportunity for those engaged in industrial pursuits 
to obtain some knowledge of the practical sciences related 
10 agriculture and the mechanic arts ; such as they could not 
then obtain at most of our institutions called classical col- 
leges, where the languages, Greek and Latin, French and 
German, absorbed perhaps two-thirds of all of the time of 
the students while in college. But it was never intended 
to force the boys of farmers going into these institutions so 
to study that they should all come out farmers. It was 
merely intended to give them an opportunity to do so and 
to do so with advantage if they saw fit. Obviously not 
manual but intellectual instruction was the paramount object. 
It was not provided that agricultural labor in the field should 
be practically taught, any more than that the mechanical 
trade of a carpenter or blacksmith should be taught. 
Secondly, it was a liberal education that was proposed. 
Classical studies were not to be excluded, and therefore, 
must be included. The act of 1862 proposed a system of 
broad education by colleges, not limited to superficial and 
dwarfed training such as might be supplied by a foreman of 
a workshop or by a foreman of an experimental farm. If 
any would have only a school with equal scraps of labor and 
of instruction, or something other than a college, they would 



22 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [614 

not obey the national law. Experience in manual labor, in 
the handling of tools and implements, is not to be dispar- 
aged ; in the proper time and place it is most essential, and 
generally something of this may be obtained either before 
or after the college term, but should not largely interfere 
with the precious time required for a definite amount of sci- 
entific and literary culture, which all earnest students are apt 
to find far too limited." The chief contention with regard 
to the meaning of the act has always and everywhere been 
over the question whether these colleges should be mere 
schools of practical agriculture and mechanic arts, or insti- 
tutions for liberal education as well. This utterance of Sen- 
ator Morrill, made many years after the bill was passed, 
should settle this question forever. 

In the first place, we learn that the general object of the 
act was to provide for the scientific and liberal education of 
industrial classes, who were not sufficiently provided for in 
the old-fashioned classical colleges. The new institution 
was to be a college, that is, an institution of higher educa- 
tion. It was not to be a mere farm or shop, or even a man- 
ual labor school ; but an institution where the sons of farm- 
ers and mechanics and of other members of the industrial 
classes could get, at a moderate cost, both a " liberal and 
practical education." By "liberal" education was always 
meant in those times a literary and classical education. The 
act recognized fully the correlation of all knowledge and the 
necessity of subordinating all to the great objects of the law, 
by forbidding the exclusion of " other, scientific and classical 
studies." But it was to be "a college where the leading 
object should be to teach such branches of learning as are 
related to agrictdture and the mechanic arts " — not practical 
agriculture merely, or practical mechanics merely, but the 
branches of learning related thereto. 

In the second place, these institutions were to educate, 
not exclusively, but especially, as has been said, the indus- 
trial classes. At the time they were founded almost the only 
institutions for higher education were classical colleges pat- 



615] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 23 

ronized by the sons of the wealthy, who usually became lit- 
erary men, teachers, preachers, lawyers, and physicians. 
For years the great demand had been for instruction in the 
branches of learning which qualify men in the industrial 
pursuits. Therefore these colleges were designed especially 
to fill this great gap in our educational system and to give 
the sons of the industrial classes the opportunity to get any 
kind of an education they wanted. The sons of these indus- 
trial classes, however, were not to be limited to agriculture 
and the mechanic arts, for the law says, they shall receive 
" a liberal and practical education," which would qualify them 
for " the several pursuits and professions of life " 

These colleges established another new principle in edu- 
cation in America, the principle of free tuition in the highest 
schools of learning. Liberal education is a necessity in 
a free government ; heretofore only the sons of the rich 
were able to get it. A government of the people, for the 
people, and by the people can be perpetuated only by edu- 
cating all the people. It is not sufficient that we have 
in America a magnificent system of common schools. The 
highest education must be within the reach of all the worthy 
poor. As Butler has said, " The attempt to feed elementary 
education on itself alone is perpetual motion transformed. 
Strike at the human heart effectually, and the listless fingers 
close in death ; strike at the source of scholarship and sup- 
ply, and every remotest part of this body politic falls back 
stricken or weak." Or as Atherton has said, " Higher edu- 
cation is as the ocean to the mountain spring, continually 
sending back the dew and the rain to supply them. It is as 
the tree to the fruit, continually imparting vitality and sub- 
stance. It is as the sun to the planets, holding all in their 
appointed course. From the higher institutions come not 
only teachers to lead and guide the lower, but that great 
body of learning and intelligence which creates, molds, and 
enriches public sentiment, which supports the common 
school." These national colleges first gave all the people, 
rich and poor alike, the opportunities for getting the best 
education. 



24 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [6 1 6 



Thirdly, it is to be noted that these colleges are not class 
institutions. Though designed to guarantee them these 
opportunities they are not limited to the industrial classes. 
They are intended to supplement existing institutions and 
provide free tuition for all classes, the sons of professional 
men, as well as mechanics. As Senator Morrill has said in 
another place, " I should hope that no farmer or mechanic 
would be so illiberal as to wish to have the monopoly of edu- 
cation in any of these land-grant colleges." They are, in 
brief, the colleges of all the people, of every class and pro- 
fession, and they are intended to give all alike the oppor- 
tunities for the broadest education. As Ezra Cornell 
expressed it, they are institutions " where any person can 
find instruction in any subject." This purpose has been 
wonderfully well accomplished by the majority of them in 
the thirty years of their existence. By giving the higher edu- 
cation to rich and poor, these colleges have done more to 
render permanent American institutions than any other insti- 
tution founded by congress. 

American institutions of learning have often been ridi- 
culed for their extravagance in " brick and mortar." The 
average board of trustees of an American college has a 
strong disposition to buy land and lay off extensive lawns 
and parks, and to expend money in large buildings, and then 
to starve its professors and pinch them in the matter of 
books and equipment. This was especially true in the ear- 
lier days. Seeing how many institutions had ruined their 
usefulness in the extravagant external management of their 
affairs, and desiring to stimulate states and local communi- 
ties to do their share in upbuilding these colleges, the law 
said, " that no portion of said fund nor the interest thereon, 
shall be applied, directly or indirectly, under any pretense 
whatever, to the purchase, erection, preservation, or repair 
of any building or buildings." 

This provision has been the cause of a great diversity of 
practice as to the manner of providing the necessary build- 
ings and grounds for these institutions. Whether the col- 



617] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 25 

lege should be an independent institution or whether it 
should be connected with some existing college was the first 
question raised in every state. The state either had to make 
large appropriations for buildings and grounds or else con- 
nect the new institution with some old one. There were 
always old institutions wanting the new endowment, and the 
competition between them was frequently a warm one. The 
arguments in favor of connecting them with existing institu- 
tions were the saving of the cost of buildings and grounds, 
of museums and libraries, etc., and the difficulty of provid- 
ing corps of professors in many of the subjects, which had 
to be taught, especially the literary ones. Other arguments 
were found in the scarcity of competent professors for the 
new institutions and in the theory, taught clearly in the act 
itself, that the new education was to be built upon the old, 
the practical and the liberal going hand in hand. The argu- 
ments in favor of independent agricultural colleges were the 
danger of having the new fund absorbed for the purposes of 
the old education, the danger of ill feeling or conflict 
between the technical and the classical students, and the sup- 
posed incompatibility of the study of abstract and applied 
science. 

A very wise provision of the act is the one which makes 
the exact character of the institution and the nature of the 
instruction to be oriven a matter for the decision of the lepfis- 
latures of the states. The instruction should be adapted to 
the needs of the people and the character of the industries 
of the several states. The sciences related to the mechanic 
arts hold just as important a place in this law as those 
related to agriculture ; and this term is evidently intended 
to be interpreted in the same liberal sense in which we have 
interpreted the terms " agriculture " and " branches of learn- 
ing related to agriculture." The branches of learning 
related to mechanic arts comprehend all the sciences not 
included among those related to agriculture. In some of 
our states agriculture is the chief industry, while manufac- 
turing is the largest interest in others. Under this provision 



26 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [6 1 8 

the state may itself determine which group of sciences shall 
receive the chief attention. The act has been properly inter- 
preted thus to provide courses of industrial education to suit 
the needs of the different states and has rarely been abused. 
Believing that the time had arrived when the agricultural 
and mechanical colleges should have additional support, Mr. 
Morrill and the other friends of industrial education in the 
United States began in 1889 to formulate plans to secure a 
second appropriation from the national treasury. Mr. Mor- 
rill introduced another bill in congress providing for the 
further endowment of the colleges, which passed and was 
approved by President Harrison on August 30, 1890. This 
act, generally known as the second Morrill act, provides that 
there shall be appropriated annually to each state out of the 
funds arising from the sale of public lands, as in the case of 
the agricultural experiment stations, the sum of $15,000, for 
the year ending June 30, 1890, and an annual increase by 
the additional sum of $1,000, to such appropriation for ten 
years thereafter until the appropriation shall become $25,000, 
at which figure it shall remain fixed. The act says that this 
appropriation shall be applied " only to instruction in agri- 
culture, the mechanic arts, the English language, and the 
various branches of mathematical, physical, natural and eco- 
nomic science, with special reference to their applications to 
the industries of life, and to the facilities for such instruc- 
tion." Provision was made at this time for separate institu- 
tions for white and colored students in such states as desired 
to make this arrangement. Being limited in its application 
this act has done. even more than the original one to stimu- 
late industrial education in the United States. 

CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 

The early agricultural colleges and schools have in nearly 
all cases been merged into the colleges established under 
the land-grant act of 1862. The act establishing colleges 
of agriculture and mechanic arts was a broad one, and was 
framed purposely so as to permit the states to organize col- 



619] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 27 

leges adapted to their particular needs. As a result it is 
very difficult to classify them. Under this law there have 
been organized almost all grades of agricultural schools, 
from those of the high school grade to great universities 
with extensive departments for scientific research. 

According to their type of organization, they may be 
broadly divided into two classes : First, separate colleges of 
agriculture and mechanic arts ; secondly, universities having 
departments of agriculture, and usually also of engineering. 
Of the earlier institutions having only courses in agriculture, 
only one remains, the Massachusetts agricultural college, 
referred to above. All of the other institutions established 
first as colleges of agriculture, pure and simple, have organ- 
ized departments of mechanic arts in obedience to the law. 
Many have become great institutions of technology, with 
departments for many arts. In some colleges like those of 
Mississippi and Texas, the agricultural department prepon- 
derates largely, as it should always do in great agricultural 
states having very little manufacturing. The tendency in 
all the colleges is to multiply the courses of study in sci- 
ences applied to the arts and to cover all the technical pur- 
suits of the states. For example, in several of the southern 
states, where cotton manufacturing is growing, departments 
have been organized for instruction in the textile industry. 
Unless large additional appropriations are provided by the 
states for this purpose, it were better to limit the courses 
undertaken to a few of the most important ones. The ten- 
dency at the present time, however, is to build up all of these 
technical department schools around the state university or 
the agricultural and mechanical college having these funds. 

Sixty-five institutions have been organized in the several 
states and territories under the acts of congress of July 2, 
1862, and August 30, 1890. At least one institution is 
now in operation in each state and territory except Alaska. 
Of the sixty-one colleges having regular courses in agricul- 
ture, twenty-seven may be classified as separate colleges of 
agriculture and mechanic arts, and nineteen as universities 



28 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [62O 

having departments of agriculture and engineering. Sepa- 
rate institutions for colored students have been established 
in accordance with the act of 1890 in eight southern states. 
Instruction in them has usually been limited for the most 
part to courses below the college grade and to the industrial 
arts suited to the needs of the negro. Seven remain unclassi- 
fied above. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION 

The requirements for admission to the agricultural col- 
leges vary very much in the different states in accordance 
with the school systems and the other opportunities for 
preparation. The western and southern agricultural col- 
leges usually take the students from what is known in this 
country as the eighth or ninth grade of the public school 
course. A majority of the institutions require for admission 
either certificates from the preparatory schools or examina- 
tions in the more important subjects. 

The average standard of admission to the agricultural col- 
leges is presented in the report of the committee on entrance 
requirements made to the association of colleges at the 
meeting in November, 1896. They recommended the fol- 
lowing (Rept. of Bureau of education, 1896-97, p. 429) : 

" The committee holds that it is advisable, as a beginning, 
to determine the requirements in a few subjects upon which 
it is possible for all the colleges to agree, and to recommend 
others, which, although too high at present for adoption by 
some of these institutions, may yet serve as a standard or 
goal toward which effort may be directed. 

" As a standard series of entrance requirements, to be 
adopted as soon as possible, we recommend the following : 

1. Physical geography. 

2. United States history. 

3. Arithmetic, including the metric system. 

4. Algebra to quadratics. 

5. English grammar and composition, together with English 
requirements of the New England association. 

6. Plane geometry. 



62 1 ] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 29 

7. One foreign language. 

8. One of the natural sciences. 

9. Ancient, general, or English history." 

Many of the universities have a much higher standard of 
admission, some of them requiring a preparation fairly com- 
parable with that for students entering the literary and 
scientific courses. Candidates for admission at Cornell, for 
example, must be at least sixteen years of age and pass an 
examination in Englisn, geography, physiology and hygiene, 
history of the United States and England, Greece or Rome, 
plane geometry, elementary algebra, and at least two of the 
following subjects : Greek, Latin, French, German and 
advanced mathematics. 

COURSES OF STUDY 

The courses of study in the separate colleges for agricul- 
ture and mechanic arts are not essentially different from 
those of the agricultural departments of the state universi- 
ties, with the exception that in most cases the work of the 
separate colleges begins a little earlier and is not so much 
differentiated as that in the universities. Many of the sepa- 
rate agricultural colleges have, however, quite as high 
requirements for admission as any of the state universities, 
and do as high a grade of work as the best of them. On 
the whole, it appears that practical agriculture occupies the 
highest place in the separate colleges, though more research 
in the sciences pertaining to agriculture is being carried on 
in the universities. In universities in which departments of 
agriculture are maintained, it may be said in general that 
the tendency is to make the four years' course in agriculture 
correspond in scope and thoroughness with those in philoso- 
phy, sciences and engineering. As more means are obtained, 
instruction in agriculture is divided among an increasing 
number of specialists, who are provided with separate build- 
ings, laboratories and shops. It is characteristic of American 
state universities that they are seeing more and more clearly 
that agriculture and manufacturing are important human 



30 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [622 

interests which may rightfully claim the best efforts of the 
greatest scientific intellects for their advancement, and that 
on the basis of agricultural sciences may be built a system 
of instruction in literature, mathematics and technology 
which is as well or better adapted to produce scholars, investi- 
gators and leaders in civilization as was the old philosophi- 
cal or the pure science course. 

The courses of study in agriculture are variously arranged. 
Nearly all these institutions maintain* a four years' course, 
which is made up usually of two years of preparatory 
sciences and general culture studies, followed by two years 
of more advanced scientific and technical agricultural work, 
largely elective. At present there is little demand in our 
country for the all-around agricultural expert, and few 
colleges attempt to educate them. Such an expert cannot 
be trained in four years, if at all. When the demand for 
such a thoroughly-trained expert arises, he will have to 
begin his training in the preparatory school and carry it up 
through the college and the university. But this time is far 
off. At present the agricultural colleges content themselves 
with giving their students a fair general knowledge of the 
sciences underlying agriculture, horticulture, and the animal 
industry, with opportunities to acquire experience in some 
one line of practical work. The arrangement of this four 
years' course differs a good deal in different institutions, but 
the standard for it is laid in the reports adopted by the 
association of American agricultural colleges at its meetings 
in 1896-97. The following paragraphs from that report 
give the plan of this course as at present given in the best 
institutions : 

" Before proceeding to consider in detail the topics which 
should be included in a course of agriculture, and the 
methods to be pursued in teaching agricultural subjects, 
the committee has deemed it essential to determine the gen- 
eral relation of a course in technical agriculture to the other 
courses of study which should be connected with this to 
form a four years' course in an agricultural college. This 



623] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 3T 

task was made simpler by the previous work of the commit- 
tee on entrance requirements, courses of study, and degrees, 
whose report, adopted at the last meeting of this association, 
suggests certain requirements for entrance and specifies 
certain subjects as desirable in all courses given in the col- 
leges in membership with this association. 1 In the following 
suggestions regarding a four years' course in agriculture, this 
committee conforms to that report." 

That portion of the report of the committee on entrance 
requirements, which relates to the subject essential to all 
courses, is as follows : 

" In the judgment of your committee, it is not too much 
to require the equivalent of fifteen hours per week of reci- 
tations and lectures, together with ten hours per week of 
laboratory work, or practicums, including the time devoted 
to military science and drill. Upon this basis the above- 
mentioned general studies should be assigned a relative 
importance, approximately, as follows : 

Hours 

Algebra 75 

Geometry 40 

Trigonometry 40 

Physics (class-room work) 75 

Physics (laboratory work) , 75 

Chemistry (class-room work) 75 

Chemistry (laboratory work) 75 

English 200 

Modern languages 340 

Psychology 60 

Ethics or logic 40 

Political economy 60 

General history : 80 

Constitutional law 5° 

Total 1, 285 



" The total number of hours included in a four years' 
course, allowing fifteen hours per week for thirty-six weeks, 

1 See United States Department of agriculture, Office of Experiment stations, 
bulletin 41, p. 52. 



32 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [624 

would be 2,140; with ten hours' laboratory work, or practi- 
cums, added, 3,600. In general terms, therefore, the fore- 
going general studies should comprise about two-fifths of 
the work required for a bachelor's degree." 

" Your committee on methods of teaching agriculture sug- 
gests additional subjects to be included in a four years' 
course in agriculture leading to the degree of bachelor of 
science, as follows : 

Hours 

Agriculture 486 

Horticulture and forestry 180 

Veterinary science (including anatomy) 180 

Agricultural chemistry (in addition to general requirement). 180 

Botany (including vegetable physiology and pathology). . . . 180 

Zoology (including entomology) 120 

Physiology 180 

Geology 1 20 

Meteorology 60 

Drawing 60 

Total 1, 746 



In reckoning the number of hours, two hours of labora- 
tory work, or practicums, are considered the equivalent of 
one hour of recitation. In this way the total number of 
hours in a four years' course is made 2,900, instead of 3,600, 
as proposed by the committee on entrance requirements." 

" Your committee also submits the following suggestions 
regarding the course of study to be included under the 
head of 'Agriculture.' In this part of its work the com- 
mittee has followed the general divisions of agriculture pro- 
posed in its previous report. The number of hours to be 
assigned to each of these general subjects is stated, as well 
as the main topics to be included under each general subject, 
and, in some cases, the text-books which may be used in con- 
nection with the teaching of particular subjects. These 
books are, however, named because they are considered by 
your committee as the best text-books now available on the 
subjects. They may also serve to show in a general way 



625] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 33 

what would properly be included in the course under the 
several topics to which they apply. Some notes regarding 
equipment requisite for teaching the different branches 
included in this scheme are also given. The number of 
hours assigned to the different subjects is intended to apply 
to the average conditions of a four years' course in agri- 
culture. Local conditions will, of course, call for more or 
less modifications of the scheme here proposed." 
"Agriculture (486 hours) shall include : 

Hours 

1. Agronomy, or plant production 132 

2. Zootechny, or animal industry 162 

3. Agrotechny, or agricultural technology 72 

4. Rural engineering, or farm mechanics 60 

5. Rural economics, or farm management 60 



Total 486 



Synopsis of Course in Agriculture 
Agronomy 132 hours. 

Texts. 

Climate .... \ 

Soils If. H. King — The Soil. 

Tillage, drainage and irrigation . . . . ) 

Fertilizers. LP. Roberts — The Fertility of the Land. 

Plant production . ) G. E. Morrow and T. F. Hunt — 

Farm crops.. J Soils and Crops. 

Zootechny 162 hours. 

Principles of breeding M. Miles — Stock Breeding. 

Breeds of live stock G. W. Curtis — Horses, Cattle, Sheep 

and Swine. 

Stock, feeding, care, and management. . H. P. Armsby — Manual 

of Cattle Feeding. 
(Animal physiology to be taught under ' Physiology ; ' anatomy 
and animal diseases under ' Veterinary science.') 
Agrotechny 72 hours. 

Butter making J H ' H ' Wing- Milk and its Products. 

( H. B. Gurler — American Dairying. 

Cheese making J. W. Decker — Cheddar Cheese Making. 

(Other topics, such as sugar making, wine or olive oil making, 
may be taught under this head in different parts of the United 
States.) 



34 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [626 

Rural engineering 60 hours. 

Roads, drains, irrigation systems, farm buildings, and 
machinery. 

Rural economics 60 hours. 

History of agriculture. 

Farm management, rural law, farm accounts." 

The course of study presents the largest problem now 
before the faculties of our colleges. The present courses 
and methods have been criticised for their lack of " peda- 
gogical form," for the "confusion of studies," and especially 
for lack of " orderly sequence in the progress of instruction " 
which has made the classical education and to a certain 
degree the scientific and engineering courses of our insti- 
tutes of technology processes commanding the respect of 
scholars the world over. These critics are in error when 
they speak of agriculture as an independent science, and 
propose to formulate the instruction in it as they would that 
in chemistry or in biology. The fact is, agriculture is not a 
science but an art, and what we are attempting to do in these 
colleges is to carry out the injunction of the act of congress 
of 1862 and "teach the sciences (chemistry, physics, geology, 
biology, vegetable physiology, etc., each including numer- 
ous branches), related thereto." For this reason the course 
of study in agriculture with good "pedagogical form " must 
be made up of a course in chemistry and agricultural chem- 
istry, a course in vegetable physiology, a course in the phys- 
iology of animals, a course in soil physics, etc. — many dis- 
tinct courses. When the student has mastered all these it 
would seem to be possible, if he stays at the college long 
enough, to teach him in good " pedagogical form," some of 
their applications in agriculture. As Professor Jordan, 
director of the Maine agricultural experiment station, has 
well said (Report of bureau of education, 1896-97,, p. 
454) : " The real and important need of which the farmer 
is conscious is for a knowledge of conditions and not 
for methods or for skill in manipulation. When he 
clearly understands the reasons for that which goes on 



627] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 35 

about him, the right method will appear. The difficulties 
lie with explanations, not with mechanical processes. And 
besides, agriculture is not a business involving such delicate 
and intricate mechanical operations that attendance upon a 
college would be justified in order to learn them, although the 
modern dairy, the forcing house, and the fruit garden do 
require skill. But I venture to assert that no machines or 
practical methods have yet become available to the agricultur- 
ist whose use the clear-brained inmates of our farm homes have 
failed to master. The spraying of fruit with fungicides and 
insecticides illustrates how readily the necessary manipula- 
tion was acquired when the reasons for these operations 
became evident. It is the explanation of phenomena, then, 
which the extended course of study should give in order 
that the farmer may know how to adapt himself to the vary- 
ing and complex conditions which he meets in his work." 

This is the real problem and one which the colleges and 
universities are working out with marked success. 

Perhaps the colleges and universities having departments 
of agriculture are doing more immediate good to the largest 
number of persons through their short courses and their 
special schools for dairying, horticulture, etc., than through 
the long course. These short courses are designed to meet 
the wants of young farmers who desire practical, helpful 
instruction in agriculture after leaving the high schools and 
before taking up their chosen vocations. A number of the 
colleges maintain courses in agriculture of twelve weeks 
beginning the first of January of each year. They usually 
include lectures on feeds and feeding, breeds of live stock, 
elementary agricultural chemistry, physics of soils, meteor- 
ology, elements of vegetable physiology, the chief facts of 
veterinary science, dairying, horticulture, and some of the 
leading facts of bacteriology. Courses are selected from 
these to meet the needs of special classes of students from 
different districts. Laboratory practice is usually given in 
soil physics, stock judging, dairying, vegetable physiology, 
and practical horticulture. Other short courses are limited 



36 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION |6s8 

to the chemistry and bacteriology of milk and practical 
dairying, or to plant propagation, grafting, pruning, and 
practical horticulture. These courses are more largely 
attended than the four years' course. The tendency at 
present seems to be to split up the four years' course into 
special courses or to distribute among the different short 
courses students who cannot attend the institution more 
than a few months at a time. It is encouraoqnsr to note that 
such students frequently return winter after winter for addi- 
tional training. 

MILITARY INSTRUCTION 

As has been stated, the land-grant act, establishing col- 
leges of agriculture and mechanic arts, was passed in the 
midst of the civil war. The supporters of the Union had 
learned through bitter experience that the great need of the 
army was trained officers. The chief object of the college 
was to be, as has been explained, the education of the indus- 
trial classes ; but the secondary object was the training of 
young men in military matters who would be ready to serve 
their country in any future emergency. It will be interest- 
ing to notice, therefore, what has been actually accom- 
plished by military departments of these colleges. Forty- 
two land-grant colleges have fully organized military depart- 
ments. In the spring of 1898 these colleges had military 
organizations varying in size from one company to a whole 
regiment, having nearly 572 officers, 1,456 non-commissioned 
officers, and nearly 7,000 privates, making a total of about 
9,000 cadets under training. It is estimated that about 
15,000 young men have completed the course of military 
instruction in these colleges during the last ten years, and it 
is evident that a large number of them will be available for 
military service in case of need. An effort was made by the 
writer to ascertain the number of officers commissioned in 
the Spanish-American war who received their education in 
these institutions. It was difficult to secure complete sta- 
tistics, but the partial reports received show that 1,092 young 
men from these colleges were commissioned by the presi- 
dent in the regular and volunteer armies during the last war. 



629] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 37 

EXPENSES OF STUDENTS 

The expenses of students in the agricultural colleges of 
the United States vary much with the location and advan- 
tages offered. The tuition is uniformly free to all students 
pursuing, the agricultural courses. It is customary to charge 
small fees to cover the actual expenses of material used in 
the laboratories and shops. Students pay their own board 
and personal expenses. Some institutions give free lodg- 
ings, though a majority charge only the actual cost of the 
maintenance of the buildings, fuel, lights, etc. Many insti- 
tutions have special funds with which to pay for student 
labor, which usually takes the form of a fixed allowance for 
work regularly performed. The total college expenses of a 
student will vary from $150 for a session of nine months at 
a western or southern college, located in the country, to 
$400 or $500 at a university in one of the eastern states.. 
More assistance and more opportunities for self-support are 
offered agricultural students than any others in our institu- 
tions. The tendency everywhere is to increase these oppor- 
tunities and to reduce the expense of the students of agri- 
culture, while all the facilities provided them are constantly 
improved. 

EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURE 

The farmers' institute is to the adult farmer what the agri- 
cultural school is to his son. They were the outgrowth in 
part of the public meetings of agricultural societies and 
state boards of agriculture, and in part of the extension 
work of colleges and universities. The object of these 
institutes is to bring the workers in the agricultural sciences 
and the practical agriculturists together for the discussion 
of questions of mutual interest. Through such discussion 
the farmer gets the benefit of the information which the 
scientist has obtained in the course of his investigations, and 
the scientist learns what the farmer's needs and difficulties 
are. The results of the practical tests made by the farmer 
of the scientist's theories are also brought out. By such con- 



38 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [63O 

ferences both classes of workers have their opinions and 
experiences broadened. 

Institutes in the United States are carried on under all 
conceivable auspices ; most commonly, however, by the state 
commissioners, the state boards of agriculture, or the agri- 
cultural colleges. In some states there is an independent 
organization with a secretary of institutes in charge. Some 
states make special appropriations for institutes, others 
merely allow a limited amount of the funds appropriated for 
the board of agriculture or college to be used for this pur- 
pose. Institutes are held usually during the winter or after 
the crops are " laid by " in midsummer, when the farmer 
has most time to spare, and continue in session from one 
to three or four days. The programs are arranged to pro- 
mote the interchange of ideas between the farmers and the 
scientists, every effort being made to draw out a full and 
free discussion of the topics introduced by the addresses or 
papers of specialists. The best plan is to secure the assist- 
ance of an equal number of scientific experts and experi- 
mental farmers, the latter being selected, as far as possible, 
from the district where the institute is held. A local com- 
mittee arranges for halls, music, literary and general exer- 
cises. The people of the community are usually attracted 
in large numbers, especially at the evening sessions when 
more popular subjects are discussed. Subjects connected 
with good roads, public education, and the interests of the 
home and farm are also discussed frequently. Those con- 
nected with sectarian religion or partisan politics should be 
carefully excluded, but almost any other topic of interest to 
the local community may properly find its place on the pro- 
gram of a farmers' institute. In states where institutes 
have been carefully planned and systematically conducted 
by competent persons they have become exceedingly popu- 
lar, with the result that large appropriations are being made 
for them each year. Something like the farmers' institute 
is now held in almost all the states in the Union. 

Closely related to the farmers' institute are the various 



631] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 39 

other methods of agricultural college extension work, such 
as co-operative field experiments, correspondence courses in 
agricultural sciences, reading circles for farmers, and itiner- 
ant agricultural schools. Co-operative field experiments 
were inaugurated soon after the establishment of the col- 
leges for agriculture. The college or station makes plans 
and supplies the fertilizers or gives prescriptions for the 
same, with full directions as to methods of carrying out the 
experiments. The farmers report upon blanks prepared for 
the purpose, and the different results are compared and pub- 
lished. A great deal of good has been accomplished in this 
way, especially in educating farmers as to the proper method 
of using chemical manures. Similar methods have been 
used in testing seeds of field and garden crops, and in test- 
ing insecticide and fungicide materials and methods. Such 
co-operative experiments have done much to promote the 
study of scientific agriculture in the states, and especially to 
develop habits of observation among the younger farmers, 
who are always the ones to take hold of this work. 

Instruction by correspondence and by courses of home 
reading in agriculture have been well developed under the 
direction of the State college of Pennsylvania. The main 
features of the plan are, " first, a carefully prepared course 
of reading designed to cover the most important branches 
of agricultural science and practice ; second, a reduction of 
the price upon the books needed ; third, personal advice and 
assistance through correspondence ; fourth, examinations 
upon the subjects read, with certificates and diplomas for 
those attaining a certain grade of excellence." " This course 
has atttacted great attention at home and received numer- 
ous applications from farmer students, many of whom have 
done excellent work, completed the prescribed courses, and 
received certificates." The courses have now been extended 
to include five subjects, with five books in each one ; namely, 
crop production, animal production, horticulture, dairying, 
and domestic economy. A supplemental list of fifteen books' 
is suggested from which students may select reading matter 



40 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [632 

to form additional courses if they desire. The full course 
consists of the thorough study of ten books, followed by an 
examination. Lessons are provided from the various books, 
and sent the students free of cost, in the form of printed 
slips. They give suggestions for study, observation and 
experiment, with references to the books recommended. 
Each lesson is accompanied by an examination paper cover- 
ing the particular subject.. The students are expected to file 
answers to all these questions and discuss them before they 
receive the second lesson. 

The itinerant agricultural school, a still later scheme, has 
been best developed in the state of New York, under the 
so-called Nixon bill, " for the purpose of horticultural experi- 
ments, investigation, instruction, and information in New 
York." This bill placed the sum of $35,000 under the 
control of the college of agriculture at Cornell university for 
the two years 1 899-1 900, and has enabled it to inaugurate 
a number of most interesting and promising experiments in 
promotion of agricultural knowledge, especially of nature 
study in the common schools. The itinerant agricultural 
school is one only of the plans now being tested by this 
institution. The meetings of these schools last two or more 
days, at which time certain instructors take up definite lines 
of instruction, giving by far the greater part of their atten- 
tion to underlying principles and not to mere facts or 
methods. 

AGRICULTURE IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS 

From the earliest time it has been the idea of the friends 
of agricultural education that instruction in this subject 
should be given in the common schools. The subject has 
been presented to the legislatures of many of the states, and 
by some it has been required to be taught. For evident 
reasons, this instruction has, until comparatively recently, 
amounted to very little. Any real instruction in agriculture 
must be based upon a knowledge of chemistry, geology, and 
the physiology of plants and animals. Such a knowledge 
cannot be given to young children, and the old-fashioned 



633] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 41 

school teacher trained to study books and not things, 
could give no instruction in nature or science. The whole 
system of education had to be revolutionized to prepare the 
way for the study of agriculture in the schools. Since the 
introduction of the natural method great progress has been 
made. Agricultural colleges have trained the professors, 
who in normal schools have taught the teachers, who in turn 
have introduced the new methods in the common schools. 
This is the only way to promote the study of agriculture 
among country people who never get to college. The study 
of nature and of agriculture in the rural and village schools 
is, as we shall see, one of the latest developments in educa- 
tion in this country. 

The following description of the Cornell attempt to intro- 
duce nature teaching into the rural schools is condensed from 
the article on " Popular education for the farmer" by A. C. 
True, Ph. D., director of the Office of experiment stations, 
in the Year-book of the Department of agriculture for 
1897. p. 284 et seq. 

" It was conceived that the fundamental difficulty with 
our agricultural condition was that there was no attempt to 
instruct the children in matters which will awaken an interest 
in country life, and therefore that the place in which to begin 
to correct the agricultural status was with the children and 
the rural schools. For the purpose of determining what 
should be done, many rural and village schools were visited 
during the past year and simple lessons were given on nat- 
ural objects. The result was that all the instructors were 
impressed with the readiness with which the children imbibed 
the information, their keen desire for it and appreciation of 
it, and the almost universal interest which teachers took in 
this kind of work. It was clear that the greatest good which 
could be rendered to the agricultural communities was to 
awaken an interest in nature study on the part of teachers 
and children. In order to facilitate teaching in this direc- 
tion, leaflets were issued to show teachers how nature study 
should be presented to the pupils, and these have been 



42 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [634 

received with the greatest enthusiasm by educators and 
many others who have examined them. 

" The outgrowth of this work with the schools is that it 

o 

seems certain that the best way in which to reach the pupils 
and the teachers is by short and sharp observations upon 
plants, insects and other natural objects, and not by means 
of definite lectures of stated lengths. 

" Instruction by means of correspondence has been an out- 
growth of the last year. There were about 1,600 readers 
upon the lists at the close of the first three months. It is 
the plan in this reading course to set the farmers to reading 
upon certain definite subjects, and then to make them 
think upon those subjects by periodical questioning. Some 
months ago the college of agriculture had enrolled under 
the head of 'university extension work' 15,000 pupils and 
10,000 teachers of the public schools and 1,600 young farmers. 
The pupils and farmers receive guidance by means of printed 
circulars, and the farmers report progress and difficulties 
upon special blanks which are furnished. Six instructors 
are employed throughout the state in conducting university 
extension work, and special teachers are employed from time 
to time as occasion requires. These instructors meet the 
teachers of the public schools in the presence of their pupils 
and at teachers' associations and institutes for the purpose 
of illustrating methods for teaching nature studies directly 
related to agriculture. The leaflets furnished serve as texts 
for subjects taught. The result of pushing this educational 
motive into the rural communities has been a most decided 
waking up of those communities, which, even if the work 
were to stop at the present time, will continue to exert an 
influence for a generation and more. 

"All this work has been experimental — an attempt to 
discover the best methods of teaching the people in agricul- 
ture. The promoters of this movement believe that the 
most efficient means of elevating the ideals and practice of 
the rural communities are as follows, in approximately the 
order of fundamental importance: (1) The establishment 



635] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 43 

of nature study or object lesson study, combined with field 
walks and incidental instruction in the principles of farm 
practice in the rural schools ; (2) the establishment of cor- 
respondence instruction in connection with reading courses, 
binding together the university, the rural schools and all 
rural literary or social societies ; (3) itinerant or local 
experiment and investigation, made chiefly as object lessons 
to farmers, and not for the purpose, primarily, of discovering 
scientific facts ; (4) the publication of reading bulletins 
which shall inspire a quickened appreciation of rural life, 
and which may be used as texts in rural societies and in the 
reading courses, and which shall prepare the way for the 
reading of the more extended literature in books ; (5) the 
sending out of special agents as lecturers or teachers or as 
investigators of special local difficulties or as itinerant 
instructors in the normal schools and before the training 
classes of the teachers' institutes ; (6) the itinerant agricul- 
tural school, which shall be equipped with the very best 
teachers, and which shall be given as rewards to the most 
intelligent and energetic communities. 

" There is every reason to believe that the plan of ' nature 
teaching,' as proposed by Cornell university, may prove a 
grand success and be a very great benefit to farmers' chil- 
dren. The element of education which is at present most 
lacking in our common schools is the training of the powers 
of observation. The children need above all things else to 
be taught to observe carefully and correctly and to state 
their observations in clear terse language. The ordinary 
child, whether on the farm or in town, actually sees com- 
paratively little in the world about him. The wonders of 
the trees and plants in park or meadow, of birds and insects 
flying about the house, float like shadowy visions before his 
eyes. ' Seeing, he sees not.' He needs a teacher who can 
open his eyes and fix his mind on the realities among which 
his daily life is passed. This accurate observation of natural 
objects and facts is the only foundation on which scientific 
attainments can rest. The scientist is chiefly a man who 



44 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [636 

sees better than his fellow men. But it is also a great help 
in practical life. Many farmers acquire much of this power 
by their own unaided efforts. And these are the very men 
who most regret that they did not have in early life the help 
of a trained teacher. The farmer's child lives where he has 
the best opportunity for such training. It would benefit him 
in the practice of his art, and it would add an interest to his 
life which would do much to wean him from a desire to 
leave the farm for the turmoil and uncertain struggles of the 
town. With proper provision for the training of teachers in 
normal and other schools, it would be entirely feasible to 
have this nature teaching in all our common schools within 
a few years. It is such teaching that the child mind craves. 
With it the school becomes a delightful place and the 
teacher an angel of light." 

" Thus far only a few attempts have been made in this 
country to provide agricultural instruction of the high school 
grade. It is true that some of the agricultural colleges 
receive students directly from the common schools, but the 
constant tendency is to raise the grade of instruction in 
these institutions to a college basis and, under any conditions, 
they very imperfectly perform the duties of secondary 
schools of agriculture. The University of Minnesota has 
in recent years maintained a school of agriculture in which 
instruction in agriculture of a lower grade than that given 
in the college of agriculture has been successfully imparted. 
This school has proved quite popular. Some 300 students 
were in attendance last year, and it has been found desirable 
to offer courses for girls as well as boys. The state of 
Alabama has recently provided for the maintenance of a 
school of agriculture of secondary grade in each of the nine 
congressional districts of the state. 

" The establishment of such special schools of agriculture 
of high school grade is greatly to be commended. One of 
the best effects of such schools at the present time is to show 
the people what distinctions should be drawn between col- 
leges and high schools for agricultural education. By the 



637] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 45 

separation of these grades of instruction the colleges will 
be enabled to do their work more efficiently, and better 
opportunities will be secured for those students whose pre- 
vious training only fits them for high-school work in agricul- 
ture. But it is not believed that these special agricultural 
high schools will fully meet the needs of our farmers for 
agricultural instruction of this grade. Any school so distant 
from the farmer's home as to necessitate long journeys and 
residence at the school for two or more years must neces- 
sarily be too expensive for most of the farmers' children, 
especially after they have reached an age when their serv- 
ices may be more or less utilized on the farm. What is 
needed is courses in agriculture in numerous schools to which 
farmers' children resort, near their homes, to ' finish ' their 
education after they are through with the common schools." 

STATISTICS OF THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES 

The statistics of the land-grant colleges have been sum- 
marized in tables accompanying this paper which were con- 
densed from those published by the United States depart- 
ment of agriculture. 

In 1898 the numbers of teachers in the faculties of the col- 
leges of agriculture and mechanic arts was 1,722 ; the officers 
in the agricultural experiment stations connected therewith 
numbered 604. The students in attendance upon them in 1 898 
were as follows: In preparatory classes 6,593, in collegiate 
•classes 20,466, graduate students, 878, total students (count- 
ing those in short courses), 31,658. The graduates in 1898 
numbered 2,328 and since the opening of these colleges 
34,168. The number of volumes in the libraries of these 
institutions was 1,221,226. The number of acres of land in 
grounds and farms was 20,713. (See Table 1 for details.) 

The aggregate value of the permanent funds and equip- 
ment of the 64 land-grant colleges in the United States 
was estimated in 1898 to be: Land-grant funds of 1862, 
$10,170,550; other permanent funds, $16,858,712. The 
farms and grounds owned by them were worth $6,046,500; 



46 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [638 

buildings, $15,185,476. apparatus and machinery, $3,299,365 ; 
library and miscellaneous, $3,399,433 ; total, $53,632,852. 
(Table 2.) 

The income of these institutions exclusive of that of the 
experiment stations was in 1898: From land-grant fund of 
1862 and other permanent funds, $1,232,613; from the 
United States appropriation under act of 1890, $1,108,610; 
from state appropriation, $2,370,719 ; from fees and miscel- 
laneous, $1,306,437 ; total, $6,018,379. The value of the 
additions to the permanent endowment and equipment of 
these colleges in 1898 is estimated at $2,796,351. (Table 3.) 

Professor Reber of the Pennsylvania state college has 
made a comparison of the endowments and revenues 
secured from the land-grant in the several states, using the 
reports for 1897. The following paragraphs are taken from 
his paper : ' 

" The great disparity (see our Tables 2 and 3) in the 
amount of national aid received by the various states is to 
be accounted for less by the fact that different amounts of 
land were received, than by the differences in the manage- 
ment and disposal of the lands granted. Kansas, notably, 
though her grant was among the smallest (90,000 acres), 
has disposed of her land to such excellent advantage that 
she is in receipt of one of the best incomes derived from 
this source. Pennsylvania received 780,000 acres of land, 
and has from this large grant an income of but $25,637.43. 
New York received 990,000 acres of land, and from this 
her university eventually realized $6,662,700, an average of 
$6.73 per acre. Had Pennsylvania disposed of her land at 
the same rate her state university would have received 
$5,249,000 instead of $439,186 (as was the case), and her 
annual income from this source would have been $314,964. 
The following figures further illustrate these differences : 
Minnesota, with 120,000 acres, has an annual income from 
the land grant of $27,410. California's 150,000 acres yield 

Comparative view of endowment and income of land-grant colleges, by Louis 
E. Reber. 



639] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 47 

an annual income of $43,619.33. Iowa's 240,000 acres yield 
annual income, $47,729.75. Michigan's 240,000 acres, yield 
annual income, $31,450. Kansas's 90,000 acres, yield annual 
income, $50,689. Colorado still holds a large part of her 
land-grant. Missouri, too, holds a large amount of land 
(136,000 acres), and this with the condition that it shall 
not be sold for less than $7 an acre, whereby will eventu- 
ally be added to her endowment not less than $952,000. 
Statistics relating to the state of New York have been 
almost entirely omitted on account of the unique position 
of Cornell university among the land-grant colleges. She 
has reaped the benefit of the foresight and philanthropy of 
Ezra Cornell and others in so large a revenue that she has 
not (until recently, at least) desired state aid." 

" Many of the states, recognizing the munificence of the 
national government in appropriating so large a sum in 
the interest of higher education, have ratified their accept- 
ance of the obligation to carry on successfully what the 
nation has begun, by laying a definite tax for this purpose. 
This tax yields, in all cases, a maintenance fund only, pro- 
vision for buildings being made by special appropriation. 
Other states have assured maintenance to their state insti- 
tutions by making a fixed annual appropriation. Thirty- 
nine of the land-grant colleges have, in one way or the other, 
secured definite annual state aid." (See Table 3.) 

"The state of California has given its university over 
2,000,000 acres of land, from which is realized $109,000 
annually. From a fixed state tax (1-10) this university 
received in 1897 $128,415.16. These amounts, together 
with a special appropriation made by legislature, added to 
those received from the national appropriations, gave her in 
1897 an income of over $300,000. In 1898 and thereafter 
this income will be increased, the fixed state tax of 1-10 of 
a mill having been changed to 2-10 of a mill. This mag- 
nificent provision is independent of special appropriations 
in which, also, the state of California has been extremely 
liberal." 



48 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [64O 

" Minnesota gives 23-100 of a mill annually. Colorado 
gives 6-10 of a mill. Wisconsin divides the tax for her uni- 
versity, giving a certain millage for administrative expendi- 
ture, other millage for general instruction and one per cent 
of the railroad tax to the school of engineering. Her total 
tax receipts for the state university were, in 1897, $283,000." 

"Ohio's millage (1-10) gives at the present time over 
$177,000, though the amount shown on the chart is only 
$118,900. This discrepancy is due to the fact that the 
annual tax rate for the university was increased in January, 
1897, and the sum charted is for the college year 1896 and 
1897. Nebraska had at one time a millage which yielded 
an income to the university of $170,000." 

THE ORIGIN OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS 

Research in the sciences related to agriculture was always 
prominent in the minds of the advocates of agricultural 
education. After the agricultural colleges were firmly estab- 
lished and the work of instruction was well under way, it 
became evident that the department of research in these 
institutions needed a special endowment and to be placed 
under a somewhat separate management. The funds pro- 
vided were not sufficient for the purposes of instruction, and 
research and experiment were in danger of being neglected 
at the colleges so thronged were they with the young people 
who came to secure the benefits of this free tuition. 

Several of the land-grant colleges early attempted to estab- 
lish separate departments for scientific research and practical 
experiments on the plan of the German experiment stations. 
The act establishing the agricultural college of Maryland, 
passed in 1856, contained a section requiring the college to 
establish a model farm and conduct "a series of experiments 
upon the cultivation of cereals and other plants adapted to 
the latitude and climate of the state of Maryland, and keep 
a careful record of the kind of soil upon which they were 
undertaken, the system of cultivation adopted, the state of 
the atmosphere, and all other particulars which may be 



641] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 49 

necessary to a fair and complete understanding of the results 
of said experiments." This work was commenced in 1858 
and continued two or three years only, when the civil war 
stopped all the operations of the college. When Connecti- 
cut established her agricultural school in connection with the 
Sheffield scientific school of Yale college, Samuel W. John- 
son was appointed professor of agricultural chemistry, and 
experimental work was commenced. " To the influence of 
the professors and pupils trained in this school, more than 
to any other single cause, is due the recognition of the 
importance of the establishment of agricultural experiment 
stations." (True.) 

In 1870 the trustees for the Massachusetts society for 
promoting agriculture granted to Harvard college a sum of 
money " for the support of a laboratory and for experiments 
in agricultural chemistry to be conducted upon the Bussey 
estate." A school of agriculture and horticulture had been 
founded upon the bequest of Benjamin Bussey. The work 
of the new institution commenced in 1871. The experi- 
ments consisted of field tests of fertilizers, and chemical 
analyses of commercial manures. The first report was pub- 
lished in December 1871. Other interesting and valuable 
work was done the next few years, but the commercial crisis 
of 1873 crippled the institution financially, and it has since 
been able to make comparatively few original investigations. 

At a meeting of the state board of agriculture of Con- 
necticut on December 17, 1873, Professor S. W. Johnson of 
New Haven, and Professor W. O. Atwater of Wesleyan uni- 
versity, urged the establishment of an agricultural experi- 
ment station " after the European pattern." The result of 
this movement was that the state of Connecticut made, in 
1877, an appropriation of $5,000 "to promote agriculture 
by scientific investigation and experiment." This station 
was first connected with the chemical laboratory of Wesleyan 
university, at Middletown, which had been established by 
Orange Judd and was in charge of Professor Atwater, but 
after two years it was reorganized under the direct control 



50 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [642 

of the state and permanently located in the neighborhood of 
New Haven. The state of North Carolina established an 
agricultural experiment and fertilizer control station in con- 
nection with the state university at Chapel Hill, on March 
12, 1877. The Cornell university experiment station was 
organized by the faculty of that institution in February, 
1879, without any special appropriation. The New Jersey 
station was organized in 1880. The Tennessee experiment 
station in 1882. From these beginnings the experiment 
stations multiplied in the states until in 1887, when congress 
passed the experiment station act, there were 1 7 stations 
already in existence. This act, known from its great advo- 
cate Mr. William H. Hatch of Missouri, as the Hatch act, 
provided that $15,000 should be appropriated each year 
out of the funds arising from the sale of public lands in each 
state and territory, for the establishment of an agricultural 
experiment station as a department of each of the land-grant 
colleges. Those states which had established independent 
experiment stations prior to the passage of the act were 
allowed, however, to turn over this fund to the stations so 
established. Section 2 defined the duties of these stations 
as follows : That it shall be the object and duty of said 
experiment stations to conduct original researches or verify 
experiments on the physiology of plants and animals ; the 
diseases to which they are severally subject, with the reme- 
dies for the same ; the chemical composition of useful plants 
at their different stages of growth ; the comparative advan- 
tages of rotative cropping as pursued under a varying series 
of crops ; the capacity of new plants or trees for acclima- 
tion ; the analysis of soils and water ; the chemical composi- 
tion of manures, natural or artificial, with experiments 
designed to test their comparative effects on crops of differ- 
ent kinds ; the adaptation and value of grasses and forage 
plants ; the composition and digestibility of the different 
kinds of food for domestic animals ; the scientific and 
economic questions involved in the production of butter and 
cheese ; and such other researches or experiments bearing 



643] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 5 1 

directly on the agricultural industry of the United States as 
may in each case be deemed advisable, having due regard to 
the varying conditions and needs of the respective states or 
or territories. 

The stations were also authorized to publish annual 
reports of their operations, and " bulletins or reports of pro- 
gress " at least once in three months, which should be sent 
to " each newspaper in the state, and such individuals actu- 
ally engaged in farming as may request the same." The 
franking privilege was given for station publications. In the 
annual appropriation bill for the department of agriculture 
for the fiscal year ending" June 30, 1889, congress established 
the office of experiment stations as a branch of the depart- 
ment of agriculture. This is a clearing house for the 
experiment stations. It compiles and publishes the results 
of their work, and aids them in many ways. The following 
statistics are taken from the last report of the department of 
agriculture (page 1002 of Experiment station record, 1899) : 

" Agricultural experiment stations are now in operation 
under the act of congress of March 2, 1887, in all the states 
and territories. Agricultural experiments have been begun 
in Alaska with the aid of national funds, and an experiment 
station is in operation in Hawaii under private auspices. In 
each of the states of Alabama, Connecticut, New Jersey, 
and New York a separate station is maintained wholly or in 
part by state funds, and in Louisiana a station for sugar 
experiments is maintained partly by funds contributed by 
sugar planters. Excluding the branch stations established 
in several states, the total number of stations in the United 
States is 54. Of these, 52 receive the appropriation pro- 
vided for in the act of congress above mentioned. The total 
income of the stations during 1898 was $1,201,921.17, of 
which $720,000 was received from the national government, 
the remainder, $481,921.17, coming from the following 
sources: State governments, $341,097.94; individuals and 
communities, $177.20; fees for analysis of fertilizers, 
$54,977.30 ; sales of farm products, $65,356.25 ; miscella- 



52 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [644 

neous, $20,312.48. In addition to this, the office of experi- 
ment stations had an appropriation of $35,000 for the past 
fiscal year, including $5,000 for the Alaskan investigation. 
The value of additions to equipment of the stations in 1898 
is estimated as follows: Buildings, $109,851.65; libraries, 
$11,700.73; apparatus, $19,195.43; farm implements, 
$10,800.27; live stock, $13,151.33 ; miscellaneous, $1 1,972.97; 
total, $176,469.41. 

" The stations employ 669 persons in the work of adminis- 
tration and inquiry. The number of officers engaged in the 
different lines of work is as follows : Directors, 75 ; chemists, 
148; agriculturists, 71; experts in animal husbandry, 10; 
horticulturists, yy ; farm foremen, 29; dairymen, 21; bota- 
nists, 50 ; entomologists, 46 ; veterinarians, 26 ; meteorolo- 
gists, 30 ; biologists, 1 1 ; physicists, 1 1 ; geologists, 6 ; 
mycologists and bacteriologists, 19; irrigation engineers, 7; 
in charge of sub-stations, 15 ; secretaries and treasurers, 23 ; 
librarians, 10, and clerks, 46. There are also 21 persons 
classified as superintendents of gardens, grounds, and build- 
ings, apiarists, herdsmen, etc. Three hundred and five sta- 
tion officers do more or less teaching in the colleges with 
which the stations are connected. 

" During 1 898 the stations published 406 annual reports and 
bulletins. Besides regular reports and bulletins, a number 
of the stations issued press bulletins, which were widely 
reproduced in the agricultural and county papers. The mail- 
ing list of the stations now aggregate half a million names." 

The work of the American agricultural experiment sta- 
tion supplements that of the colleges in many most import- 
ant ways. It is fully described in the admirable publica- 
tions issued by the office of experiment stations of the 
United States department of agriculture, to which the reader 
is referred for fuller information. 



54 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



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13 

COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 



BY 



EDMUND J. JAMES 

President of the University of Illinois 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 



No satisfactory exposition of the existing condition of 
commercial education in the United States can be written at 
present. Such an exposition would be based upon a full 
knowledge of the historical development of such instruction 
as well as upon full and accurate statistics of its present con- 
dition. Neither of these presuppositions have been thus 
far realized. No one has yet devoted the time and attention 
necessary for a proper monographic treatment of the differ- 
ent aspects of this development. The department of such 
instruction which has made the most pronounced progress 
is that of the so-called commercial college, i. e., the ele- 
mentary technical school intended to prepare pupils for 
clerical work. It is not known, as will be seen later, exactly 
when such work was begun in the United States or by whom 
or where, and the facts about the subsequent development 
are difficult to ascertain ; indeed, one may say it would be 
impossible for any one person to collect the facts necessary 
to enable one to treat the subject historically in a thoroughly 
satisfactory way. On the other hand, the statistics of the 
present condition of this department of instruction are 
unsatisfactory. 

The bureau of education at Washington has labored faith- 
fully for many years to collect as thorough and accurate 
information on this subject as possible, but limited as it is 
in the funds placed at its disposal for collecting and revising 
and checking up statistics, it is impossible for it to collect 
information in regard to all the schools which are actually 
at work from year to year. The statistical reports of the 
various departments of education in the different states are, 
if anything, still more unsatisfactory ; in fact, they are almost 
worthless for the purpose in hand, since none of them, with 



4 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [656 

the single exception of those of the University of the State 
of New York, are of any real value. 

It was felt, however, by the authorities having in charge 
the United States exhibit at Paris that it would be desirable 
to make the best presentation which under the circumstances 
might be feasible, trusting that the defects which will be 
made apparent by this exposition may be remedied at some 
future time by. those in a position to do so. 

The opportunities for formal school preparation for a 
business career which are now offered in the. United States 
may be roughly divided into four classes. First: The " com- 
mercial college " of the well-known type, an institution of 
which the merits have been frequently underrated, but which 
has already accomplished much good, and which seems to 
indicate in its constant evolution and advancement the possi- 
bilities of a very high grade of usefulness hereafter in the 
somewhat restricted field which alone it seeks to occupy. 
Second : The business courses of the public high school, 
meagre and illiberal hitherto, but growing constantly richer, 
more popular and more generally introduced, so that there 
is an early prospect of well-designed, highly attractive and 
deservedly favored schemes of business instruction in our 
secondary schools, culminating in our larger cities in dis- 
tinct and separate high schools of the commercial type, not 
only fairly comparable to the best schools of similar grade in 
continental countries, but surpassing them in some respect. 
Third : Private endowed schools, more or less technical 
in character, introducing commercial courses which, in their 
best form, seem tending to realize the desirable standard of 
secondary business education. Fourth : College and uni- 
versity courses, which promise to embody the conception of 
higher business instruction in colleges of commerce, the work 
of which, largely technical, will not be inferior to the ordi- 
nary undergraduate courses of our American universities, 
and which, under favorable circumstances, will parallel for 
the future business man the advantages which have been 
hitherto offered in graduate courses for those who are pre- 



657] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 5 

paring for other careers. When the inherent promise of all 
these kinds of business education has been realized, there 
will be no failure in this line of work, fairly chargeable 
either to the public or to the private system of American 
education. We shall have ample opportunities for prepara- 
tion in business activity open to all young men and women, 
looking forward to engaging in any capacity in commercial 
and industrial occupation. Lest this judgment of the future 
of business education in America seem too optimistic, it may 
be best to give not only an account of the present conditions, 
but also a resume of the historical development of each of 
the four classes of business training, which have been just 
now indicated. 1 

If the average American were asked what opportunities 
exist in the United States for training toward a business 
career, his immediate and unhesitating answer would refer 
to the "commercial college," and probably to that alone. 
This institution is peculiarly American ; nothing exactly 
like it is known in other countries. It embodies the defects 
and excellencies of the American character, and typifies in 
itself a certain stage in our development. Its almost spon- 
taneous origin, its rapid and wide diffusion, its rough adap- 
tation of primitive material to the satisfying of immediate 
and pressing needs, its utter disregard of all save the direct 
answer to current demand, and then gradually its recog- 
nition of present inadequacy, and its determination toward 
broader, fuller usefulness, these characteristics of the com- 
mercial college mark it as essentially the product of a young, 

1 The summaries of statistical tables show the number of students in commercial 
courses in each of the five classes of institutions in each state of the United States. 
The totals are as follows for the year 1897-98: 

In universities and colleges , 5 869 

In normal schools 5 721 

In private high schools and academies 9 740 

In public high schools 31 633 

In commercial and business colleges 70 950 

Total for United States 123 913 

— Report of United States Commissioner of Education, 1897-98, p. 2451, Advance Sheets 



6 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [658 

eager and gradually maturing people. In an older and more 
developed country the need which was the impulse toward 
the first commercial school, would not, perhaps, have been 
so quickly noted, and steps would not have been taken so 
immediately to satisfy it. The need once apparent , how- 
ever, discussion and deliberation would have followed in 
logical order and action would possibly have awaited the 
maturing of a rational and broadly comprehensive plan, even 
if only part of this were susceptible of instant realization. 
Not so under our conditions, and certainly not in the case of 
the American commercial college ! The man who first noted 
a need for business instruction waited not to formulate the 
problem and to discuss the solution, but bent himself 
straight-a-way to furnish the opportunity and to meet the 
demand. Who this man was it is not possible now to state. 
So humble was the beginning of education for business men 
in the United States, that any one of many men who began 
practically at the same time to offer instruction in two or three 
simple subjects of commercial importance, might fairly claim 
to have aided in the beginning of this work. It is claimed 
that Bartlett of Cincinnati was the first to assume for his 
undertaking the name of business " college," and he was 
unquestionably one of the earliest and most successful work- 
ers in this field. 1 He gave commercial instruction to private 
pupils in the forties. 

About the middle of the fifties there were not more than 
a dozen commercial schools scattered in the large cities from 
Boston and Philadelphia to Chicago and St. Louis. They 
had arisen with the idea of facilitating the entrance of young 
men into minor positions as clerks and book-keepers. The 
instruction offered was very meagre, — some so-called com- 
mercial arithmetic, a little practice in keeping accounts, 
and a certain amount of ornamental penmanship made up 
the total. A school of this kind did not require a large 
force of teachers, — in many cases the entire instruction was 
given by one man. Nor was the equipment elaborate ; a sin- 

1 See address by L. S. Packard in the Practical Age, January, 1897, p. 5. 



659] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 7 

gle room fitted with chairs and tables frequently sufficed. 
The tuition fees were proportionate. Forty dollars was 
reckoned an average charge, not for one term or for one 
year, but for an indefinite or life scholarship, and that not 
limited to one school always, but valid at any of a large num- 
ber, embraced in single " chain." l 

In those early days there were no text-books for the " com- 
mercial colleges ; " and arithmetic and bookkeeping were 
taught by manuscripts prepared by actual accountants engaged 
in business. As with the text-book authors, or rather manu- 
script authors, so with the students. These came primarily 
from the ranks of those already employed at the time in 
business houses, a fact which necessitated the institution of 
evening classes. The average time spent in a business col- 
lege was not more than three months, so that equipment, 
instruction, fees, time and grade of work were all pretty 
much on a par. Poor as such education must have been, it 
evidently filled a need, for commercial colleges throve and 
multiplied and with success became still more successful. 
Increased popularity led to higher fees, longer courses, to the 
preparation of printed texts ; life and interchangeable schol- 
arships were abolished; the teaching force was increased; 
students were no longer adults wearied by daily labor; the 
commercial school began to draw young men and boys look- 
ing forward to employment ; day classes largely took the 
place of evening instruction ; school equipment improved 
and gradually these institutions grew into the apparently 
permanent place in public favor which they enjoy to-day. 2 
Official statistics of the bureau of education report 341 
of these schools with 1,764 instructors and 77,746 students, 
82 per cent being in day classes. The list does not, by 
any means, report all the commercial schools of the country 
and includes principally the larger and more important. 

1 The Bryant and Stratton system of schools numbered at one time more than 
fifty in as many different cities, and this plan of interchangeable tuition was valid 
throughout. 

J See the report of the United States commissioner of education for 1896-7, 
p. 2257; see Appendix. 



8 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [660 

One of the leaders in the Federation of business teachers' 
associations claims not less than two thousand schools 
with fifteen thousand teachers and an annual enrollment of 
one hundred and sixty thousand pupils. 

Contrast this with the record of forty years ago, when 
there were fewer than a dozen schools of this kind, with say 
thirty teachers and a thousand pupils, and the figures become 
sufficiently impressive. When we add to this numerical 
increase the considerations of the lengthened course of 
study, improved teaching and better average preliminary 
preparation, the development of the business college in the 
last half century must be admitted as striking. But, after 
all, the future of this type of institution could not be 
accounted promising on the basis alone of past achieve- 
ments. Educational standards are advancing so rapidly 
that even in the restricted field of the commercial school, 
radical improvement is the constant price of retaining even 
the ground already won. Fortunately there' is evidence of 
broadening views and sounder conceptions among the busi- 
ness college teachers and attention is drawn to three or four 
facts in particular which are pregnant with meaning for 
this kind of commercial instruction. 

In the first place the function of the commercial college 
has been heretofore conceived in an altogether too narrow 
manner, even by those who have been its most successful 
and most progressive managers. It was started with the 
definite idea of training clerks, bookkeepers, penmen, and 
later stenographers and typewriters, and up to the present 
it has remained close to the original conception. The work 
that has been done in penmanship, in commercial arithmetic 
and in bookkeeping and business practice and correspond- 
ence was intended not only primarily but solely for this 
class. Merely the absolutely necessary "facilities" of busi- 
ness life were furnished, which include to-day typewriting 
and stenography, and the possible advance of an individual 
from a clerkship to some more important position was vir- 
tually ignored. Now, even in the very limited field of pre- 



66 1] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 9 

paring for subordinate and almost mechanical labor, good 
work may be done and the business college has, in fact, 
accomplished excellent results. What is, however, espe- 
cially encouraging to-day, is the realizing sense on the part 
of the directors of commercial schools, first, that for clerical 
positions more technical instruction is necessary ; secondly, 
that a broader education pays, even granting that no higher 
position is ever won, and thirdly/that while the business col- 
lege cannot prepare directly for more responsible duties in 
commerce and industry, it can, in a degree, and should, as 
far as possible, equip the student through liberal and funda- 
mental studies for subsequent promotion. These ideas are 
spreading among the teachers and managers of the com- 
mercial colleges and are almost insensibly producing their 
logical outcome, namely, a course of study which is at once 
broader and more technical. The process is slow but evi- 
dences of advance are apparent in the printed announce- 
ments of various schools, in the discussions of business 
teachers' conventions and in the periodicals, weekly and 
monthly, issued in the interests of business education. 1 

This broadening view of what the business school may do 
has come hand in hand with a clearer realization that in this 
phrase the emphasis should rest on the second word ; not 
that the school should not be for business, but that it should 
not be merely a business. Educational institutions which 
are run upon the proprietary basis are always susceptible to 
an excessive and self-destructive regard for receipts. This 
danger has been recognized in the field of commercial edu- 
cation and emphasized by the failure of hundreds of man- 
agers who forgot that a school cannot long " pay " unless it 
pays the students to attend, unless they be given what they 
need first of all, and then and only then the tuition fees fixed 
in proportion. A most hopeful sign for the future of the 
business college is the growing capacity of the public to 
judge what schools are worth attending and a growing 

1 Cf. address by President J. E. King of the Business Teachers' Association in 
the Practical Age, January, 1898. 



IO COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [662 

sense on the part of those in control that they must give 
an increasing quid pro quo. 

Secondly, the necessity of pedagogical training has been 
recently forced upon the consciousness of business school 
directors. In the early history of these schools the advan- 
tages of practical business experience for the business teach- 
ers were immediately apparent and much popularity was won 
by wide advertisement of this qualification in the teaching 
force. Undoubtedly this emphasis was not only shrewd but 
in a large degree well founded. Experience has, however, 
laid weight on the need of pedagogical ability and training, 
and the best schools of this type are now seeking instructors 
who have skill in teaching as well as theoretical and practical 
mastery of subject-matter. The change came slowly, but a 
glance at the list of business teachers shows to-day a large 
and growing per cent of men and women of collegiate or 
other special preparation for this work. The business col- 
lege has been long hampered by the lack of suitable teach- 
ers, but the demand is creating a supply, as it will beyond 
question in other grades of commercial education. 

A third favorable influence on the work of the business 
college has been the recent and marked growth of a new 
form of competition. Rivalry among schools of the same 
type has always been springing up, and has had a decidedly 
beneficial influence in the development of commercial col- 
leges, but this kind of competition has not had the deter- 
mining force which a new element in the problem bids fair 
to exert. This additional stimulus to the efficiency of the 
business colleges comes from the introduction of commercial 
subjects into the public high schools and the establishment 
in them as well as in normal schools and academies, of busi- 
ness courses and departments. Free instruction in these 
schools and frequently instruction of a broader and higher 
type is putting the commercial college where it must improve 
or be hopelessly outclassed. This new competition led Mr. 
King of Rochester in 1897 to address the Federation of 
Business Teachers' Association in the following pointed 
words : 



663] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION II 

" The training which the American commercial college 
gives its pupils, while good in a way, is extremely narrow 
and little more than rudimentary. It cannot properly be 
called business training, it is merely clerical training. While 
this kind of training may have satisfied the requirements in 
the past, and while there may continue to be a certain 
demand for it in the future, I believe the time has arrived 
when the American commercial school should cease to be a 
purely clerk factory and educational repair shop, and should 
assume the duties and position of a real business training 
school. In order to do this it must raise the standards, 
broaden and deepen its course of study and lengthen its 
time requirement. 

" Its present standards both for admission and graduation 
are too low, its course of study too narrow and shallow, and 
its time requirement too short. It is useless to expect to 
attract and hold high-grade students with low-grade standards, 
or thoroughly to train young people for the duties of busi- 
ness life with the present course of study, and in the time 
now given to this work. The preparation for business life 
ought to be as thorough as for professional life, and I believe 
that the time is not far distant when it will be. 

" It should be said, and in the same sense, of the gradu- 
ates of our commercial schools as it is said of the graduates 
of our best technical schools, viz., ' that the business world 
not only finds that it can afford to employ them, but that it 
cannot afford not to employ them.' There is a good demand 
for thoroughly trained men — not merely clerks — in all 
departments of business, and the commercial school ought 
to be able to supply that demand." {Ibid?) 

The new rivalry of the public high school and the com- 
mercial college can prove only to the advantage of each. 
What effect it will have in detail on the private undertak- 
ing is difficult to foretell, but it is not too hazardous a sur- 
mise to predict that the commercial college may hereafter 
be glad to see much of its work go over to the system of 
public education, thus giving it better equipped students 
and freedom to evolve a still higher course of instruction. 



12 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [664 

The probability of this further evolution of the business 
college into a supplementary educational instrument of a 
somewhat better type is foreshadowed in a fourth fact favor- 
able to commercial training, and by no means without sig- 
nificance in the history of these institutions ; namely, formal 
recognition as a factor in public education by one of our 
most influential governing bodies, the University of the 
state of New York. This recognition is not only honor- 
able in itself, but is important as indicating for this work 
the beneficent effects which have come to other kinds of 
educational effort through guidance and supervision by that 
distinguished corporation. The advantages that have accrued 
to elementary, secondary and higher education, general and 
technical, public and private, in New York through state 
inspection, and in some measure, control, may now be 
obtained by the commercial schools. Moreover, the stand- 
ard thus set in one state for business schools will come 
gradually to be recognized in other parts of the country, 
and New York can point to another result of adequate 
supervision. 

The regents of the university have established a standard 
for business schools in confidence that this would further an 
esprit de corps which would create a demand for higher quali- 
fications and lead to a duplicate of the experience with the 
professional schools of medicine and law, when similar 
actions led to a large increase in the attendance at secondary 
schools. They proposed in no wise to discriminate against 
the smaller commercial colleges, giving on the contrary full 
credit for the work of these, if of a creditable kind, but rul- 
ing out from all recognition the schools of questionable 
repute. It seemed good to them to omit consideration of 
all business schools in so far as these gave purely elementary 
work in the ordinary subjects of business instruction without 
regard to the previous preparation or the persistency of 
effort on the part of the students. The conditions of recog- 
nition of a business school were in brief: Instruction by at 
least six teachers giving all their time to the work, an equip*- 



665] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 1 3 

ment worth not less than $5,000, exclusive of buildings and 
fixtures, a satisfactory one-year course, supplementary of the 
high school and consisting of at least 500 hours of actual 
instruction, in preparation for the state business diploma. 
Provisional registration was allowed schools not meeting the 
first two conditions, but filling the others satisfactorily. It 
speaks well for the character of the New York business 
colleges that while the bureau of education reports thirty 
schools in the state the regents have granted full recognition 
to eleven and provisional registration to thirteen. Besides 
granting registration to business schools on these conditions, 
an act which, fixing a high standard, will arouse efforts to 
meet it, and will be again reactive in raising the standard, 
the university decided to issue business credentials, including 
a state business diploma and a state stenographer's diploma 
and corresponding certificates. The distinction between 
the two is the requirement of graduation from a registered 
high school, which attaches to the diploma, but not to the 
certificate. To obtain the diploma, candidates must be cer- 
tified as having completed also a full one-year registered 
business course, and must pass regents.' examinations in 
advanced bookkeeping, in commercial law, in business 
English, arithmetic, practice and office methods, and in com- 
mercial geography and the history of commerce. If the 
high school course previously taken did not include United 
States history, civics and economics, the regents' examina- 
tion in these subjects must be passed as well. The value of 
these requirements may be best measured by the following 
outline, included in a syllabus issued for the guidance of 
business schools and supplemented by considerable sugges- 
tions in detail : 

"Advanced bookkeeping — The test in bookkeeping 
demands a higher degree of technical knowledge than is 
required for the academic examination. It presupposes 
ability to open and keep with accuracy the accounts of any 
ordinary business, including familiarity, both theoretic and 
practical, with books of account.' 



14 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [666 

"Business arithmetic — This test requires a high degree of 
accuracy and skill in business computations, such as measure- 
ments arising in different kinds of business (including a 
practical and thorough knowledge of the metric system of 
weights and measures), billmaking, percentage, interest, 
partial payments, discount, insurance, commission and brok- 
erage, computations arising out of partnership settlements 
and the operations of incorporated companies, taxes and 
duties, averaging accounts, ratio and proportion, accounts 
current, stocks and bonds, domestic and foreign exchange." 

"Commercial law — The test in commercial law demands a 
knowledge of those matters of law that have constant appli- 
cation in business life, including drawing up in proper form 
contracts, articles of incorporation and all business docu- 
ments. Candidates should have a fair practical knowledge 
of the laws relating to contracts, negotiable paper, liens, 
guaranty, interest and usury, sale of personal property, war- 
ranty, bailment, agency, partnership, joint stock companies 
and corporations, insurance, common carriers, attachment 
and stoppage in transitu, real estate, banking, taxes and 
duties, distribution of estates after death. They should also 
be familiar with the statute of frauds and the statute of 
limitations, and have a general knowledge of the interstate 
commerce law and the national bankruptcy law, and be able 
to draw in concise legal form any contract or agreement, 
check, note, bill of exchange, bond, bill of sale, power of 
attorney, articles of incorporation, insurance policy, charter 
party, bill of lading, deed, mortgage, lease, notice of protest, 
will or other document relating to the foregoing subjects." 

" Commercial geography and history of commerce — The test 
in geography presupposes some general knowledge of mathe- 
matical, physical and political geography, as preliminary to 
the more detailed knowledge required. Candidates should 
be able to give the location, physical features, approximate 
size and population, form of government and prevailing lan- 
guage of the commercial countries mentioned in the follow- 
ing outline, and have knowledge of the relative commercial 



667] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 1 5 

importance of those countries and of their principal products,, 
routes of travel and transportation, their chief seaports and 
the ocean routes by which they are connected with the great 
trading ports of the world. 

" In history of commerce the candidate should have a gen- 
eral knowledge regarding the origin and early development 
of commerce, should be able to trace its influence on the 
world's civilization, and should be reasonably familiar with 
the great discoveries, public works, inventions, legislative 
enactments and other important influences by which the 
progress of commerce has been affected." 

"Business practice and office methods — The test demands 
a practical general knowledge of the manner and methods 
of conducting ordinary kinds of business, and a ready famil- 
iarity with the methods and practice that should prevail in 
every well-regulated business office. This work is closely 
correlated with bookkeeping, arithmetic and commercial 
law, and gives rise in great part to the work in those branches, 
as well as to much valuable practice in the use of English 
and in penmanship. The candidate should be familiar with 
the usual rules and practice in buying and selling breadstuffs 
and other agricultural products ; meat products, cotton, 
wool, hides and other raw materials ; lumber, iron and other 
building materials ; oils and naval stores ; mineral products 
sold on a commercial scale, stocks and bonds, fruits and gro- 
ceries, dry goods and all ordinary commodities. He should 
have a general knowledge of the prevalent customs in the 
business of transportation on the high seas, the great lakes 
and navigable rivers, and by canal or railway ; in the busi- 
ness of banking, insurance, and manufacturing ; and should 
also know something of the important rules and customs 
governing transactions on the stock exchange, the produce 
exchange and similar centers of trade. He should be able 
to keep the accounts of any ordinary business and to draw 
up or make out all papers in the regular order of such busi- 
ness. A plain, easy, and above all, legible business hand- 
writing is an indispensable requisite." 



l6 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [668 

"Business English— This test calls for such skill in the 
written expression of thought as every well-equipped busi- 
ness man should possess. It consists entirely of practical 
exercises in English composition, which are to be rated acord- 
ing to their character, not only in penmanship, spelling, 
punctuation, capitalization, and general neatness, but also in 
the more essential matters of correct use of words, sentence 
structure, logical sequence of ideas, and paragraphing. The 
subjects will include letter writing on varied business topics ; 
drawing up or filling out from rough memoranda, business 
documents, such as contracts or articles of agreement, 
descriptions of property in deeds and mortgages, bills of sale 
or insurance policies ; making reports and abstracts condens- 
ing long articles ; writing advertising notices and composing 
short essays on business topics. No questions in technical 
grammar will be asked." 

The above outline shows how far the business college has 
advanced from its simple form of forty years ago, since 
examinations on such a course of study were deemed not too 
high for a large proportion of these schools in New York. 
The private commercial school probably cannot without 
endowment take rank as a higher institution, but with an 
increasing proportion of high school graduates among its 
students, it will undoubtedly win its reputation in this field, 
and give more and more of its energies to work of advanced 
grade. The example set in one state should be widely fol- 
lowed by commercial schools and the action of the New 
York regents should be far-reaching in its results. Indeed, 
it seems probable that the commercial school will be forced 
more and more to the giving of advanced and supplementary 
business training by the growth of the second form of com- 
mercial instruction, i. e., that of the public high school. 

Before leaving this subject of the " Commercial College," 
i. e., the private, elementary, unendowed, unassisted and 
uninspected educational undertaking, it is desired to empha- 
size again how important a function it has performed in our 
American educational system. It set out to give the girl or 



'669] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 1 7 

boy, man or woman who desired to secure a position as clerk 
or bookkeeper just such assistance as was needed to prepare 
for such work. No matter how young or how old, how 
educated or how ignorant the candidate, the commercial col- 
lege undertakes to give him an immediate and definite 
training in book-keeping, commercial arithmetic, penman- 
ship, stenography and typewriting or such portion thereof 
as is desired. It made of each student a special case ; did 
not hold him back to work along with a class, gave him 
every assistance in its power, made entrance to the school as 
easy as possible, rarely requiring any other condition than 
paying the fee ; facilitated the leaving and helped the 
pupil in finding work. 

That it did this work well at least to the satisfaction of its 
pupils is sufficiently attested by the hundreds of thousands 
of people who have attended the schools in the last fifty 
years. Pupils were required to pay fees and in many cases 
high fees for such instruction. The annual tuition fee varies 
in the better schools from $50 to $150 and even $200 for a 
school year of ten months. The payment of such fees by 
men and women who have to earn their own living at com- 
paratively low salaries testifies eloquently to the value which 
they themselves set upon the instruction which they receive. 

It is perfectly safe to say that in the quality of the work 
which they do, and in the equipment for this particular work, 
the American commercial colleges have no rivals. They are 
as much superior to anything of the sort to be found else- 
where in the world as are the American schools of dentistry 
to their counterparts, — and for very much the same reason, 
viz. : that they are engaged largely, one may say chiefly, 
in the mechanical work in which Americans excel the 
rest of the world. They are not educational institutions 
in any broad sense of the term at all. They are trade 
schools pure and simple, and that in a very narrow sense. 
They train for facilities. Of course all training has intellec- 
tual results, even that of the prize fighter. But the commer- 
cial college aims not to train the best bookkeepers, or sten- 



1 8 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [670 

ographers, for, to such, a high degree of education is neces- 
sary, but to take the boy or man as he is, with or without 
education, stupid or bright, and make as good a bookkeeper 
or stenographer out of him as is possible, by simply super- 
adding a brief technical training. The limitations of such a 
school are perfectly evident to every educationist. It trains 
the clerk, the routinest, the amanuensis, not the manager or 
director of business enterprises. That hundreds of the stu- 
dents of the colleges have been successful business men of 
initiative and independent enterprise simply proves that they 
had native ability for that sort of thing ; not that this sort 
of training was especially helpful, though it is only fair to 
say that many of these men trace their start in business to 
the technical skill in bookkeeping, etc., which they acquired 
in the schools. 

Many just criticisms might be made on the method, 
plan and spirit of these schools, upon the narrow curriculum 
characteristic of nearly all of them ; of the low grade of 
efficiency ; of the tendency to decry all higher education, 
&c, &c. But, after all, they have done a valuable service 
to our educational and business interests, and the best of 
them have become better with every passing decade. 

There is another interesting and important phase of this 
development of commercial colleges which has not received 
the attention it deserves. The increasing employment of 
women in the positions of clerk, bookkeeper, amanuensis, 
&c, which is such a marked characteristic of American 
business life, could hardly have taken on such dimensions 
as at present if it had not been for the opportunities for 
technical training which such schools as these offer. 

An interesting side light may be thrown on the growth of 
the commercial college by noticing for a moment the career 
of one of the leaders of the movement, Mr. S. S. Packard,, 
recently deceased. Mr. Packard began his work as an 
instructor in penmanship in a small school in Cincinnati as 
early as 1850. After teaching in various places — among 
others in Chicago — he opened the Packard commercial col- 



' 



671] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 19 

lege in New York city, in the spring of 1858, as a link in 
the Bryant and Stratton chain of business colleges. 1 

It was the seventh in the order of evolution, and was 
intended as the cosmopolitan center. The " chain " eventu- 
ally embraced schools in fifty of the principal cities of the 
United States and Canada. 

Mr. S. S. Packard was from the beginning the principal 
and business manager, H. B. Bryant and H. D. Stratton 
being his associates. In 1867 Mr. Packard bought the 
interest of his partners, Bryant & Stratton, and changed 
the name from Bryant, Stratton & Packard's business col- 
lege to Packard's business college. 

The most important result of the change of proprietor- 
ship was in doing away with the life-scholarship plan under 
which the " chain " had been conducted,, and putting an end 
to the interchangeability of tuition. Mr. Packard's lead was 
followed by the other schools, and thus the foundation was 
laid for individual — if not competitive — work, which has 
done so much to advance the character of business educa- 
tion in this country. 

During the first year of the existence of the school, Mr. 
Packard wrote text-books on bookkeeping for the use of the 
Bryant & Stratton schools, which in revised form are still 
used. The school was first located in two small rooms in 
the then new Cooper Union building. It was, in fact, the 
first tenant of that building. In the fall of 1863 it was 
removed to the Mortimer block, corner of Broadway and 
Twenty-second street and Fifth avenue, and in the spring 
of 1870 to the Methodist building, corner of Broadway 
and Eleventh street, occupying the entire fourth story of 
the structure. Here it .remained for seventeen years, until 
it outgrew its accommodations, when its present commodi- 
ous and elegant quarters were secured. 

At present it is located in the college building, formerly 
occupied by the College of physicians and surgeons, at the 

1 This account was prepared from material furnished by the present principal of 
the Packard school. 



20 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [672 



corner of Twenty-third street and Fourth avenue, occupying 
the entire building above the ground floor. It has a floor 
space of fifteen thousand square feet, with two large assem- 
bly rooms, each capable of seating three hundred pupils, and 
twelve smaller rooms for recitation purposes, offices, etc. 

In the early days of the school the students were mature 
young men, many of them having fought in the civil war, 
and coming home entered the school as a preparation for 
clerical positions. The course was intended to cover only 
about three months, and bookkeeping, penmanship, and busi- 
ness arithmetic only were taught. The school sessions were 
from nine to four, and from seven to nine in the evening, six 
days in the week. There were no vacations. No record 
was kept of attendance, as the students themselves were 
responsible, being in some cases partially employed during 
the day. The scholarship plan gave the privilege of unlimi- 
ted attendance at any school in the " chain." 

In 1865 commercial law was added to the course, and later 
practical English and civics. In 1872 stenography was first 
taught, in classes only. A very small proportion of stu- 
dents studied this branch, and always in connection with the 
commercial course. The following year the typewriter was 
introduced. This was the first school to teach either sten- 
ography or typewriting. 

At the present an important feature of the work, from 
which no student is excused, is public speaking without any 
attempt at elocution. Each student in his turn is required 
to speak in the morning assembly on some current topic, 
and always without notes. The object of this exercise is to 
fit them, as business men, "to think on their feet," to express 
their thoughts clearly and without embarrassment when occa- 
sion demands. Another feature is the character record, 
a brief history of the student's career from the beginning to 
the end of his course, showing not only progress in study, but 
also comments by his various teachers on any special charac- 
teristics or performance that is deemed worthy of comment. It 
has proved not only efficacious as discipline, but is useful as 



673] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 21 

reference after the student has passed out from the school 
and refers to it for recommendation in business. This rec- 
ord is never destroyed. A specimen of the student's work 
is also preserved. Faithful work for many years and a strict 
adherence to truth-telling in regard to the qualifications 
and character of candidates for business positions enable 
the management to secure employment for every worthy 
graduate. 

The commercial course now covers about a year and a 
half, or fifteen months, the students entering at any time 
and being graduated not in classes, but as they finish the 
course, in greater or less time, according to their ability. 
The instruction is largely individual. The school graduates 
yearly about 150 pupils, the number in recent years being 
almost equally divided between the stenographic and com- 
mercial departments. 

Though the school has the permission of the board of 
regents to continue the name " college," it has voluntarily 
changed it to the more appropriate name of "commercial 
school." 

" The history and purpose of this school is written in the 
hearts of twenty thousand men and women, who, during the 
past forty years, have been of its household. Of this num- 
ber, at least fifteen thousand have been residents in the city 
of New York. Many of them are now important business 
men in the city, whose sons and daughters have also been 
pupils in the school." 

Mr. Packard devoted forty years to the active manage- 
ment of the school and to many plans by which the good 
work might be made permanent. He died in October, 
1898. 

The career of Thomas May Pierce, of Philadelphia, illus- 
trates in a similar way the growth of this department of our 
educational system. Starting out in 1865 with the meagre 
curriculum then offered, he increased the scope of the work, 
improved the equipment, introduced regularity and system 



22 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [^74 

into the instruction until, when he died in 1896, he had built 
up what might fairly be called a typical school of the better 
sort. He employed some twenty-five instructors, and occu- 
pied quarters in one of the best office buildings in Philadel- 
phia, where he used fifteen rooms containing 10,000 feet of 
actual floor space. The charge for tuition was $15 per 
month, or $100 for a course of seven months, showing 
that he had succeeded in building up an institution which its 
students at any rate believed in. 

Similar careers may be found in all older and larger cities 
of the United States, all testifying to the service which 
these schools have rendered the public. 

Commercial instruction in the American public school 
system is only beginning to attract general attention, despite 
the fact that a certain amount of this work has been carried 
on for many years. The instruction, however, that has been 
given was until recently of a very meagre description. A 
commercial course was not infrequently announced, although 
it differed from other courses in the same school only by the 
inclusion of a little typewriting, bookkeeping, and possibly 
stenography. Of late years a considerable change has come 
about, and high schools which had offered some business 
training have improved the course of study. Commercial 
instruction has been introduced for the first time into many 
schools, and gradually distinct and separate courses are being 
established in connection with city systems to give oppor- 
tunities for the future business man, comparable to the aid 
already furnished to those looking forward to higher studies 
of a professional or technical kind. The natural order of 
development in this matter can be seen in a glance at the 
course of high school study in some typical cities. Omaha 
represents one stage, presenting a commercial course in 
which commercial arithmetic is substituted for elementary 
science and botany in the ninth grade of the regular English 
course, bookkeeping for zoology, and mediaeval history in 



675] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 23 

the tenth, commercial law and book-keeping for chemistry 
and French history in the eleventh, and stenography and 
typewriting for American history and political economy in 
the twelfth grade. Some question might arise as to the 
advisability of the substitution in one case or another, yet 
there remains a fairly liberal plan of study, covering four 
years and giving an opportunity to young men and women 
to gain a degree of business preparation along with a general 
secondary education. Whether or not one be disposed to 
favor a duplication of business college work in the public 
high school, there is no doubt of the superiority of the four 
years' course of Omaha to the one or two years' course in 
many other cities. Even if the aggregate of special prepa- 
ration for business does not exceed the ordinary work of a 
year, it is preferable from an educational point of view at 
any rate either to place this late in the high school program 
or to distribute it as indicated above.. Fair objection to this 
may be made on the ground of the inability of many pupils 
to attend a full four years term, if we admit the need of add- 
ing to the public schools a kind of teaching already provided 
in private institutions. If it seems on the contrary inadvis- 
able to introduce into the public high school a bare imita- 
tion of the lower class business college with most of the dis- 
advantages and few of the excellencies of the latter, then the 
one or two years' course of business training substituted for the 
first year or two years of secondary instruction can be looked 
upon with favor only as a transition step. So Boston with a 
two years' commercial course and little special business train- 
ing, Pittsburg with one year's work in place of the second high 
school year, Washington with a two years' course, are all in 
an early stage of development in this direction. Possibly 
Washington with a distinct business high school even though 
the course of study covers only two years, is nearer the 
final form than Milwaukee with its new four-year commer- 
cial course. The evolution of a real secondary business 
school may come more easily through the addition of sue- 



24 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [676 

cessive years to the course than through the gradual special- 
izing of an ordinary high school curriculum. Indeed this 
view is borne out by the experience of the Hillhouse high 
school in New Haven with an admirably outlined three 
years' course and by the development in Paterson, N. J., of 
a commercial department in the city high school into prac- 
tically a distinct school operated in a separate building by 
an entirely independent faculty, with a special course of two 
years, requiring one year of secondary study for admission. 
To attempt any comparison of the relative value of com- 
mercial training in the cities mentioned would not be diffi- 
cult but is perhaps needless. > All of the courses offered 
should be judged not alone for what they are to-day. 
Rather should they be reviewed from the point of view of 
the ultimate standard, for they are changing from year to 
year and the best mode of reaching the final form depends 
on local conditions. What is desirable seems perfectly clear. 
First of all the course of study should be at least four years. 
We cannot successfully defend commercial instruction in the 
public high school unless the work is planned as broadly 
educative as any other of the secondary courses. Superin- 
tendent Pearse of Omaha struck the right note in an address 
before the Business teachers' association, when he insisted 
that the student should get as much drill, as much discipline, 
as much education, out of a commercial course as he would 
get out of other high school courses. 1 Secondly, the course 
should be thoroughly outlined as distinctly commercial. A 
mere substitution of a few business studies in the usual 
English course does not make for commercial training and 
such action is not only an inadequate provision for 
present needs, but it is destructive of future possibili- 
ties. Properly planned, a course of instruction may bear 
the stamp of its purpose in every part, and at the 
same time lose not a whit, but on the contrary, by unity 
and close connection, gain decidedly in general educa- 

1 See the Practical Age, February, 1899, p. 36. 



677] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 2$ 

tive value. This means necessarily, in the larger cities at 
any rate, a separate corps of teachers. A separate building 
is strongly desirable, not only on the ground of superior 
adaptability for the uses of a commercial school, but for the 
far weightier consideration of absolute independence in 
fact, and full differentiation in the public thought. 

Secondary education of the manual training type is to-day 
years ahead of the development which would have been 
possible if the separate manual training high schools had 
not been established. Place the commercial course in the 
ordinary high school largely under the charge of the present 
teaching force and you rob the new movement of half its 
possibilities. The problem of working out good secondary 
business education needs all the freedom that is feasible ; it 
can be solved only by independent faculties with every 
member intent on the questions of his own department, of 
course, but also grappling with the problem of the entire 
scheme of studies. Under these conditions an esprit de 
corps will be aroused, greatly conducive to the final success 
of this feature in the system of public instruction. When 
a few such independent schools have wrestled with and 
solved the problem of commercial instruction, the ordinary 
schools will have a better basis for " commercial courses." 
With these considerations in view, we can readily say that 
between the two-year, strictly commercial course of Wash- 
ington for example, and the four-year course slightly special- 
ized, of some other cities, the choice should be made not on 
the basis of what is offered now, but of approximation to 
the real type, namely, a well-planned, fully-specialized 
scheme of commercial training covering at least four years 
of secondary grade. 

This standard of secondary commercial training has been 
more nearly approximated in Philadelphia than in any other 
American city. In 1898 a department of commerce was 
established in connection with the Central high school, and 
the following study-plan was adopted : 



26 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 



[6 7 8 



SUBJECTS OF STUDY 


First year 


Second year 


T 




Composition and Ameri- 
can literature — 4 J 


History of English litera- 
ture — 4 






II. 


Languages other than 










Latin — 4 


Latin — 3 
German — 4 


III. 




Algebra — 5 


Commercial arithmetic — 2 
Geometry --3 


IV. 




Greek and Roman history 








— 3 


English history — 2 


V. 




Physical geography, and 








botany and zoology — 4 


Commercial geography — 2 


VI. 


Economics and politi- 








cal science 


Philadelphia and Phila- 
delphia interests — 1 








Bookkeeping — 2 


VII. 


Business technique.. . 


Penmanship and business 








forms — I 


Stenography — 2 






Drawing — 2 





SUBJECTS OF STUDY 


Third year 


Fourth year 


I. 




Readings from English 


Reviews and thesis writ- 






literature — 4 


ing — 3 


II. 


Languages other than 










German — 3 


German — 3 






French (or Spanish) — 4 


French (or Spanish) — 3 


HI. 








TV 




Modern European history 
— 2 








Modern, industrial and 








commercial history — 3 


V. 




Physics and chemistry — 4 


Industrial chemistry — 2 


VI. 


Economics and politi- 










Political economy — 2 


Transportation, banking 
and finance — 4 












Statistics — I 








Political science — 3 


VII. 


Business technique.. . 


Office practice — 2 


Ethics of business and 






Stenography — 2 


commercial law — 2 






Observation of business 








methods — 3 





For reasons of expedience and economy, the department 
is housed in the magnificent new high school building, and 
much of the instruction is given at present by the regular 
teaching force. Under a special director, however, the work 
promises to grow speedily into an entirely differentiated 



1 The numeral after each course indicates the number of recitation hours per 
week. 



679] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 2j 

institution, which may parallel the success of the manual 
training high schools of that city. 

The commercial department in the Pittsburg high school 
was organized in 1872 for the benefit of those who for any 
cause were not able to spend four years in the high school 
and yet who desired some scholastic training in addition to 
that given in the ward or elementary school, and especially 
such training as will best prepare for business positions. 1 

It will be seen that the course was recognized to be a 
shorter one than the other four years' courses. Its com- 
mercial studies are essentially those of a so-called com- 
mercial college. At the same time it is so far an improve- 
ment upon them as it undertakes to give scope for general 
training. The curriculum is two years, instead of two 
months or one year. The first year is given up chiefly 
to general studies, the last to book-keeping, typewriting, 
stenography. Out of 1,918 students in the school 612, 
almost exactly one-third, were enrolled in the commercial 
course and of these 247 were girls and 365 boys. The pro- 
gram declares that the aim of the commercial department is 
to make the study of bookkeeping in its various branches a 
mental discipline for the commercial student similar to that 
produced by the study of higher mathematics in a classical 
course. A practical department containing various kinds of 
offices has been established which the students must work 
through in time. 

The commercial courses in the Boston high schools is 
likewise only two years in length. Commercial arithmetic, 
bookkeeping, and stenography are begun in the first year, 
occupying about one-half of the time, while the rest is devoted 
to general studies like English, history, drawing, music, 
etc. The second year is much like the first ; about one-half 
the time is given to the study of commercial subjects. 

In the Hillhouse high school, New Haven, Conn., while 
all the other courses are four years each, the commercial 
course is three years. About five hours a week, approxi- 

1 See catalogue of the Pittsburg Central high school, 1897-8. 



28 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [680 

mately one-third of the time, is given to strictly commercial 
subjects, the rest are of a general nature. Students who do 
the regular work well are permitted to take stenography and 
typewriting extra. 

The work in the commercial courses of other high schools 
is along one or the other of the lines indicated above. It is 
at present a concession to a popular demand. It does not 
grow out of a conviction on the part of high school princi- 
pals and teachers, that it is an essential part of the high 
school system. It will undoubtedly continue to grow and 
after a few good commercial high schools have formulated 
and solved the purpose of this kind of instruction, the aver- 
age high school, profiting by their experience, will be able to 
organize commercial courses which will be better than those 
thus far elaborated. 

In the opinion of the writer the technical work of the 
commercial courses in high schools is not as well done as 
in the better commercial colleges. 

In the two classes of schools giving business training, 
which we have considered, are to be found nearly two hun- 
dred thousand students, a hundred and fifty thousand in the 
commercial colleges, if we accept the estimate above men- 
tioned, and between thirty and forty thousand in the public 
hig;h schools. 

The third division of business schools or courses embraces 
the work of private secondary schools and public and pri- 
vate normal schools. There is the usual wide variation in 
what is here offered, but this class of schools plays some- 
thing of a role in preparation for business with a total 
registration of nearly twenty thousand. (See Appendix.) 
The influence of this form of competition upon the ordinary 
business college has been already mentioned. How widely 
it may be felt can, perhaps, best be seen through an outline 
of what is open to business students in one of the best 
endowed secondary schools of the country, the Drexel insti- 
tute of Philadelphia. This is chosen admittedly because its 



68 1 ] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 20. 

department of commerce and finance has been strongly- 
developed, yet we may fairly expect that the example set in 
Philadelphia will be widely followed by the schools of simi- 
lar type which are springing up so rapidly in all parts of the 
country. Special departments of such schools and new 
endowments by private or semi-public bodies will, we may 
expect, play a large part in the work of business training in 
the United States, if the experience of other countries be a 
good basis for prophecy. 

The Drexel institute of arts, science and industry at Phila- 
delphia was founded and endowed by Anthony J. Drexel of 
that city. It included from the beginning in the scope of its 
instruction courses in commerce and finance. As the school 
is well endowed and independent of state control, one may 
see from an examination of its work in this department a 
type, and, indeed, a very good type, of the best work which 
such institutions can do in the field of commercial education. 

The department of commerce and finance consists of three 
special departments. First, the course in commerce and 
finance ; second, the office course ; third, the evening course. 

The circular of the institution states that the department 
of commerce and finance is founded on a broad and liberal 
basis. In its general features it resembles the commercial 
schools of Europe, and is intended to place commercial edu- 
cation in its proper relation to other departments of educa- 
tional work. The object of the course is to train the young 
men to do business rather than simply to record business. 
It has been organized with a view of meeting these condi- 
tions. It provides a liberal, and at the same time, thoroughly 
practical course of study, including two years' training in 
the knowledge of the world's industries and markets, the 
law of trade and finance, and the mechanisms and customs 
of business. 

The first special department is intended to give young men 
and young women thorough fundamental training for the 
activities of business which include (i) The production, 
manufacture, sale, and transportation of articles of com- 



30 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [682 

merce ; (2) the management of stock companies and cor- 
porations ; (3) the buying and selling of securities ; (4) the 
importing and exporting of merchandise ; (5) the borrowing 
and lending of money and credit ; (6) the advertising of 
commercial concerns ; (7) the keeping of business records. 
The work of this course is divided into two years, as 
follows : 

FIRST YEAR 

First Term 

Language — Composition; letter writing. American classics. 

Commercial Arithmetic — Weights and measures; trade stand- 
ards and prices ; wages and pay-rolls ; commercial interest and dis- 
count; speed practice. 

Business Customs — Invoices; commercial paper ; bills of lading 
and manifests ; vouchers. 

Bookkeeping — Principles and practice of double-entry; simple 
transactions ; business forms. 

Penmanship — Typewriting. Correspondence. 

Commercial Geography — The earth's surface in its relation to 
trade and commerce. Commercial geography of the United States. 

Civics — Civil government of the United States. 

Spanish and German throughout the two years. 

Second Term 

Language — Grammatical principles ; diction. Selected classics. 

Industrial Arithmetic — Measurements; builders' and contract- 
ors' bids and estimates ; scientific measurements ; manufacturers' 
and mechanics' estimates. 

Business Customs — Securities; collections; discounts. 

Bookkeeping — Principles and practice of double-entry in more 
complicated transactions. Shipments, consignments and business 
forms. 

Commercial Calculations — Practical exercises for acquiring 
rapidity and accuracy of work. 

Commercial Geography — Natural resources of the chief countries 
of Europe and the United States in their relation to commercial 
exchanges. 

Civics — History, principles and organization of political parties; 
civil service reform; ballot systems; municipal government. 

Typewriting, Correspondence. 

Physical Training in the gymnasium, twice a week throughout 
the year. 



683] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 3 1 

SECOND YEAR 

First Term 

Language — Rhetorical principles ; essay-writing ; English 
classics. 

Advanced Bookkeeping — Introducing order-book, cash-book, sales- 
book, bill-book, etc.; each student is required to keep the entire 
accounts, for a limited time, of a dozen business concerns, repre- 
senting the leading industrial and commercial corporations. 

Banking and Finance — Outlines of the history of banking and 
of the national banking system, state banks, saving banks and 
trust companies. 

Commercial Calculations — Practical exercises for acquiring 
rapidity and accuracy of work. 

Commercial Geography — A comparative study of the commerce 
and industry of the five great commercial nations of the world. 

History of Commerce — Outlines of the history of ancient, 
medieval and modern commerce. 

Typewriting — Business forms. 

Public Speaking — One hour a week. 

Second Term 

Language — Historical outlines of English and American liter- 
ature. 

Advanced Bookkeeping — Continued. 

-Commercial Calculations — Continued. 

Banking and Finance — Bank management and practice. 

Mechanism of Commerce — Boards of trade; stock and produce 
exchanges ; transportation ; interstate commerce ; warehousing ; 
importing and exporting; duties; exchange; mercantile agencies. 

Commercial Law — Elementary principles of contracts, partner- 
ships, stock companies and commercial paper. 

Business Printing and Advertising — Type and paper; printers 
estimates; proof-reading; business cards, circulars and catalogues. 
Modern advertising, including mediums, rates, agencies. 

Public Speaking — One hour a week. 

Physical Training in the gymnasium, twice a week throughout 
the year. 

Students have also the privilege of attending the special courses 
of lectures in the chemistry of foods and the chemistry of dye- 
ing and cleansing. 

During the second year, visits are made to some of the leading 
industrial and commercial establishments of Philadelphia,, 



32 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [684 

Diploma — The diploma of the institute is granted to 
students who complete the work of the course in commerce 
and finance, and pass the prescribed examinations. 

Office courses — In addition to the general course in 
commerce and finance, described above, and requiring two 
years for its completion, three distinct office courses are 
offered. These are thoroughly practical in character, and 
are designed to prepare young men and young women for 
entering immediately upon the respective lines of employ- 
ment to which the training leads. 

Bookkeeping course — The object of this course is to pre- 
pare young men and young women for positions as book- 
keepers. It occupies one year and includes the following 
subjects : Bookkeeping, business forms and customs, type- 
writing, commercial arithmetic, English and penmanship. 
The entire course is directed to training in the most approved 
methods of keeping business records. All the labor-saving 
devices and checking and recording systems of modern mer- 
cantile establishments are thoroughly taught. 

The course occupies one year, divided into two terms. 

Stenography course — The aim of this course is to train 
young men and young women for positions as stenographers 
and typewriter operators. It occupies one year and includes 
the following subjects: Stenography, typewriting, English, 
business forms and office practice. There is a growing 
demand among business and professional men for steno- 
graphers who can not only take down and typewrite cor- 
respondence, but who have a serviceable knowledge of good 
English, and who are intelligently trained along general 
educational lines. 

The course occupies one year, divided into two terms. 

Private secretary's course — This course has been organ- 
ized in response to applications that have been made to the 
institute for clerks fitted to do work of a different character 
from that required in a purely business office. The subjects 
included in the course are as follows : Stenography, type- 
writing, penmanship, English, correspondence, accounts, 



685] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 33 

office practice arid business printing. Applicants for admis- 
sion must show by examination, or otherwise, that they are 
prepared to meet the requirements of the course. 

The course occupies one year, divided into two terms. 

Certificates — Certificates are granted to students who com- 
plete any one of the office courses and pass the prescribed 
examinations. 

Gymnasium — The gymnasium is a large, airy room, com- 
pletely equipped in accordance with the requirements of the 
Swedish system of physical training and with dressing- 
rooms, and bath-rooms supplied with hot and cold water. 
All the training is conducted under the immediate supervis- 
ion of the directors. 

Commercial museum — A beginning was made in 1895 
towards the formation of a permanent commercial museum, 
and a large collection of raw and manufactured products has 
already been secured. This collection represents quite fully 
the following industrial products : Flour, wool, petroleum, 
teas and coffees, sugar, cotton, copper, iron and steel, glass, 
tobacco, leather, rubber, paper, wood, carpet, linen, spices, 
aluminum, building stone, brick and terra cotta. Additions 
are being made constantly, and the student who is looking 
forward to devoting his life to trade, shipping, or manufactur- 
ing, has opportunity, in connection with his academic work, 
to make a special study, from both a geographic and an 
economic standpoint, of the particular industry in which he 
is interested. 

Art museum — The art museum contains extensive col- 
lections representing the industrial arts of Egypt, India, 
China, Japan and Europe. 

Library — The library, which contains twenty-five thousand 
volumes, is supplied with books, periodicals and pamphlets 
bearing upon the work of the department, and every facility 
and assistance is afforded for the study of financial, economic 
and commercial questions. 

Admission — Applicants for admission to any of the courses 
must pass satisfactory examinations in English, geography, 



34 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [686 

arithmetic and United States history. For admission to the 
course in commerce and finance, or to any of the office 
courses, candidates must be at least sixteen years of age. 
The diploma of high schools of approved standing is 
accepted in place of an examination. Application for admis- 
sion should be made to the registrar, at the institute, 
between 9 a. m. and 4 p. m., or by letter. 

Fees and terms — Course in commerce and finance — 
twenty-five dollars per term. 

Office courses — Twenty-five dollars per term, each. 

Students provide their own text-books and stationery. 

Coat-lockers, with individual combination locks, are pro- 
vided for the men students, giving to each the absolute con- 
trol of his own property. Each student is charged fifty cents 
per term for a locker. 

There are two terms in the year, beginning in September 
and February respectively. Five days' attendance a week 
is required, from 9 a. m. until 2 p. m. 

Evening- classes — The department of evening classes is 
fully organized, and includes the following courses : 

1. Beginners' course in bookkeeping and arithmetic. 

2. Accountants' commercial course. 

3. Office course in stenography and typewriting. 

Fee for each of the courses, for the entire season of six 
months, five dollars. 

It will be seen that the pupils who enter the longer course 
or any of the office courses must be at least sixteen years of 
age and must have passed examinations indicating that they 
have completed the ordinary work of the elementary school, 
such as the average boy who has been in school from his 
sixth year could have completed by the time he was 
fourteen. 

The desire of the management, however, is plainly that 
they shall have done considerably more work, including if 
possible the first year or two of the high school. As a mat- 
ter of fact the average age of the persons who enter upon 
this course is that of graduation from the ordinary three 
years' high school course of smaller towns and villages. 



687] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 35 

The work done in the Drexel institute is paralleled to a 
greater or less extent by similar work done in many private 
institutions, such as the Heffley school, formerly of Pratt 
institute of Brooklyn, the Armour institute of Chicago, and 
other schools founded by private initiative. Many of these 
schools have the advantage of ample funds so that they are 
not as dependent upon the whims of individual students 
as are the commercial schools described in previous para- 
graphs, and on the other hand they are independent of the 
injurious influences at work in many of the public schools. 

I think it is not too much to say that the two years' course 
offered in the Drexel institute forms in its way a model, and 
furnishes the basis for the elaboration of a curriculum which 
will compare favorably with the best of the European com- 
mercial schools of the same grade. The work done in the 
evening course of this institution corresponds more closely 
to the work of the ordinary business college as described 
above. 

When we turn our attention to the fourth class of institu- 
tions in which instruction is offered in the field of commercial 
subjects, namely, the colleges and universities, we are struck 
by two or three salient facts. In the first place the move- 
ment for instruction in these subjects in our higher institu- 
tions of learning is of comparatively recent origin. In the 
second place it has affected but very few of these institu- 
tions though in the list are some of the most prominent and 
influential universities in the country. It is also a matter of 
interest that the attitude of these higher institutions of learn- 
ing toward this subject is a radically different one from that 
of the other classes of institutions which we have been 
discussing. 

It has been very difficult indeed in this whole develop- 
ment to get the so-called commercial colleges, the high 
schools and other commercial courses of the various insti- 
tutes in their departments of commerce to give any instruc- 
tion, whatever, except in the so-called practical subjects, and 



36 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [688 

of any kind whatever except of the most immediate, techni- 
cal, special sort. 

In the colleges and universities on the other hand, even 
where they have been willing to accord a certain recognition 
to the necessity of higher education in commercial and busi- 
ness matters, it has been difficult to get them to give any 
attention, whatever, to the more practical sides of the work. 
While the commercial colleges have felt that political 
economy, commercial geography and similar subjects were 
too remote and impracticable to make it worth while for 
them to admit these subjects into their curricula, the colleges 
have felt that accounting, commercial arithmetic, and similar 
subjects were too elementary to deserve any attention, what- 
ever, from higher institutions of learning. 

The colleges and universities, moreover, have seen scores 
and hundreds of young men complete the old-fashioned 
classical courses of study, and enter the ranks of business 
men with ability and success. They have felt, therefore, 
that in a certain sense every man who desired a higher edu- 
cation, even if he should wish to go into business subse- 
quently, would find it worth his while to take the old- 
fashioned course. And they were very slow, indeed, to 
recognize that there were scores and hundreds of young 
men in the community who would take a higher education 
if an emphasis were laid upon subjects in which they 
were interested and which had to do at some point, at least 
with their future careers, who could not be persuaded 
to follow out an old-fashioned classical curriculum. 

Four institutions in the United States, the University of 
Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, the University of Chicago in 
Chicago, the University of California in Berkeley, Cal., 
the Columbia university in the city of New York, deserve 
special mention for their connection* with this subject of 
higher commercial education. Some other institutions — 
notably, certain of the state institutions — have also attempted 
to do something in this department, but their efforts have 
been spasmodic, and in some cases futile, owing to the fact, 
among other things, that they were not able or willing to 



689] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 37 

spend the necessary money upon the establishment and 
maintenance of these courses. 

In 1881 Joseph Wharton, Esq., a manufacturer of Phila- 
delphia, gave to the University of Pennsylvania the sum of 
one hundred thousand dollars in order to establish a depart- 
ment in that institution for higher commercial training. A 
department was established known as the Wharton school 
of finance and economy, the object of which was the 
furnishing of an adequate education in the principles under- 
lying successful business management and in the prin- 
ciples of civil government. The curriculum was two years 
in length and was made up largely of political economy, 
political science, accounting, mercantile law and practice, etc. 
A bachelor's degree was conferred upon the graduates from 
this school. To enter as a regular student the candidate 
must have completed the first two years of the regular four 
years' college course. Many errors were made in the initial 
establishment of the school, such as assigning instruction in 
the technical subjects included in the course to men who 
were already in the university but who knew little about 
the subject-matter of the courses assigned to them, and 
cared less. After some unpleasant experience growing out 
of this circumstance the faculty was reconstructed and 
enlarged, specialists being added for the newer subjects. 
After some ten years' experience it was decided to enlarge 
the course by extending it downward into the first two 
years of the college course, and at present the course in 
finance and economy covers four years and is included 
together with the other courses in arts and science in the 
so-called school of arts. 

The requirements for admission are the same as for other 
departments and represent the ordinary requirements of 
first-class American colleges. The faculty is composed of 
some thirteen members. 

A special course intended to give additional facilities for 
those students who wish to enter journalism is constructed 
by omitting certain subjects from the regular course and 
inserting others. 



38 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 



[69O 



The following is a curriculum of the courses in finance 
and economy, showing the assignment of subjects among 
the years and the number of hours per week. 

COURSE IN FINANCE AND ECONOMY 

Freshman class 



SUBJECTS 



Composition 

Algebra . 

Solid geometry 

Trignometry 

General chemistry ' 

German 

Accounting 

Physical and economic geography 

Practical economic problems 

Economic literature 

Newspaper practice 2 



No 


of 


hours per 
week 


1st 


2d 


terra 


term 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


— 


— 


2 


4 


4 


3 


3 


3 


3 


2 


2 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 



1 For students who present solid geometry and plane trigonometry and physics for admission to 
college. Such students omit solid geometry and trigonometry. 

2 For students in journalism, who omit accounting in second term. 



Sophomore class 



SUBJECTS 



Modern novelists 

History of English literature 

Scientific German 

Business law 

Money and banking 

Business practice 

American history 

Roman history 

Theory and geography of commerce 

Elementary sociology 

General politics 

Congress 

Newspaper practice 1 

Current topics 1 



No 


of 


hours 


per 


week 


1st 


2d 


term 


term 


2 


_ 


— 


2 


3 


3 


2 


— 


— 


2 


1 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


1 


I 


1 


I 


1 


I 



1 For students in journalism, who omit business practice and history and geography of commerce 
in second term. 



6 9 1] 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 

Junior class 



39 



No. of 

hours per 

week 



SUBJECTS 



Constitution of United States 

Constitutions of Germany .and Switzerland 

Congress 

Modern legislative problems 

Political economy 

Advanced sociology 

Sociological field work 

Business practice 

Banking 

American history 

English constitutional history 

Logic 

Ethics 

Art and history of newspaper making 1 . . . . 

Newspaper practice 1 

Current topics 1 



i For students in journalism, who omit either modern legislative problems, or business practice and 
banking. 




Senior class 



SUBJECTS 



Public administration 

Legal institutions 

Municipal government , 

Political economy 

Statistics 

Finance 

Transportation 

History of renaissance and reformation 
Art and history of newspaper making. 1 

Newspaper practice 1 

Current topics 1 



No 


of 




hours per 


week 




ISt 


2d 


term 


term 


2 




2 


2 




2 


2 




2 


2 




2 


2 




2 


2 




2 


2 




2 


2 




2 


I 




I 


I 




I 


I 




I 



i For students in journalism, who omit municipal government, or transportation, or statistics. 

It will be seen that this curriculum includes a larofe num- 
ber of subjects, and that the nucleus of the course is to be 
found in the study of economics and politics, supplemented 
by practical courses in accounting, business law and business 
practice. 



40 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [692 

The following table shows the number of students which 
have been enrolled in the course for the years indicated : 

i89 2 -3 59 

1893-4 71 

1894-5 113 

1895-6 97 

1896-7 101 

1897-8 87 

The degree of bachelor of science in economics is con- 
ferred upon those who complete this course. 

The growing demand for higher instruction in commercial 
subjects, combined with the success of the experiments in 
the University of Pennsylvania, turned the attention of sev- 
eral institutions toward the subject about the same time. 

The University of Chicago, which opened its doors in 
October, 1892, had included within its plan of work from the 
beginning a college of practical affairs. But it was not 
found practicable to undertake the organization of such a 
department until the year 1898, and students were enrolled 
in this college for the first time on the first of July of that 
year. The new department was given the title of the col- 
lege of commerce and politics, and was organized as a co-or- 
dinate department with the other colleges of arts and litera- 
ture and science. The purpose of the new college, like that 
of those already existing in the university, is two-fold. 
First, it aims at the attainment of general culture ; in the 
second place the weight of work is put in the lines of the 
courses offered in certain specified departments. In the 
new college those departments include political economy, 
political science, history and sociology. In the other col- 
leges the distinctive work is in the classics, modern languages 
and literatures, and sciences respectively. The courses of 
study afford instruction concerning the place of America in 
the general development of civilization, the origin and char- 
acteristics of our national institutions, the physical resources, 
moral traditions, intellectual standards of our country, the 
commercial, domestic and foreign relations of our industries 



693] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 41 

and our politics, and the principal economic, social and politi- 
cal problems which confront the leading nations of the 
world. 

It is intended by the college of commerce and politics to 
provide an education for those whose tastes lie along the 
particular lines indicated, and at the same time to open a 
way for special training in the direction of certain forms 
of business, of politics and journalism, and of diplomacy. 
The college is by no means a technical school, but is 
intended to give a kind of knowledge and training which 
may enable those who enter commerce, politics, journalism 
or diplomacy to begin their work with a certain degree of 
equipment. Those who develop an especial aptitude for the 
subject pursued will in many cases continue their work in 
the graduate school. 

The course of study in the college of commerce and poli- 
tics covers a period of four years. The first two years, 
however, are essentially the same as the first two years in 
one or another of the other liberal courses, political economy 
or political science being the only subject in these two years 
having a specific relation to the special work of the college. 
The other studies of the first two years are history, French 
or German, English, mathematics, science, and a small pro- 
portion of the time (about one-sixth) is given to any other 
subject which the student may desire to pursue from among 
the courses offered in the university. The admission to the 
course covers about the curriculum of the typical four years' 
high school course, including at least four years' work in 
Latin, two in mathematics, and the usual time devoted to 
English history, physics, and German or French. It is dur- 
ing the last two years of the work that the special character 
of the college becomes apparent. The work of the last 
two years is divided into three groups : Commerce, politics, 
journalism and diplomacy. 

In the first group, commerce, there are four special sub- 
groups : (a) Railways ; (b) banking ; (c) trade and industry ; 
(d) insurance. 



42 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [^94 

The student must elect, at the beginning of the third 
year's work in this college, one of these groups to which he 
wishes to devote his time. One-third of the course for the 
next two years must be selected from within the group 
chosen. Another third may be selected by the student from 
a list of specified courses. The remaining third may be 
chosen by the student from any course offered by the 
departments of political economy, political science, history 
or sociology. Thus if the student chooses commerce 
as the main group and banking as the sub-group, he is 
required to take courses in the financial history of the 
United States, in money and practical economics, in bank- 
ing, and in the economic seminar ; he must then select an 
equal amount of work from the following list of courses : 
Finance and taxation ; federal government ; government of 
Great Britain; federal constitutional law of the United 
States ; American administrative law ; England under the 
parliament; contemporary society in the United States out- 
lined, and constructive social philosophy. And from a list 
of over one hundred courses in the departments of political 
science, history, sociology, he must choose in addition an 
equal number of courses. 

It will be seen that in this work, as in the University of 
Pennsylvania, the nucleus consists of courses in economics 
and politics, using those terms in a large sense. But the 
University of Chicago has not added special technical 
courses in accounting, business law, business practice, etc., 
which forms a characteristic feature of the Wharton school. 
During the year 1898-9 eleven students enrolled for the 
courses in the college of commerce and politics. Of these, 
ten entered upon the work of the first year and one upon 
the work of the third year. The degree of bachelor of 
philosophy is conferred upon those who complete this 
course. 

About the same time that the University of Chicago 
determined to adopt a scheme of higher commercial train- 
ing, a report was made to the board of trustees of the 



695] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 43 

University of California, by one of its members, urging the 
adoption of a similar course there. After an elaborate dis- 
cussion, it was decided to erect an additional college in the 
university, to be known as the college of commerce. The 
course extends over four years, similar to that of the other 
colleges in the university. The requirements for admission 
were essentially the same, and correspond to graduation 
from the typical high schools with the four years' course. 

In the first annual report of the president, after work was 
begun, it was stated that many details were yet to be deter- 
mined, among others, the question of what degree should 
be conferred upon students who completed the course. In 
the same report the following statement is contained as to 
the scope of the new college : 

" It is the intention of the authorities of the university to 
place the course in commerce upon a high scientific plane, 
otherwise it is not justified in claiming a place in the uni- 
versity curriculum beside those advanced scientific, philo- 
sophical and literary courses which have already won 
recognition." 

The sciences dealing with the various departments of the 
world's trade can justly claim such recognition. The mere 
arts of the counting room do not belong to the list of 
studies. The student will be encouraged to acquire a 
knowledge of them elsewhere possibly, before entering col- 
lege. Thus the college of commerce will supplement, not 
compete with, the work of the older business commercial 
schools. 

The following list of courses taken from a prospectus 
recently issued by the university will show more clearly the 
intended character and scope of the new college : 

Economic studies: General theory and analysis — Political 
economy: General principles and theory. Labor and wages. 
Theory and practice of exchange ; foreign and domestic. Theory 
of value. Markets : their organization and the determination of 
prices. Currency: in all countries. Banking: in all countries. 
Economic features of transportation, by land and water. (A sub- 
ject in which many special courses should be offered.) Industrial 



44 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [696 

and commercial organization. Corporations and corporation finance. 
Communication : postal service, telegraph and telephone, news- 
papers and advertising. Insurance : fire, marine, life, etc. Con- 
sumption, and the principles of demand and storage. Commercial 
usages of different countries. Public finance : Government expen- 
ditures, revenues — including taxation, customs, duties, etc. — pub- 
lic debts and fiscal administration. Statistics, mathematical and 
practical. History, theory and methods : the " movement of popu- 
lation," actuaries' statistics, theory of prices, etc. 

Studies in economic history — The history of commerce in all 
countries and at every age. (Upon this general subject as large a 
number of special courses as possible should be offered.) The his- 
tory of the institution of private property. The history of land 
tenures. The history of agriculture. The history of industry 
from the earliest times. The history of manufactures. The his- 
tory of labor and of labor organizations and other special courses. 

Legal studies — Commercial law of different nations. Public 
international law, and the duties of diplomatic and consular offi- 
cers. Private international law. Admiralty and maritime law. 
Roman law. Comparative jurisprudence. Judicial procedure in 
different countries. Law of private corporations ; and other special 
courses. 

Political studies — Constitutional law of different nations. Pub- 
lic law and administration. Municipal government. General 
political theory. Legislative control of industry and commerce. 

Historical studies — The general political and constitutional his- 
tory of the leading nations, especially during the XlXth century ; 
diplomatic history. (Economic history, that is, the history of 
industry and commerce, is of such importance as to constitute a 
separate group ; see above.) 

Geographical studies — Political geography. Geodesy. Physi- 
cal geography. Commercial geography. Biological geography : 
including botany, zoology, anthropology, etc. Meteorology and 
climatology. Oceanography : Coasts, harbors, etc. Navigation 
and nautical astronomy. Geology. 

Technological studies concerning transportation — Civil engi- 
neering and mechanical engineering; construction of roads, bridges, 
canals, irrigation works, etc. ; motors and motor power, etc. ; rail- 
road economics, etc. 

Technological studies concerning the materials of commerce 
— Botany : General plant morphology ; economic botany. For- 
estry, and wild-plant products ; also wild-animal products. Agri- 



697] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 45 

culture: cultivated plant products of all descriptions, includ- 
ing field, orchard, and vineyard products ; animal products, such as 
meats, dairy products, wool, etc., and including agricultural prac- 
tice, irrigation, etc. Agricultural manufactures, such as sugar, 
starch, textiles, oils, brewing, tanning, drying, canning, etc. Fish- 
eries, and all the products of the sea. Mining, and mineral pro- 
ducts, and building materials. Chemical technology, and chemical 
products, acids, alkalies, etc. Manufactured products. Decorative 
and industrial art. 

A large number of other special courses in these and other 
applied sciences connected with the materials and the operations of 
commerce should be offered. 

Mathematical studies — Courses covering all the mathematical 
principles involved in the above studies. 

Linguistic studies — The English language and English litera- 
ture. The languages and literatures of the nations with which we 
have commercial relations: American, European, and Oriental. 

Philosophical studies — Ethics and civil polity. 

No statement of the actual enrollment of students in this 
new college and of the way in which it has opened up its 
work has come to the attention of the writer, but the interest 
felt in the project by some members of the board of trustees 
and by some members of the faculty justifies the hope that 
this is the beginning- of great things in the department of 
higher commercial education. 

On November 3rd, 1898, the chamber of commerce of the 
city of New York adopted the report of a committee which 
had been previously appointed by that body on the subject 
of commercial education. This report, after strongly com- 
mending the establishment of a department of sounder com- 
mercial education both in secondary schools and in higher 
institutions of learning in this country, advised the appoint- 
ment of a special committee by the president of the chamber 
of commerce for the further consideration of the subject of 
commercial education. This committee was appointed and, 
after various sessions and conferences with authorities of 
Columbia university, a report was submitted to the cham- 
ber of commerce recommending that the chamber assist 



46 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [698 

Columbia university in the establishment of a collegiate 
course in commerce by the grant of certain funds. 

This report presents in a certain way the most complete 
scheme of higher commercial instruction which has thus far 
been submitted for the consideration of the public. It unites 
the practical elements in the course of the Wharton school 
with the wider range of the courses and subjects offered at 
California and Chicago. It was framed upon the plan of 
utilizing as largely as possible the existing courses of instruc- 
tion in Columbia university, and supplementing and adding 
to such courses the subjects necessary to offer a complete 
and well-rounded scheme of higher commercial instruction. 

Although the plan has not been carried into effect as yet 
and may be materially altered, still, coming from such a 
source and backed by such a body as the New York cham- 
ber of commerce, it seems likely to be of sufficient impor- 
tance to merit a somewhat fuller notice. 

It is intended to be a college course of commerce cover- 
ing four years of fifteen hours a week. It presupposes 
graduation from a secondary school, public or private, in 
which English, mathematics, history and natural science, 
and one modern language will have been systematically 
studied to the extent now required for admission to the 
college department of Columbia university. In form and 
in content it is adapted to students of college age, namely, 
sixteen to twenty years. 

In addition to the training provided in commercial sub- 
jects, the course includes training for two years in writing 
English, for two years in a modern European language, 
for two years in European and American history, and for 
three years in political economy and social science. It offers 
opportunities for the study of industrial chemistry, of a 
selection of three modern languages and literature, if any 
of these be desired. 

Of the sixty hours required (four years of 15 hours each) 
four hours or six and two-thirds per cent are devoted to 
instruction in writing English ; six hours or ten per cent to 



699] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 47 

European and American history ; six hours or ten per cent 
to the modern European languages ; ten hours or sixteen 
and two-thirds per cent to political economy and social sci- 
ences, and thirty-four hours or fifty-six and two-thirds per 
cent to the study of commerce itself in its various phases. 
It will be observed that this curriculum comprises funda- 
mental courses in the principles governing business com- 
bined with a detailed course in practice. It is intended that 
many of these latter courses, as well as some of the former, 
shall be given by men having an intimate personal acquaint- 
ance with actual business life. Among such courses would 
be those in accounting and transportation, technique of 
trade and commerce, commercial ethics, commercial credits, 
insurance and commercial business. 

Aside from the general subjects included in liberal 
courses we note a course of three hours per week for one 
year given to accounting and a similar course to economic 
geography ; a course of two hours a week following a course 
in chemistry on the study of commercial products ; a course 
of three hours a week upon the technique of trade and com- 
merce, such as weights and measures, currency and banking 
systems, customs regulations, markets, fairs, etc. There are 
also courses in banking, accounting, commercial geography, 
railroad and public accounting, history of commercial theory 
and merchant shipping and trade routes, commercial treaties 
and insurance. 

No degree is to be given for this course for the present, 
but a certificate of graduation testifying that the candidate 
has completed the work of the four years will be given to 
all students who pass the requisite examinations after 
attending the courses. 1 

It is plain from the foregoing account that instruction in 
commercial subjects is to be introduced into all higher insti- 
tutions of learning upon a broader scale than ever before. 

1 After this account was prepared information comes to hand of a department 
of Commerce and Economics at the University of Vermont. A trustee of the 
university, Mr. John H. Converse of Philadelphia, has given funds for an endow- 
ment, and work will be inaugurated in the autumn of 1900. 



48 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [7OO 

It cannot be maintained, however, up to the present that 
our experience has been large enough to afford any accu- 
rate indication of what the ultimate form or purpose of such 
instruction shall be. We have as yet established no inde- 
pendent college of commerce in the United States upon an 
adequate foundation. We have not even established any 
institution which may be fairly called a commercial high 
school, that is, a school with an adequate equipment, with 
a differentiated curriculum and with an opportunity under 
favorable conditions to show what it can accomplish in an 
educational and a technical way. None of our colleges and 
universities have as yet been willing to give such depart- 
ments a fair opportunity to show what they might accom- 
plish in the same directions. But with every passing year 
the demand for better facilities on the part of young people 
who desire to prepare themselves for business careers will 
force our commercial colleges to improve their work ; will 
force those who have charge of public education to give a 
larger space in our secondary schools to this branch of 
work ; will lead the managers of our private secondary 
schools to offer better facilities, and will finally compel our 
colleges and universities to do something for the education 
of the future business man which may be compared with 
what they are doing for the future engineer, or lawyer, or 
physician, so far as the peculiarities of a business career may 
render such a scheme feasible. 



7oi] 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 



49 



APPENDIX 

STATISTICS OF COMMERCIAL AND BUSINESS SCHOOLS 

Bureau of education report, 1896— 97 

In the 341 business schools represented in this report there were 
1,764 instructors and 77,746 students. The total number of gradu- 
ates in the commercial course was 11,728, and in the amanuensis 
course 8,862. The number of students in the day course was 63,481, 
or 82 per cent of the whole number, and the number in the even- 
ing course was 14,265, or 19 per cent of the whole number. It will 
be seen by the above figures that the day school contains more 
than four times the number of students that are reported in the 
evening schools. The number of students in the various courses 
of study was as follows : 



Commercial course . 
Amanuensis course. 

English course 

In telegraphy 



Course of study 



Males 



29 2l6 

IO 185 

9°53 

897 



Females 



8 713 

12 957 

3 671 

312 



The total number of students in the commercial and business 
courses of universities and colleges, normal schools, private high 
schools and academies, and public high schools was 56,002, and in 
the commercial course of business schools was 37,929, making a 
total of commercial students in all the schools in the United States 
as reported to this bureau of 93,931. 



5° 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 



[702 



TABLE I — Summary of statistics of commercial and business 
colleges, i8g6-gy 



STATE OR TERRI- 
TORY 



INSTRUCTORS 



STUDENTS 



United States. 



1 764 



25 847 



77 746 



63 481 



North Atlantic Division. 
South Atlantic Division. 
South Central Division. . 
North Central Division. . 
Western Division 



North Atlantic Division : 

Maine 

New Hampshire , 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode Island , 

Connecticut , 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

South Atlantic Division : 

Maryland 

District of Columbia. 

Virginia.. 

West Virginia 

North Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida _ 

South Central Division : 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

North Central Division : 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa. 

Missouri 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Nebraska , . . 

Kansas 

Western Division : 

Montana 

Arizona 

Colorado 

Utah. 

Washington 

Oregon 

California 



"5 
5 ! 7 
i°5 



27 
139 



32 
9 
36 

3 

65 
72 
100 
44 
30 
35 
57 
74 
5 



197 

49 

30 

216 

53 



607 
121 
145 

733 
158 



17 797 

3 775 

4 906 
20 750 

4 671 



9 892 
1 693 



10479 
2 395 



27 609 
5468 

6 294 
31 229 

7 066 



21 444 
4509 
5 494 

26 016 
6018 



7 
3 
99 
19 
46 
198 
32 
179 



9 

3 

27 

5 

13 
27 

3 
36 
12 
5° 

4 

i°3 
101 
136 
63 
47 
49 



744 

100 

90 

1 928 

323 
1079 
6 336 

684 
6513 

361 

1 160 

554 

298 

82 

I 225 

95 

5 6 7 
949 
195 
668 
368 

1 939 
220 

2 616 
2 900 
4289 
1 961 

945. 

1 3iS 

2 360 
2 988 

83 
104 
944 
245 



47 

387 
35° 
401 
465 



467 
46 
61 

1 540 
230 
865 

3 361 
401 

2 921 

135 
768 
166 
169 
6 
402 
47 



552 
94 



1 605 

2088 

1 036 

404 

658 

1 015 

1 463 

38 

57 

260 

157 

335 
25 

156 
77 

188 

265 
1 349 



1 211 

146 
151 
3468 
553 
1 944 
9697 
1085 
9 434 

496 
1 928 

720 

467 

88 

1 627 

142 

860 

1 165 
270 
728 
466 

3 49 1 
3'4 

4 314 

4 505 
6 377 

2 997 
1 349 
1 973 

3 375 

4 451 
121 
161 

1 204 
402 

1 024 

72 
543 
427 
589 
730 
3681 



I 165 
106 
lit 

2783 
496 

I 622 

7 779 
708 

6674 

355 
1 680 

581 

3°9 

81 

1 401 

102 

75o 

1 153 

220 

693 

354 

2035 



3 783 
3 777 
S5o8 
2 410 
1 088 

1 637 

2 900 

3 l6 3 
no 
130 

1 133 

377 

766 
59 
37° 
33° 
539 
690 
3258 



14265 



6245 

959 

800 

5 213 

1 048 



46 
40 
40. 

685 
57 
322 

1 918 
377 

2 760 

141 
248: 
139- 
158. 
7 
226 
40 



50 

35 

113. 

456 

25 

531 
728. 
869 
587 

261 

336 

. 475 
1 288 
n 
3 1 
71 
25 

258 
13 

167 
97 
5° • 
40 

423 



703] 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 



51 



TABLE II — Students in business course in other institutions 



STATE OR TERRITORY 



United States . 



North Atlantic Division. 
South Atlantic Division. 
South Central Division . 
North Central Division.. 
Western Division 



North Atlantic Division : 

Maine 

New Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode Island 

Connecticut 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

South Atlantic Division: 

Delaware 

Maryland 

District of Columbia.. 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida . . 

South Central Division: 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Oklahoma 

Indian Territory 

North Central Division : 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Western Division : 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado . 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 1 

Washington 

Oregon ■ 

California - 



Universi- 
ties and 
colleges 



S 056 



365 
441 
870 
3°75 
3°5 



174 
170 



26 
3i 
187 
77 
8 
13 
78 

272 
100 

88 
40 
187 
157 
26 



465 
14 

7 6 3 
92 

106 

in 

452 

436 

50 

50 

61 

475 



IN OTHER INSTITUTIONS 



Normal 
schools 



6 297 



1 445 
627 

947 

3187 

9i 



28 
""82 
1 3°! 



10 



25 
158 

99 
215 
120 



368 

133 
284 



34i 
165 



407 
362 



Private 

secondary 

schools 



« 574 



3850 
1645 
1 914 
3 260 
9°5 



223 
257 
377 
198 
323 
103 
1 513 
118 
738 

3° 
151 
161 
279 

98 
536 
175 
205 



334 
402 
219 
201 
287 
426 



527 
144 

5°7 
5 6 4 
441 
442 



60 
109 



Public 

high 

schools 



33075 



J 5 797 
1 536 
1 960 

12 109 
1 673 



512 
215 
150 

3 600 
592 
615 

3691 

2 674 

3 748 

216 
284 
202 
301 
127 
13 
76 
201 
116 



5i5 
228 
162 
282 

454 
219 



1775 

634 

1 486 

1 613 
727 
160 

2 507 
1 417 

95 
82 

73° 



362 
17 



Total 



56 002 



21 457 
4249 
5691 

21 631 
2 974 



769 

472 

548 

3 798 

943 

718 

5 460 

2 792 

5 957 

246 
466 
389 
636 
570 
725 
474 
539 
204 

1 062 
1 150 
819 
491 
766 
1 101 
263. 



39 



1 2«3 

3 "7 

2 014. 
1 340 

860 

4 202 
2350 

230 

192 

1 307 



175 

13 

379 

55 

26 

352 

143 

12 

231 

226 

1 362 



14 

ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



BY 

ISAAC EDWARDS CLARKE 

Washington, D.C. 



ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



I. INTRODUCTION 

Since 1870 the rapidity of the development of art and 
industrial education in the United States has been so 
marked and so effective, the rapid increase in the num- 
ber of special schools and museums of the fine arts so strik- 
ing, as to make exceedingly difficult a satisfactory survey 
of this subject within the limits of a monograph. 

The movement for the general introduction of drawing 
in the public schools, and of definite endeavors to promote 
art education, with a purpose to develop and improve the 
art industries of a people, seemed alike sudden in England 
and in the United States. In England it was apparently 
the definite result of the first world's fair — the exhibition 
of 1 85 1. In the United States it had its origin in Boston, in 
1 8 70, where it was a direct outcome of the E nglish movement. 

The Centennial exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, where 
the work in drawing of the Massachusetts normal art 
school, and of the public schools in Boston, was shown, 
made possible the rapid and remarkable development 
throughout the United States of the two kindred elements 
in education, namely, industrial art drawing and manual 
training. This addition of these two new studies to the 
regular courses of the public schools has been, perhaps, the 
most notable characteristic educational feature of the past 
two decades. 

As the English were long held to be a people hopelessly 
inartistic and devoid of art possibilities, their wonderful 
development since 1851, in so many lines of artistic manu- 
factures, challenges investigation, especially by a people long 
similarly accused as being innately inartistic, and for a long 
period, it must be admitted, apparently deservedly so accused. 

The causes of this lack of art development as recited by 



4 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [708 

Haydon, were the same in both countries. That these 
causes were amply sufficient to account for this almost entire 
absence of any national evidence of art consciousness, — 
without compelling the admission of any inborn lack of men- 
tal capactity, — Haydon sought to demonstrate, by an appeal 
to the art development of England during the thirteenth 
century : " When England, in her knowledge of form, colour, 
light, shadow, and in fresco decoration, was in advance of 
Italy; and had her progress not been checked by the refor- 
mation, would have been at the head of Europe." " Show 
the people of England fine works," said Haydon; "give 
them the opportunity of study and the means of instruc- 
tion ; teach them the basis of beauty in art, and then give 
your opinion, if you like ; but you have no right to condemn 
your fellow countrymen when you give them none of the 
advantages foreigners enjoy ; when you have no schools for 
art instruction, no galleries open to public view, no national 
collections, no schools of design, and when you refuse to 
allow that art has a public function, and absolutely withhold 
from it all public support." 

However true is his picture of the absence of any oppor- 
tunities for the people to see works of art, or to enjoy any 
personal training in the elementary knowledge of art, in the 
England of his day, the lack of all such opportunities in 
the United States was tenfold greater. The Puritan immi- 
grants of New England had all the abhorrence of art which 
marked the followers of the reformation, and for two cen- 
turies the bare whitewashed walls of their plain meeting 
houses were eloquent in protest against the art adornments 
of ancient church or chapel. Nor did the long hard strug- 
gle to wrest sustenance from stony soil and stormy sea afford 
any space of leisure for those artistic occupations which 
to the stern puritan were worse than folly. 

Such was the situation, alike in England and the United 
States, during the first half of the nineteenth century. The 
exhibitions of 1851 and of 1876 seem in turn to have 
revealed to each people their own artistic deficiencies. 



709] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 5 

II. PROGRESS OF ART EDUCATION 

In 1749, Benjamin Franklin published his proposed 
" Hints for an Academy," and enumerated as the most use- 
ful studies, arithmetic, writing, drawing and mechanics. In 
this connection drawing- is seen to be reckoned with mechanics 
as a useful study. So, more than a hundred years before 
Boston had put drawing into its public schools, this Boston 
boy sought to have his fellow citizens of Philadelphia adopt 
it in their schools as a required study. 

In a Lancastrian school presided over by Mr. Fowle in 
Boston in 1821, the method prevailed of having the younger 
pupils taught by those of their fellow pupils a little in 
advance of them. This method was, in its fundamental 
idea, successfully adopted by Walter Smith, in his first intro- 
duction of drawing as a required study in the public schools 
of Boston, and has since been followed in many of the public 
schools throughout the country. This arose from the fact 
that, as the teachers in the elementary schools were in 
addition to their duties in teaching other studies unex- 
pectedly to be called on to teach drawing, of which they had 
before little or no knowledge, it was inevitable that they 
could then be but little in advance of their pupils in their 
knowledge of this new study ; the teachers could only teach 
the lessons they had just previously been taught in the 
weekly lessons given to the public school teachers by the 
new director of drawing and his assistants. 

In the case of the pupils of the normal art school, sub- 
sequently established under the director, Professor Walter 
Smith, and in those attending the various state normal 
schools, as well as in the fact that drawing has long been a 
regular study in the public schools, the teachers in the public 
schools of to-day may fairly be assumed to have as much 
practical knowledge of this study as of any of the others 
intrusted to their care. 

The arguments for the teaching of drawing in the public 
schools are clearly and concisely stated by Mr. Fowle in his 



6 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [7IO 

introductory words to the third edition of his book on draw- 
ing, issued in 1830. Mr. Fowle also introduced in his school 
physical science, music, and, for the girls, needlework. In 
this sewing form of "manual training" Miss Dorothy Dix, 
later the noted philanthropist, was his first teacher. So it 
appears that our modern new educational movement was 
clearly foreshadowed in this Boston school three-quarters of 
a century ago ! 

In 1838 Henry Barnard, editor of the American jour- 
nal of education, delivered an address in many parts of 
the country on the topic of industrial education and urged 
that drawing should be taught in the public schools. In the 
Connecticut common school journal, published in Hartford, 
of which Dr. Barnard was editor, he reprinted the report of 
Professor Stow on Prussian schools, made to the legislature 
of Ohio in 1838. In occasional numbers during succeeding 
years much attention was given to the subject of drawing in 
its various phases. In 1838-9 Miss E. P. Peabody gave a 
course of free lessons in drawing in the Franklin school, 
Boston, and in 1 841-2 a similar course to a class of one hun- 
dred teachers of primary schools. Miss E. P. Peabody and 
her sister, Miss Mary Peabody (later Mrs. Horace Mann), 
each published an elementary treatise illustrating their 
methods of teaching drawing and reading. 

Such is a brief summary of a few of the early efforts by 
American educators to introduce the study as one of the 
essential elementary studies to be taught in all public 
schools. Similar vain efforts to promote the early training 
in drawing were from time to time made by leading artists. 
Among these perhaps the most notable and earnest attempt 
was made in Philadelphia by the distinguished artist Rem- 
brandt Peale during the years 1840 -1844. 

As in Boston and in Philadelphia, earnest efforts to intro- 
duce the study of drawing in the schools long preceding 
1870, had been successfully thwarted by the opposition 
based chiefly on ignorance and lack of appreciation ; so it 
resulted in Baltimore, when in 1848-9 Mr. William Minifie, 



71 1] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 7 

a remarkable man, taught drawing in that city as a science, 
and not simply as picture making. This competent master 
was, however, removed through the influence of an unsympa- 
thetic, ignorant committeeman, and so Baltimore lost the 
opportunity, else within reach, of anticipating the success of 
Boston by a quarter of a century. Mr. Minifie published his 
system of teaching, drawing, and perspective and shadows, 
which has long held its place as a recognized authority. 
About 1852 this work was adopted as one of the regular 
text-books, used in the South Kensington art schools of 
London, England, and which, it may be fairly assumed, 
Walter Smith studied ; at least the underlying principles of 
the system of Professor Minifie and those of Professor 
Walter Smith are practically identical. As professor of 
drawing in the School of design of the Maryland institute 
in 1 852-1 854, Professor Minifie delivered and published 
three public addresses on drawing and design ; in these the 
teaching of drawing as a regular study in the public schools 
was eloquently urged. 

To one who remembered the ability and methods of Pro- 
fessor Minifie, and the work done by his pupils of the high 
school, as far back as 1848, the exhibition made of drawings 
by the Baltimore high school, in the Centennial exposition 
in Philadelphia, in 1876, was pitiful indeed. 

Cleveland, Ohio, seems to have been more fortunate than 
the cities whose experience has just been briefly recited. In 
1849 drawing was put in the schools as a regular exercise, 
and after a few months was intrusted to the regular teach- 
ers of the public schools, who eventually found in the late 
Professor John Brainerd an enthusiastic instructor, who took 
such interest in their work that he followed them to the 
schools and aided them in teaching the pupils ; in the end 
the professor was put in charge of the work in all the schools, 
and for several years remained with gratifying results. He 
published a manual for use in the schools. Subsequently 
Professor Brainerd was for years an examiner in the U. S. 
patent office in Washington. 



8 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [7 1 2 

In this brief summary of various sporadic efforts in (lif- 
erent cities and communities to introduce drawing in the 
schools, it is clear that the desirability of general instruction 
of the school children in drawing was in the process of 
becoming a popular belief, and, in American communities, 
this is usually the precursor of legislative action. 

While these efforts, as we have seen, had been confined 
to no single section or state, and, indeed, in some towns and 
cities drawing had already secured foothold in the schools, 
the movement in Boston, and in a degree through the state 
of Massachusetts, was more pronounced than elsewhere. 

In this state certain studies which are required to be 
taught in all public schools are enumerated in the law, while 
certain other studies are recorded as permissible at the dis- 
cretion of the school committee. Thus, the trend of the 
upward and onward direction in the progress of elementary 
education is indicated by the appearance of certain studies 
as " permissible." 

In the law of i860 "algebra, vocal music, drawing, physi- 
ology and hygiene" are thus recorded as permissible. This 
is believed to be the first legal recognition of drawing in 
this category. In 1869 the board of education is directed 
to prepare a plan for free instruction of men, women and 
children in mechanical drawing, applicable to all towns 
and cities of 5,000 inhabitants or more. In the law of 
1870 " drawing" appears as a required study in all public 
schools, and "any city or town having more than 10,000 
inhabitants shall annually make provision for giving free 
public instruction in industrial or mechanical drawing, 
either in day or evening schools under direction of the 
school committee." 

The annual reports of the board of education of Massa- 
chusetts, about that time, show great interest in promoting 
the study of drawing, and later in developing technical 
industrial education with special reference to the manufac- 
turing interests of the state. 

In the report of 1870-71 "the Worcester county free 



713] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 9 

institute of industrial science " z in the city of Worcester, 
incorporated in 1865, is highly praised and pointed out as 
the only school in the state where such an education can be 
obtained. 

As already indicated, the history of the slow development 
of the artistic training of youth in this country closely 
resembled in its several stages that of its progress in England, 
though, happily, there is here no story of individual effort 
and failure quite so tragic as that of the unfortunate Hay- 
don, though the story of the last days of Walter Smith in 
America, just before his return to his native country, where 
he was gladly welcomed to an honorable career, all too 
brief, owing to his untimely decease, is not one to be dwelt 
on by Americans with any especial pride. He brought rare 
and precious gifts to America, while to his splendid abilities 
as a great teacher, and to his contagious enthusiasm, which 
inspired the eager youth who clustered about him, the final 
success of the new elements in popular education — indus- 
trial art and manual training — are more largely due than to 
any other single influence. 

Although, during a century of progress, sporadic efforts 
were made in various localities to introduce the teaching of 
drawing in schools there was no permanent or general suc- 
cess. It was not till the system of public schools had 
become general, and the experiment of teaching the same 
thing at the same time, to a large number of pupils, had 
been proved feasible, that the time was ripe for the general 
introduction of industrial drawing and of manual training. 
Before this the teaching of drawing had been a personal 
matter between pupil and teacher, and no conception that 
it was possible to teach the elements of drawing to large 
classes at once had dawned upon educators. 

The so-called " farm schools," which had a certain vogue 
in the earlier years of the present century, had proved fail- 
ures as might easily have been foreseen, since it was not 

1 Name changed by act of legislature, in 1877, to " The Worcester polytechnic 
institute." 



IO ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [714 

found feasible to work young men for remuneration so con- 
stantly, as was requisite to make them self-supporting as 
well as school-supporting, while taxing them with the men- 
tal work essential to their obtaining anything that would 
merit the name of an education. 

A tendency towards something of this impossible nature 
is still occasionally manifested by the over-zealous advocates 
of industrial training, pure and simple, but it is to be hoped 
that the " farm schools " experience will suffice to restrain 
the present movement from like disaster. Elementary train- 
ing in industrial art and in manual training has in these 
latter years been successfully introduced in many public 
schools of country and town. " Higher education" in each 
of these directions, as in all others, must be provided, either 
by the community or by individual benefactors. It is never, 
in any form, self-supporting, as the endowed literary and 
scientific colleges, the schools of technology and the pro- 
fessional schools attached to the universities witness. 

In the first annual report made by General John Eaton, 
commissioner of education, in 1870, there appeared an inter- 
esting record of the results attained from an effort to ascer- 
tain the direct worth to a workingman of the education 
given in the common elementary public schools. The con- 
currence of testimony showing that even this small portion 
of knowledge and mental training was of real pecuniary 
value to its recipient, was convincing, leaving no room for 
question but that the community was amply repaid for all 
the cost of the common schools, by the increased earning 
power of their pupils. If this was true of a course of study 
simply giving the elements of knowledge, the inference is 
logical, that those forms of education which gave direct 
capacity for higher grades of productive work must be so 
much the more valuable. In the progress of the concurrent 
educational movement of that time, looking to the develop- 
ment on the one hand of industrial facility, and on the other 
to that of artistic power, the commissioner was greatly inter- 
ested, especially in the Massachusetts experiment of intro- 



715] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION II 

ducing the study of elementary drawing — essential to both 
phases of the movement — in all the public schools of the state. 

It was with the purpose of recording for the information 
of the educators of the country, the progress of this Boston 
experiment that the preparation of the " Circular of edu- 
cation, No. 2, 1874," T was undertaken by the present writer 
in 1873. 

This movement was begun in Boston by the well-known 
educator, long the city superintendent of schools, the late 
Hon. J. D. Philbrick, and the late Hon. Charles C. Perkins, 
— the latter, the leading authority in the city in all matters 
relating to the fine arts, — in connection with some of their 
associate members of the city board of education. 

Their purpose was to introduce the study of drawing as 
one of the required studies in the common schools of the 
city and state. 

They were fortunate in securing, in 1870, the services of 
a leading English art master, the late Walter Smith, who 
was made " art director," in charge of drawing in the schools 
of the city and the state. 

In this pamphlet, of some 56 pages, brief statements of 
the desirableness of such elementary art training in our 
American schools, and of the efforts made by European 
countries to promote such art training among their people, 
were given. Especial mention was also made of the Eng- 
lish efforts both to develop artistic industries and to extend 
the teaching of drawing throughout their schools by means 
of the South Kensington institution. In addition it was 
sought to give a brief account of such art institutions and 
collections as were open to the public in the United States; 
to take an inventory, as it were, of the means at hand for 
the development of art education in this country. No list 
of such public art collections existed, and the attempt to 
secure such a list was undertaken with all the resources of 
the United States bureau of education. The trivial result 

1 Circular of Education. Drawing in the Public Schools. The Relation of Art 
to Education — Washington, 1874, pp. 56. 



12 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [716 

of all this effort, as shown by the four pages of scattering 
statistics at the end of the circular, was ludicrous, while the 
poverty of the United States in art treasures available for the 
public, as thus exposed, was appalling. The interest taken 
by educators and the public generally in this small pamphlet, 
in view of the world's fair to be held in Philadelphia in 1876, 
in which coming event increasing interest was shown, and its 
efficacy in securing information, before so difficult to procure, 
led to the plan of further publications in the same line, and to 
the preparation by the present writer, as author and editor, of 
the special report upon the world movements in the develop- 
ment of artistic and industrial education and of like move- 
ments throughout the United States, since issued by this 
bureau in four large volumes. 1 As there was little literature 
available concerning this comparatively new educational 
movement, and none at all within reach of the majority of 
the teachers of the country, copious appendices were added 
to each volume of this report. Those in Part I, given to 
" drawing in public schools," were made up largely of occa- 
sional addresses and lectures delivered to teachers by Ameri- 
can and foreign leaders of the movement ; of practical papers 
with programmes of courses in drawing ; of historical papers 
relating to the movement, and of abstracts showing the aid 
given to this form of education by foreign governments, and 
especially by that of Great Britain. Each volume had in its 
appendix similarly appropriate papers, and was thus designed 
to be, in a measure, an encyclopedia relating to its subject. 1 

1 Titles of the volumes of the special report already issued, " U. S. Department 
of the Interior, Bureau of Education, John Eaton, Commissioner. 

" Art and Industry. Education in the Industrial and Fine Arts in the United 
States. By Isaac Edwards Clarke, A. M. Part I. Drawing in Public Schools. 
Washington: Government Printing Office. 1885. Pp. CCLIX, 1-842." 

Part II. W. T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner. Industrial and Manual Training in 
Public Schools. 1892. Pp. CXLVIII, 1-1338. 

Part III. W. T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner. Industrial and Technical Train- 
ing in Voluntary Associations and Endowed Institutions. 1897. Pp. LIII, 1-1145. 

Part IV. W. T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner. Industrial and Technical Training 
in Schools of Technology and in U. S. Land Grant Colleges. 1898. Pp. LVI. 
1-1020. 

Parts V & VI. Relating, severally, to Public Art Schools and to Public Art 
Museums. (In preparation.) 



717] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION I 3 

In view of the later development of the movement, atten- 
tion is called to the title of the circular " Drawing in public 
schools — the relation of art to education," as indicative of 
the purpose of those who introduced the new study into the 
curriculum of public school studies. 

In view of the marvelous progress in providing educa- 
tional facilities for art and art industrial development, that 
has gone on in the United States since the publication of 
this little pamphlet in 1874, I venture to quote from it a 
couple of pages showing the author's belief in the Ameri- 
can possibilities of such development a quarter of a century 
ago. 

AMERICAN FACILITIES FOR GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ART 

TRAINING 

While, in the countries of Europe, whatever relates to 
the people in education, as in other matters, is in the con- 
trol and general direction of the central government, so that 
what the central power decides to do is readily and imme- 
diately set in motion throughout the entire country, in the 
United States there is wisely no such central control. This 
power inheres to the states and to the local communities 
within the states. This very circumstance though somewhat, 
it may be, delaying the adoption of useful measures, yet ren- 
ders the wise adaptation of training to the peculiar industries 
and needs of the various parts of the country far more 
probable. It is readily seen that the kind of special techni- 
cal training would vary, as it was applicable to a manufac- 
turing, a farming, or a mining community. 

INFLUENCE OF LOCALITIES ON ART DEVELOPMENT 

Indeed, this has already been exemplified in a marked 
degree in the different developments of the schools of sci- 
ence in the several states, adapting themselves in their chief 
courses of instruction to the industrial demands of their 
localities. So we may hope to have in the art future of this 
country, as have the different European countries, art capi- 
tals famous for their peculiar developments, and queening 



14 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [7 I 8 

it over their own states, as do Dresden and Munich and 
Florence, and the other famous homes of art. San Fran- 
cisco, Saint Louis, Cincinnati, Chicago, Cleveland, Pitts- 
burgh, Philadelphia, New York, Boston, New Haven, Wor- 
cester, and many other prosperous cities and towns may- 
become in time great centers of beauty as well as of com- 
merce, each having its own special development, varying in 
architecture according to the building material most conve- 
niently accessible, and in art production and artistic manu- 
factures according to their special industries and resources ; 
but all alike affording to their children thorough technical 
training, and all attractive, because, everywhere, the eye 
rests on noble buildings ; when the homes of industry shall 
also be homes of beauty, and to walk through the city 
streets shall be of itself an art education, as of old in 
Athens, as it was in many a mediaeval town, and is still, in 
many an ancient city of France, Germany, Italy, and far-off 
Spain. 

Now, drawing is the very alphabet of art (for art is but a 
language), the one essential requisite preliminary to any 
artistic or technical training ; and, if it is desirable that the 
children of the public schools shall be fitted to become, if 
they wish it, skilled workmen in any branch of industry, it 
is necessary that they shall be taught to draw correctly. To 
those to whom art means higher things, as they suppose, 
than its application to every-day utensils and mere manufac- 
tures ; who look for grand galleries of pictures and statues, 
and to all the higher refinements of cultured art, it may be 
a suggestive reflection that, among a people ignorant of 
drawing, and whose daily surroundings, as is true of most of 
the American people, afford few suggestions of art in any 
of its forms, high art must ever remain an exotic, and 
native artists be rarer than the fabled phoenix. 

A country's art, like all its other developments, must be 
based primarily upon the characteristics of its people. 
Where all are judges of art, great artists arise, just as great 
warriors among nations of soldiers, so that until the com- 



719] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 1 5 

mon people know the language of art, and can comprehend 
the meaning of line and color and form, the artist is as 
much out of place and as little to be looked for as a great 
author would be among a people ignorant of reading. 

Nor has it ever been otherwise. The history of art is the 
history of peoples. Nor is there anything little or common 
in the eyes of art. The people that produced great build- 
ings, fine paintings, and noble statues, had also the most 
exquisite household utensils. Their commonest articles, 
whose fragile beauty has outlasted the centuries, to-day ^ 
with subtle grace and perfect form, tease the eye of the 
artist and challenge in vain our most skilled artisans to 
reproduce them. The antique eastern dish of burned clay 
is held by the modern connoisseur as of more worth than its 
weight in silver ; yet it was once in as humble and universal 
use as the commonest crockery of our kitchens. 

Great collections, museums, art galleries, much as they 
may contribute to the self-satisfaction of cliques and cities, 
will be of the slightest possible value and barren of results, 
either upon the industries of the people or their art culture, 
so long as drawing is not generally understood. 

Whoever succeeds in having all the public school children 
of the country properly trained in elementary drawing will 
have done more to advance the manufactures of the coun- 
try, and more to make possible the art culture of the peo- 
ple, than could be accomplished by the establishment of a 
hundred art museums without this training. Just as libra- 
ries are worthless to those who cannot read, so are art col- 
lections to those who cannot comprehend them ; just as all 
literature is open to him who has learned to read, so is all 
art to him who has learned to draw, whose eye has been 
trained to see, and his fingers made facile to execute. We 
have begun at the wrong end ; we asked for art galleries 
when we needed drawing schools. But the evil is not irreme- 
diable. Let drawing be generally taught, and our art gal- 
leries and museums, poor as they are, will at once grow more 
and more valuable, for they will then begin to be of use. 



l6 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION \_7 2 

MASSACHUSETTS THE FIRST STATE TO ACT 

The legislature of Massachusetts, moved thereto by the 
persistent efforts of a few cultured and public-spirited citi- 
zens, who realized the imperative need and demand for such 
training in the public schools, passed an act in 1870 making 
drawing one of the studies of the public schools, and also 
making the establishment of free drawing classes for adults 
obligatory upon all towns and cities containing over ten 
thousand inhabitants. In pursuance of this law, Mr. Walter 
Smith, "art master, London, late head master of the Leeds 
school of art and science and training school for art teach- 
ers," was invited, both by the city of Boston and by the 
state of Massachusetts, to come from England and introduce 
the new study into the schools of the city and of the com- 
monwealth. Mr. Smith was highly recommended by the 
Kensington school authorities. He was appointed state 
director of art education, and has been unremitting in his 
efforts to introduce drawing into the public schools, and to 
foster the establishment of classes for adults. Mr. Smith 
was also appointed general supervisor of art in the Boston 
schools. 

He published, in 1872, a large illustrated work upon art 
education, 1 which is indispensable to a thorough investiga- 
tion of the subject, and will be found full of practical sug- 
gestions to those wishing to introduce the study into the 
schools. 

SUMMARY OF THE CONDITION IN THE UNITED STATES OF EDU- 
CATION RELATING TO ART IN 1874 

It is only necessary for the American people to be con- 
vinced that a want exists to cause them to supply it. Believ- 
ing the lack of provision for industrial and general art 
training in our present system of public education to be 
such a want, I have sought to show 

1 "Art Education, Scholastic and Industrial, by Walter Smith, art master, Lon- 
don, late head master of the Leeds school of art and science, and training school 
for art teachers, now professor of art education, Massachusetts," with illustra- 
tions. James Osgood & Co., Boston, 1872, pp. 398. 



72 i] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION I J 

First. The need of preliminary instruction in drawing, its 
utility, and the practicability of its introduction into all 
grades of the public schools. 

Secondly. What steps have been taken towards introduc- 
ing it and how it can best be done. 

Thirdly. The present condition of the means for indus- 
trial art training in technical schools, including the schools 
of science. 

Fourthly. The means possessed by our higher institutions 
of learning for giving general knowledge of art. 

Fifthly. The special schools existing for training profes- 
sional artists. 

Sixthly. The steps that have been taken for founding 
great art museums in connection with art-training schools. 

We find that in one state, Massachusetts, drawing has 
been by law introduced into all the public schools, and a 
state normal art school established.; that in many cities and 
towns in other states drawing has been more or less taught 
in the public schools ; that in all the " schools of science," 
where engineering is taught, mechanical drawing is of neces- 
sity taught. 

SCHOOLS OF DESIGN 

In schools for the practical teaching of art, as applied to 
industry and manufactures, the free industrial classes for 
adults in Massachusetts, the Lowell free school of industrial 
design at the Boston institute of technology, the schools of 
Cooper union, the Philadelphia school of design for women, 
and the school of design of the University of Cincinnati 
complete the short list. 

SCHOOLS OF ART 

For the special training of artists we have the schools of 
the National academy of design, New York, the Yale school 
of fine arts, New Haven, and the new college of fine arts in 
the Syracuse university, which comprise all at present exist- 
ing. The San Francisco school is soon to open. The school 



l8 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [/22 

of the Pennsylvania academy of fine arts will resume active 
operations on the completion of the new building. 

ART DEPARTMENTS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 

Of the colleges possessing any special collections or facili- 
ties for giving any instruction in art, even the most general, 
we find, excepting Yale and Syracuse, with their special art 
departments, only Harvard, University of Michigan, Cor- 
nell, Rochester university, the college of Notre Dame and 
Vassar college, out of the hundreds of colleges of the coun- 
try, that either give any art training or possess any art col- 
lections, however small or incomplete. 

PUBLIC ART MUSEUMS AND GALLERIES 

There remain, then, but the public art institutions which 
we have already described ; there are four of these in the 
whole land : at Boston, New York, Washington and San 
Francisco. 

The Metropolitan museum of New York, the Brooklyn 
art association, the Boston art museum, the Corcoran art 
gallery and the Art association of San Francisco are admira- 
ble instances of the methods by which communities and indi- 
viduals in this country voluntarily provide those institutions 
for which, in other lands, the government alone is looked to. 

An important means of art culture, and the only one 
which has appealed to the general public, is found in the 
public art exhibitions. To those of the Metropolitan museum, 
National academy, the Boston athenaeum, the Yale art school, 
the San Francisco art association, and the permanent exhi- 
bitions of the Corcoran art gallery, I have already referred. 

LOAN EXHIBITIONS 

It would not be difficult to obtain collections of fresh 
works of the artists for exhibition and sale in connection 
with the loan exhibitions of works of art belonging to citi- 
zens that have been already suggested. 

The popularity of exhibitions of good pictures, as attested 
by the throngs of visitors that attend them and the crowds 



723] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION I9 

that visit the saloons of the leading picture dealers in the 
large cities, who hold perpetual exhibitions in a small way, 
sufficiently shows the public interest in art. Indeed, with 
the multiplicity of American tourists in Europe in these 
days, it would be strange if the love was not awakened. 
There are quite a number of well-known private art collec- 
tions in the leading cities which, separately, would make a 
desirable public gallery, and from which, as the Metropoli- 
tan museum has shown, a loan collection of rare works can 
be made for public exhibition. 

While I have recorded the paucity of institutions capable 
of giving a thorough art training and the few public art 
collections now in this country, it is, nevertheless, apparent 
that there already exists in all the leading cities the material 
which needs only to be made available, to afford all neces- 
sary facilities for general and technical art training ; and if 
it shall be undertaken in earnest, there is possible in this 
country a development, both in industrial art and in what 
are called the higher branches of art, which, at the end of 
twenty-five years, will render obsolete the verdict passed upon 
us at the World's fair in 1851 and never yet reversed. Here 
there is opened a field of honorable rivalry between the sev- 
eral states, cities, and towns of the Union. What England 
has done in this direction we can do, and the more readily 
that we have the advantage of her experience. No time or 
force need be wasted. We have but to adopt and modify 
the methods so thoroughly tested there to the different con- 
ditions that may exist in our several communities. 

I commend this subject of the relation of art to educa- 
tion to the consideration not only of all educators but to 
all who are interested in the varied manufacturing indus- 
tries of our many states. Skill is the modern secret of suc- 
cess. Science becomes ever more certainly the measure of 
prosperity. Science underlies and must precede art ; it is 
the strong substructure upon whose fixed foundations she 
builds her palace walls. In the common schools the chil- 
dren of America must be trained to draw if her artisans 



20 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [724 

are to hold their own in the world's contest, and if her 
artists are to enshrine her history. 

If they but will it, the "republic of the people" shall 
become the home of an art as noble and as enduring as that 
which glorified the " republic of princes," whose palaces 
for so many centuries have lifted their stately walls above 
the waves, guarding for mankind, not the trophies of her 
warriors nor the wealth of her merchants, but the priceless 
work of her humbler artists. 

Tintoretto, Titian, and Veronese are still fresh in men's 
memories, though the names of doge and patrician have 
faded from recollection. 

In the tables of statistics of "museums of art and 
archaeology for 1873," given in the circular, there were but 
thirteen institutions in all. Of these the two since reckoned 
among those having the leading art collections of the coun- 
try, were but at the beginning of their history. The Cor- 
coran art gallery of Washington, D. C, founded in 1869 
by the late W. W. Corcoran, Esq., and by him richly 
endowed, had about one hundred paintings, mostly the 
• private collection of the founder, and a collection of nearly 
two hundred casts of antique sculpture. 

The Metropolitan museum of art of New York, founded 
in 1870, by a few citizens, lovers of art, had but a small 
endowment contributed by citizens and had, in its first 
modest home down town, as the nucleus of the magnificent 
and varied collections which now, in 1899, crowd the stately 
halls and galleries of its majestic palace in Central park, the 
Cesnola collection of Cyprian sculptures, ceramics and 
glass, and a small collection of paintings, the latter mostly 
loaned. 

In the 25 pages of statistics of art institutions for 1881-82, 
given in Part I of the special report, are recorded 37 " insti- 
tutions affording art instruction, including all training in 
industrial art," and 30 "museums of art." Of these 37 
schools, 24 were established in, or since 1869, and of the 30 
museums 14 had like dates of foundation. These statistics 



725] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 21 

show the unusual activity then existing in the art develop- 
ment of the people, nor has this ceased ; new art institutions 
are being opened from time to time, either founded by 
liberal individuals, or by the community, and continual and 
important additions are constantly being made to the art 
collections of the several institutions. 

The development of popular interest in the new features 
of education, from 1870 to the opening of the centennial in 
1876, was very rapid, and its progress immediately following 
the centennial was surprising in its universality. 

Up to the time of the centennial there were, in the United 
States, literally no books on artistic industries, and few on 
the fine arts, either published in this country or to be found 
in the ordinary public libraries. 

In view of the present abundance here of this class of 
literature, native and foreign, this statement seems almost 
incredible ; it is, however, strictly accurate. 

Save occasionally in three or four of the older cities, there 
was in the United States, during the first half of the 19th 
century, little public opportunity for seeing any works of 
art, so that, on the part of the people generally throughout 
the land, there was neither knowledge of, nor interest in, 
anything relating to art. The world exhibitions at the cen- 
tennial first revealed to the great mass of American visitors 
the wonderful attractiveness and power of art, in creating- 
and shaping the industries of the world. The wide-reaching 
influence of this world-view upon American educational and 
industrial development, thus effected by the centennial of 
1 876, can hardly be exaggerated. Its beneficent results were 
charmingly illustrated throughout the Columbian exposition 
in Chicago, in 1892-93. 

In fact, the great eras of that triumphant progress of 
modern civilization which characterizes our present century, 
are marked by the splendid milestones of the " World's 
fair," beginning with the one set up in London in 185 1. 

A " straw," showing the wide-spreading interest in all mat- 
ters relating to art, now existing in this country, in marked 



22 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [726 

contrast with the absence of such interest before 1870, may 
be seen in the fact that in 1 899 a book is issued by " The Mac- 
Millan Company, publishers, New York and London," which 
gives for the United States and Canada similar information 
concerning art matters and artists to that which has long 
been given for Great Britain in their English issue, entitled 
"The Year's Art" — a directory of all art schools, museums, 
etc., etc. 

The American volume 1 is a handsome well-printed book, 
illustrated with 52 full-page reproductions of the works of 
livine artists. The varied contents of this work, when con- 
trasted with the few pages of statistics in the circular of 
education of 1874, give more striking evidence of the gen- 
eral diffusion of knowledge of and interest in matters relat- 
ing to art throughout the United States than could be given 
by many pages of mere description. 

As the volumes of the special report, to be given to the 
history and present conditions of the schools and museums 
of the fine arts, though finished as to the early histories, are 
not yet completed ; and, as there has not been opportunity 
to collect and compile the present statistics of these institu- 
tions in time to be available for this monograph, I have been 
glad to avail myself of the statistics gathered by Miss Levy, 
editor of the volume just referred to, showing, as they do, the 
continued growth and prosperity of the public art institu- 
tions. For the 30 " museums of art," as given in the art and 
industry report statistics for 1881-82, Miss Levy shows, as 
existing in 1898, 41 "art galleries," an increase of eleven, 
while for the 37 art schools of 1882 Miss Levy records 117. 
She also gives a total of 159 art societies in the United 
States and 9 in Canada. No such societies were recorded 
in the special report. Reference to the U. S. bureau 
statistics, as given in the preceding pages, show a notable 
increase in art collections and schools from 1869 to 1882. 
The statistics, as now given by Miss Levy for 1898, show 

'American Art Annual, 1898. Florence N. Levy, editor, New York. The Mac- 
Millan Company, 1899, pp. 540. Price $3. 



727] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 23 

most emphatically that the interest in art education and in 
public collections of the fine arts, as contrasted with that 
shown by the earlier statistics, is still a growing and continu- 
ing interest. The good seed planted in Boston in 1870 has 
brought an abundant harvest ! 

III. THE MOVEMENT FOR MANUAL TRAINING 

This movement which was so suddenly developed had its 
immediate origin in the demonstration given by the success- 
ful introduction of the new study of drawing in the public 
schools, showing conclusively that it was feasible to teach 
at one time, a single subject to a large number of pupils. 

The following immediate paragraphs are taken from the 
opening pages of the introduction to " Part I of the art and 
industry report" published in 1885, by the present writer, in 
which the history of the introduction of industrial drawing 
in the educational systems of the country is given in detail. 

One of the most striking and significant results of the 
experiment, begun in Boston in 1870, by the teaching of 
industrial drawing to the public school children of that city, 
has been the widespread interest awakened throughout the 
United States in the further development of the industrial 
training of children. No sooner was it shown that it was 
possible to give to the children in the public schools, some 
elementary training of the hands and eyes, than a movement 
began in many places, to teach actual trades and handicrafts 
to the children while in school. 

Though there might be danger that overzealous promot- 
ers of this so-called " practical education " would in their 
earnestness, overstep the true province of education, over- 
strain childish muscles, and overtax the mental as well as 
bodily strength of the growing children, still the public 
good sense may be trusted to restrain and modify such 
extremes ; while the intellectual activity, which has been 
aroused and stimulated by this new departure in education, 
if wisely directed into practicable channels, can hardly fail 
of accomplishing desirable results. 



24 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [_7 2 & 

KINDERGARTENS AND OBJECT TEACHING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

The substitution of a knowledge of the thing, in place of 
a verbal account of the thing, which is characteristic of the 
kindergarten methods, has begun to be introduced in the 
schools and mechanic's classes of England, and, also, so 
notably here in the schools of Ouincy, Massachusetts, that 
it now goes in the United States by the name of the 
"Ouincy method." * * * 

" Object teaching " so far as it tends to awaken the intel- 
lectual faculties of the child, and to encourage improved 
habits of study and observation is to be commended and 
fostered. 

RESULTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF DRAWING AS A PART OF ELE- 
MENTARY EDUCATION 

It is referred to here only as one evidence of the rapid 
progress of the " evolution " of the principle embodied in the 
introduction of industrial drawing into the elementary pub- 
lic schools of the country. The practical bearing of this 
study upon the industries of the country, is shown in the 
tendency to begin the technical training of the future work- 
man or workwoman, at a far earlier age than had been before 
thought practicable. The danger, as already suggested, 
lies in not recognizing the limitations set by nature. While 
the kindergarten method avails itself of the natural curiosity 
and wonderful activity of very young children, and in its 
educational processes closely follows the leadings of nature ; 
the attempt to teach handicrafts to young boys may very 
easily go contrary to nature, by imposing tasks unfit for 
untrained minds and undeveloped muscles. No such objec- 
tion can, however, lie against the study of industrial draw- 
ing. Weak indeed must be the hand that cannot lift a 
pencil, weaker the mind that, beginning at the beginning, 
cannot follow the graded and orderly steps, by which Walter 
Smith, basing his teaching on the everlasting truths of 
geometry, has arranged his progressive studies. 



729] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 25 



RESULTS TO BE ANTICIPATED FROM GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF 
DRAWING IN SCHOOLS 

When the study of drawing is regarded in all public 
schools as of the same importance as the study of reading 
and spelling, and as much time in the week is given to teach- 
ing drawing, as is given to either of these studies — which 
has nowhere yet been done, for even in Boston this study 
has been admitted largely on "sufferance" — then, judging 
from the results already secured, it is reasonable to antici- 
pate an increase in the numbers, as well as superior expert- 
ness in the skill of American-born workmen. It is by reason 
of its direct bearing upon the development of skilled labor 
that this subject of the introduction of the study of ele- 
mentary drawing based on geometry, and with a direct view 
to its application to industries, is of the national and gen- 
eral importance which seems to justify the preparation and 
publication of the present report. Accounts of the experi- 
ments in introducing "manual training" in the public 
schools, as well as the reports of the special schools for such 
training and of the technical industrial schools, will be found 
in their appropriate connection in Part II of this report. 

THE LAND GRANT ACT OF 1862 THE RECOGNITION BY CONGRESS OF 
THE ADVENT OF SCIENCE AS A FACTOR OF EDUCATION 

The passage by congress of the law establishing the 
" colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts " as long ago 
as 1862, is proof that the need of some form of educational 
training, other than the purely literary courses which then 
comprised all that was given in the higher schools and col- 
leges, was widely recognized. * * * 

DRAWING A REQUISITE PREPARATORY STUDY FOR ALL SCHOOLS OF 

SCIENCE 

A knowledge of drawing is so essential to any progress 
in many of the studies comprised in the regular courses of 
the schools of science that, in view of the almost total 
neglect at that time of this study in the public, or private 



26 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [730 

elementary schools, it is little wonder that when the new 
colleges, created by the national land grant act, were first 
opened, there were frequent complaints that, for want of 
this indispensable preliminary training in the element of 
drawing, nearly a year's time was lost in teaching the pupils 
that which should have been taught in the primary schools. 
While there were doubtless other studies in which a lack of 
suitable training was observed, drawing was both the most 
important of these preliminary studies, and the one in which 
deficiency was most common and most disastrous. 

It is because this knowledge is indispensable as a prepa- 
ration for the courses in the schools of science, that the 
teaching of the study of drawing in all the public schools 
of the country is of importance to the colleges created by 
the national land grant of 1862 ; and it is in this connection 
that one element of the practical value and importance of 
this training of the public school children in elementary 
drawing can be readily seen. 

THE COMMON SCHOOLS ARE THE PREPARATORY ACADEMIES FOR 
THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 

The public schools are the academies that fit the students 
for the national agricultural colleges, and, therefore, it is 
of importance to these colleges that the studies taught in 
the public schools shall be such as are preparatory to their 
own courses of study. 
******** 

UND7ERSAL TEACHING OF ELEMENTARY DRAWING ESSENTIAL 

The fundamental idea of the present report is, that uni- 
versal teaching in all public schools of the elements of 
*' industrial drawing " — meaning by that an orderly pro- 
gressive course of drawing based on geometry — has become 
an essential part of any general system of the public educa- 
tion of a people, and is equally necessary, whether the after- 
training of the child is to be that of an artisan, an artist, or 
a citizen engaged in any productive pursuit, or whether the 



73 i] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 2*J 

child is to be so situated as to be removed from the ranks of 
producers to those of consumers. 

NATURAL DIVISIONS OF SUBJECT — INFLUENCE OF THE ART 
KNOWLEDGE OF A PEOPLE UPON THEIR ART INDUSTRIES 

The subject naturally separates into two main divisions ; 
on the one hand, that embracing all matters relating to the 
technical industrial producing arts and artistic industries ; 
on the other, those relating mostly to the fine arts ; this 
last division properly includes three distinct subdivisions, 
relating, separately, to the theory and history, to the study 
and practice, and to the enjoyment and patronage of art. 
The first of these minor divisions includes such a knowl- 
edge of the historical development of art as must here- 
after be implied in the term " liberal education," such as, 
within the past few years, has been taught in some of 
the classical colleges and universities ; the second includes 
the special art schools and academies for the technical 
training of artists, architects, sculptors, painters and 
engravers, preparatory to the actual production of works 
of high art ; the third comprises the various means of 
promoting that general information and art culture of the 
public, which is derived largely from the opportunities of 
seeing choice works of art in the collections of art museums 
and art loan exhibitions ; the latter, having, perhaps, as 
important, if not as manifest, an influence upon the develop- 
ment of the industries and arts of a people as the former ; 
for the industries and arts of a people are determined by 
their needs, their desires, and their intelligence. 

So long as individuals and communities have never seen 
the added attractions given to buildings, furniture, clothing 
and household implements, by the application of art to such 
articles of prime necessity, so long there is no demand for the 
production of similar artistic articles ; but let once their eyes 
be opened by a sight of the wonders of a " world's fair," or 
a.n " art loan collection," and immediately the demand is cre- 
ated. There is at first no ability, owing to lack of knowl- 



28 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [732 

edge and skill on the part of the home workmen to produce 
similar articles, consequently this demand must be met by 
importation. An increase of imports with no corresponding 
increase of exports is an evident disadvantage for the import- 
ing country. It is, therefore, of importance to any commu- 
nity or country to ascertain by what methods other countries 
have trained skilled artists and artificers, in order to adopt 
similar means ; hence, an account of the experiments, 
expenditures and systems adopted by foreign countries, for 
these purposes, is directly demanded in such a report as this. 
The origin of the educational form of manual training, 
as introduced in the public schools of the United States, and 
as presented in the technical manual training schools, is by 
some definitely assigned to the year 1876 as being the direct 
outcome of the object lessons of the " work in metals," 
shown by the StrogonofI school in the Russian exhibition at 
the centennial. The work of this Russian school was 
enthusiastically set forth to educators by Professor Runkle, 
of the Boston institute of technology, and by Professor 
Woodward, since director of the manual training school of 
St. Louis. Several other educators, interested in industrial 
education, as shown in the exposition, by the work in wood 
in the Swedish department, and by other like experiments, 
heartily favored the movement. 

THE NEW DEPARTURE IN EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. THE 
INDUSTRIAL PHASE OF THE MOVEMENT 

This movement is, in the opinion of the writer, as stated 
in the opening sentences of Part I of the art and industry 
report, simply the logical outcome of the experiment of 
introducing instruction in industrial art drawing in the pub- 
lic schools, initiated by the calling of Walter Smith to Mas- 
sachusetts in 1870. It is, therefore, germane to the purpose 
of the report, although not solely artistic in its present 
development. * * * 

As this is a new departure in educational methods, it has 
seemed desirable to show the growth and changes of opin- 



733] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 2g 

ions, for the movement is necessarily based upon the percep- 
tion, by the educators and the public, of the desirableness 
of some changes in methods, while the nature, extent, and 
manner of the changes are all in question and proper sub- 
jects of discussion. So, that it seems desirable that the vari- 
ous steps by which conclusions have been arrived at in such 
communities as have taken some decided action, should be 
given at length, for the information of others contemplating 
action in similar directions. For this reason public official 
reports, as well as direct communications made to this bureau, 
are freely quoted at length in the appendices. It is hoped 
that sufficient material for tracing historically the incep- 
tion and progress of this important educational movement 
in the United States will there be found, as well as an ade- 
quate showing of the arguments used by both parties to the 
discussion. Fullness and accuracy, rather than brevity, have 
been sought in the compilation from the various authorities 
there given. 

It has been said, by one experienced in observing the 
results of legislation, that the unforeseen, indirect and far- 
reaching influence of any law was much greater, and often 
far other, than the intentional results sought by its enact- 
ment. Perhaps the recent "interstate commerce" law may 
be instanced as in point. However this may be as applied 
to man's enactments, it is unquestionably true in relation to 
the results of his discoveries in the realms of nature, when 
he has once set his new-found servitors to work ! Who, for 
instance, could have foreseen that Galvani, experimenting 
with the legs of frogs in his laboratory in Italy ; Watt, 
dreamily watching the tea kettle by the cottage hearth in 
England ; Franklin, kite-flying in the Philadelphia fields ; 
Fulton, whittling out the model of the strange, sailless craft 
he was to launch on the Hudson ; or Morse, stringing wires 
around the walls of his studio in New York, were, each and 
all of them, more busy with that which would affect for ages 
all the after development of civilization ; and influence the 
lives of men and the destinies of nations to a far greater 



30 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [734 

extent than did the decisive defeat and victory of Waterloo ? 
Yet the discovery and utilization of the powers of steam 
and of electricity have not only revolutionized the world of 
matter, but of ideas ! 

ADVENT OF THE INDUSTRIAL ERA 

The era of industrial democracy was made possible by 
these modest, patient students of nature. As soon as the 
advance in material development due to their discoveries 
began to be realized, the male inhabitants, either of king- 
doms or republics, who had hitherto been regarded only as 
possible soldiers, began to be respected as producers — 
active factors in the production of the resources of wealth 
and power of the country. The new contests between coun- 
tries gradually became contests between the art, skill and 
industry of their respective peoples. Not that wars have 
ceased, or that arms are laid aside, but that the arts of 
industry, the avocations of peace, begin to be recognized as 
legitimate fields in which the interests of nations are to be 
contested. The rulers are alert to impress all discoveries in 
the arts into the service of war, and are prompt in utilizing 
all inventions in the industries for warlike preparations. 
Nevertheless, it grows more and more apparent that the 
skilled artisan is rising in the scale of importance, while the 
warrior is valued more and more because he may be the pro- 
tector of the workman, and of the precious things his art 
has produced. The world's fairs are recognized as the arenas 
in which the most brilliant triumphs of nations are to be 
won. The moment that it was seen that commercial 
supremacy was based upon industrial superiority, the new 
era was inaugurated. This was first clearly seen at the first 
great "world's fair," which was held in Hyde Park in 1851. 
National efforts to promote technical industrial education on 
a large scale date from that event. The rise of the mediaeval 
renaissance does not more clearly date from the discovery 
of the classic manuscripts than does this modern era of the 
European renaissance of artistic industries from this great 



735] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 3 I 

fair. The traditions of art industries had, it is true, never 
been wholly lost in France, but the beginning of that gen- 
eral movement, which embraces all the European states, 
which led Russia to recreate Byzantine art, and England to 
discover new regions of art, and which has begun to be felt 
even in these United States, can be definitely traced to that 
'time of the uplifting of the strange, gleaming, crystal dome 
above the elms of the London park. 

DRAWING IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS 

The beginning of the modern art educational movement 
in the United States can be as definitely assigned to the 
year 1870. 

By a melancholy coincidence which groups the termina- 
tion of the lives of the three remarkable men by whom this 
great educational reformation was begun, within a few short 
months of each other, the close of the first period of this 
movement, destined to exert immeasurable influence over 
the future of America, can be fixed as in 1886. 

In common with Dr. Philbrick and Mr. Perkins, Professor 
Smith regarded the introduction of industrial art drawing 
in the schools as but the beginning of the movement for the 
industrial art education of the American people, as his pub- 
lished addresses testify. 

The great movement in the United States which these 
three men definitely organized, and of the development of 
which they had a far-sighted, comprehensive view, may be 
said to have already fairly entered upon the second period 
of its development, no longer by any means confined to the 
public schools. 

THE RELATION OF DRAWING TO THE PRESENT MOVEMENT 

It is because all training in industrial education that can 
be given in the public schools as they now exist, or in any 
new class of schools that may be established with that direct 
purpose, must, of necessity, be based on the thorough 
grounding of the pupils in the knowledge and practice of 



32 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [736 

elementary industrial art drawing, of like character with 
that first successfully taught in the public schools of Massa- 
chusetts under the directorship of Professor Walter Smith, 
that the present widespread movement is termed a second 
step in the new educational advance. * * * 

What these three men in Massachusetts did was to demon- 
strate beyond cavil, that it is as possible in the same time 
to teach a subject, by means of drawings and objects shown 
and explained by a teacher to a class, to many pupils 
simultaneously, as it is to teach the same thing to a single 
pupil. The effect of this discovery was at once to multiply 
indefinitely the power and capacity of the public school. 
For not only was this true of instruction in drawing and in 
writing, the studies which before had been thought to need 
particular devotion of the teacher to the individual pupil 
but it was found applicable to many other studies and to 
afford great facilities to teachers in illustrating many topics. 

If industrial art drawing" had no other value than to have 
furnished this proof of the facility of general instruction to 
classes, instead of to individual pupils, it would have fully 
justified all the cost of its introduction in the schools in 
money, time and effort. Much besides this was effected by 
the proof that the study of industrial art drawing demanded 
no special faculty on the part of either pupil or teacher, but 
could be taught to all by the regular teachers of the schools 
after a little preliminary training of the teachers themselves 
in classes. It was long before the popular impression that 
drawing merely meant picture-making, and that the ability 
to draw was a special gift of genius, could be corrected ; 
but this was gradually effected by repeated public exhibitions 
of the work done by all the pupils of a school, or of all the 
schools of a town or city, where it was shown that every 
child whose eyes and fingers were uninjured could learn to 
draw. The object of the study, which was to train the eye 
and the hand — the one to accuracy of seeing, the other to 
facility of execution and exactness of statement — began 
slowly to be understood. 



7$J~\ ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 33 

The value of a thorough training in industrial art drawing 
has at last become so generally recognized as to call for little 
argument. It is taken for granted in the discussions about 
the further development of industrial education that the 
pupils have been taught the elements of drawing, just as, in 
discussions about new text-books, their ability to read is 
assumed. It was far otherwise in the beginning. All 
through the early years of the decade, from 1870 to 1880, 
there were very few individuals, and fewer school officials in 
cities and towns, who were in the least aware of the useful- 
ness of this study. The very places in which the most 
zealous advocacy for manual training in schools, and for the 
adoption of all forms of industrial education is now found, 
were only, after long-continued efforts, led to allow the 
experiment of teaching drawing in their public schools to 
be tried. However, the centennial exhibition in Philadel- 
phia, in 1876, worked wonders in the general diffusion of a 
knowledge of the possible value of this industrial art educa- 
tion ; for the American people then first saw into how large 
a share of the manufactures and arts of mankind this appli- 
cation of art to material enters ; first learned how values were 
enhanced by art, and began to realize how art ennobles labor. 

They saw, also, at Philadelphia, in the collections shown 
there of the industrial art drawings made by the school 
children of Massachusetts, by what methods, and with what 
results, the teaching of this new study could be effected. 
More than this, the pupils' work in applied mechanics, shown 
by the Russian schools, illustrating the results of giving 
definite instruction, in a systematic course, to artisans, was 
there first seen, and the idea of the " manual training 
school," since so admirably exemplified in the St. Louis and 
the Boston schools, modelled after the Russian plan, was 
familiarized to American educators. Thus, the sure founda- 
tion for a further advance in the development of industrial 
education was laid. 

As soon as the success of this attempt to begin the ele- 
mentary training of the eye and hand in the public schools 



34 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [73% 

was satisfactorily established, it was evident that a new and 
valuable means of education had come into use. Educators 
eagerly adopted and experimented with the new methods, 
some looking at them only with a view to their application 
in the art of teaching, their pedagogic value ; others, the 
majority, seeing in them the means of giving a more directly 
practical turn to the training in the public schools. The 
demand for this more practical education has been rapidly 
growing, and in these new studies were found the first prac- 
tical suggestions for so modifying the old methods of school 
education as to adapt them to the new demands. In com- 
mon with all germinal ideas, they were found capable of 
various applications and of indefinite development. It was 
the recognition of this potentiality that led Dr. Philbrick and 
Mr. Perkins to desire and secure their introduction. 

When it is seen how truly the present interest in indus- 
trial training is the legitimate result of the introduction of 
industrial art drawing in the public schools of Massachusetts, 
and that, but for this pioneer work in thus clearing the way, 
and laying the sure beginnings of general technical training 
in this country, the great Philadelphia exhibition must have 
failed of any direct practical bearing upon our education, or 
our industries, other than to greatly stimulate the buying of 
foreign art manufactures ; the magnitude of the' services ren- 
dered to the whole country by the three men who originated 
the plan, and effected the introduction of the practical study 
of industrial art drawing- in the common schools of Massa- 
chusetts in 1870, begins to assume larger and grander 
proportions. 

That the practical-value to the people of the United States 
of the opportunities afforded by the splendid displays of 
their art industries by the nations of the world at Philadel- 
phia, was greatly enhanced owing to the direct interest in 
industrial art training, begun in Boston six years before and 
rapidly developing in Cincinnati, St. Louis, and elsewhere, 
may safely be assumed ; because the industrial value to a 
people of the sight of such varied museum collections as 



739] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 35 

were shown at the centennial, is not mainly derived from the 
pleasure given to the mere sight-seer, but is owing to the 
opportunities thus afforded to practical designers and arti- 
ficers for thorough study of the works shown ; for, as Emer- 
son sagely says, " No matter how much facility of idle seeing 
a man has, the step from knowing to doing is rarely taken." 
It was in this exhibition that the utility of such training in 
the artistic industries was first made known to large numbers 
of Americans ; it was here, also, that the methods of success- 
ful teaching in the elements of these arts were first shown 
to the whole country. It is of interest thus to be able, 
sometimes, as in this instance, to trace great results to 
their causes. 

This movement was the true dawn of the new era of the 
industrial art development of America, which was apparently 
ushered in by the centennial exhibition ; nor, if the move- 
ment, which has gone steadily forward from those early days, 
in Boston, meets with no unforeseen interruption, will the 
term "era" seem inappropriate. 

That the purpose of the early promoters of the introduc- 
tion of the teaching of drawing in the public schools of the 
country, was to develop and promote the knowledge and 
love of art throughout the community may be inferred from 
the fact that, in the same year that Walter Smith, himself a 
sculptor by profession, was brought to Boston, Mr. Charles 
C. Perkins, — at whose suggestion some two years before, the 
American social science association had sent to Europe for 
a number of casts of classical statues and busts to be placed 
in the new building of " The Newton street girls' high 
school," — superintended the placing of these works of 
high art in position ; the architect having provided for 
them in his plans. The purpose of this collection was two- 
fold, both to provide fitting decoration for the building, and, 
" as a simple but efficient means of introducing an aesthetic 
element into the educational system of the United States," 
by offering to the pupils, an opportunity to see and compre- 
hend, some of the works of the great masters of art. With. 



36 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION \_7A° 

this intent Mr. Perkins, himself an acknowledged authority 
on all matters relating to this subject, gave to the fortunate 
pupils of that school, a series of lectures on classic art as 
exemplified by the works before them. This collection 
comprised casts of ten famous antique statues and eleven 
busts. In addition to these single examples a portion of 
the wonderful frieze by Phidias, from the Parthenon, was 
put in place on the walls. 

The Museum of fine arts, though incorporated in this 
year of 1870, was not opened for several years ; so that the 
casts of the girls' high school collection comprised the most 
of the works of classic art then accessible to the public in 
the city. 

This, then, seems to have been the first instance in this 
country of the definite undertaking of the artistic adorn- 
ment of the interior of school buildings, though for many a 
year, here and there, in some wayside country schoolhouse, 
a few wild flowers, or garden posies, brought by loving 
scholar to the youthful teacher, and set in honor upon her 
desk for all to see, had given unwonted charm and color 
to the dingy room, with unconscious suggestion of the 
beauty waiting to transform, at a touch of the magic wand 
of art, those too often repellant dens of ugliness, the com- 
mon school rooms of the country, with their desolate, naked 
walls, into bright attractive homes for the happy children ; 
such as are to be found to-day in city and town, and along 
country hillside, all over the land. 

As the origin of the present somewhat widely extended 
movement for beautifying the school rooms, has been attrib- 
uted solely to the movements begun in France and in Eng- 
land, a decade later (see report of Boston school commit- 
tee on drawing and music for 1883) — it has seemed well to 
refer here to the inauguration in 1870, of this earlier Boston 
idea of placing examples of antique art in the school. For 
a full account of this Boston experiment, and of other later 
similar efforts elsewhere, as well as for several papers of 
interest in this connection, see chapter I of part II, "Art 



741] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 37 

and industry report," pages i-n, and Appendix " K," part 
II, pages 709-731. 

Mr. Perkins, and his associates, sought to give to the 
young girls, many of them about to become teachers in their 
turn, some definite knowledge of classic art, so that not only 
should they see for themselves these objects of ideal beauty, 
but that all literature should be thus for them illumined — - 
since the literature both of Europe and America, springs so 
largely from that of Greece and Rome. Of course the cost 
of such a collection of casts of ancient art, would preclude 
any such undertaking in most schools, public or private, but, 
fortunately, beauty is not to be held a captive, even in 
golden chains, and, just as the cheaper plaster casts, as in this 
instance, take the place of costly marbles and bronzes, so 
engravings and photographs, afford admirable and inexpen- 
sive reproductions of plastic and pictorial art ; while in our 
large cities are now publishers who make a specialty of pro- 
viding- such artistic illustrations, for the use of students, or 
for the adornment of the study walls, and the halls and 
assembly rooms, of the schools ; adapted to all needs and to 
all purses. However, unless the living teacher shall bid 
these dry bones of art to live, shall unseal the closed eyes of 
the children so that they can recognize their beauty, and 
shall awaken their eager curiosity to learn the meaning and 
the message of these silent ministers of art, they will fail of 
their mission. 

The initial movement in Boston, in 1870, for artistic 
adornment of school rooms, as well as for the art instruction 
of pupils, was soon followed by similar undertakings in some 
of the neighboring towns and cities of Massachusetts ; and, 
later, when the English and French movements became gen- 
erally known, in many places all over the country. 

In New York, Brooklyn, Providence, New Haven, Phila- 
delphia, Chicago, Milwaukee, Denver, San Francisco, and 
doubtless in many other cities, the movement has made 
good progress. Long since, in Baltimore, in the Maryland 
normal school building, under Superintendent Newell, and 



38 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [742 

in Washington, D. C, in the Franklin school building and 
the high school building, under Superintendent Wilson, 
many artistic works had been placed in the halls and school 
rooms, which are constantly added to, under the supervision 
of their successors. In Boston, in November, 1894, there 
was held under the auspices of " The public school art 
league "" The New England conferences of educational 
workers" and " The Boston art students' association," a fine 
exhibition of works suitable for school-house decoration, and 
in Brooklyn, New York, in the spring of 1896, a similar exhi- 
bition in charge of the art education section of " The Brook- 
lyn institute of arts and sciences." 

This direct outcome of the movement for industrial art 
training in all public schools, and inspired by the same lead- 
ers, may serve to show that the art idea was ever in the plan 
of the founders of this important movement, which, unfor- 
tunately for awhile, was in great danger of being wholly 
divorced from any idea of art. 

The Boston movement for putting the study of drawing 
into the regular curriculum of the public schools, attracted 
the attention of educators all over the country, and during 
his first year in Boston, Professor Smith was invited to 
attend the convention of state school superintendents held 
in Washington, to explain the nature and purpose of the 
innovation of which he was in charge. The strong per- 
sonality of the man impressed all who listened to his impas- 
sioned pleadings and aroused a contagious enthusiasm, so 
that even before the showing of results at the centennial in 
1876, the fundamental principles of the movement were 
well known throughout the educational centers of the public 
school systems of the several states of the union. 

THE CULTURE OF THE AESTHETIC FACULTIES FORMS NO FEATURE 
IN MOST OF THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL COURSES 

This failure of the art idea in the manual training schools 
is so evident that some of those who started enthusiastically 
with the industrial art drawing movement, but were led away 



743] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 39 

by the more sudden popularity of the industrial training 
movement to the hearty indorsement and support of the lat- 
ter, begin to realize the evil they have helped to bring upon 
the most hopeful educational movement ever begun in these 
United States, and feebly point to a single manual training 
school in which — thanks to the fact that the superintendent 
of that city was once thoroughly in touch with Walter Smith, 
and had mastered the underlying principles of art training 
which inspired the teachings of that great master — some 
Teachings out for aesthetic culture are indicated, as the 
ground for their hope that in the future, art training in 
manual training schools " must come as a necessity ! " So, 
for ages, men have pointed forward to some anticipated 
millenium ! 

Neither in the theories, wishes or methods of the people 
who most actively advocate the manual training movement 
can the present writer see promise of any valuable develop- 
ment or training of the aesthetic nature of the public school 
children of the United States. 

" The ' industrial training ' and ' manual training school 
advocates are entitled to much credit for what they have 
accomplished, and there is much of value in the work they 
seek to do ; but there is no evidence that they comprehend, 
or desire, any such art training as Messrs. Philbrick, Per- 
kins, Smith, and their wise and enthusiastic coadjutors, 
hoped to add to the educational forces of America." * * * 

" Had these three men been spared to instruct and to 
inspire, it seems possible that the hopes they aroused might 
have met fruition." * * * 

" The prolonged study of these schools, as well as of the 
arguments of manual training advocates, incident to the pre- 
paration of this volume, has led to the reluctant conclusion 
that, however desirable the development of art among the 
American people may be, no such development is directly, 
or indirectly, to be anticipated from the efforts of the 
advocates of industrial education ; while the methods of the 
manual training schools are, of necessity, mostly occupied 



40 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [744 

with the kind of drawing specially adapted to mechanical 
processes." 

"It is to be remembered that Professor Woodward, the 
foremost advocate of the manual training school, has never 
made any claim for it on the ground that it was an art train- 
ing" school. He bases the claims of this class of schools on 
far other grounds. It is rather to those who began as advo- 
cates of ' industrial art training,' and who, perhaps, finding 
'industrial training' more immediately popular, and seeing 
that it was the outcome of the first movement, hoped to 
blend the two, that any artistic claim for che latter move- 
ment is to be attributed." 

"In the early chapters of the present volume it was argued 
that the two ideals and methods were by no means incom- 
patible, nor is there any insurmountable reason why they 
should be ; but it remains that, almost without exception, 
the training in these schools under the influence of the 
industrial education ideals, is away from art, and more and 
more towards mechanics ; while the advocates seem long 
since to have forgotten that there was ever any idea of 
introducing any art training in the public schools, — the 
drawing they would have taught is practical, mechanical. 
All this is good, excellent for the purpose sought, but it is 
not, and has nothing to do with, ' industrial ' or any other 
art. 

THE SCOPE OF THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION MOVEMENT 

The industrial education movement is far more wide 
embracing in its scope, than would be implied by the pres- 
ent prominence of the manual training school feature ; it 
includes the girls, as well as the boys ; it considers the needs 
of children in the remote country schools, no less than the 
wants of those in the crowded cities ; it is busy with the 
problem of a logical system of training, beginning with 
the kindergarten and ending only with the high schools. 
It is a vital movement full of interest and of enthusiasm, 
and has drawn to its support wide-awake educators all over 
the land. It has also aroused great interest on the part of 



745] ART AND INDUSTRIAL. EDUCATION 41 

the public, and some outspoken advocates, inexperienced in 
the practical work of education, have in their enthusiasm, 
made many statements in regard to existing methods of 
education which are fairly open to criticism. 

As stated, the general awakening of interest in the educa- 
tional industrial possibilities caused by the rapid extension 
of the movement for the adoption of drawing as one of the 
required studies in all public elementary schools, had a 
marked tendency to eliminate the art idea. So little was the 
knowledge of, or interest in, art in any community, that the 
first advocates of drawing, though, as has here been clearly 
indicated, they valued the study chiefly for its relation to 
the arts, spoke to the public mostly of the industrial value 
of drawing, seeking thereby to recommend the new study. 

The enthusiastic efforts of the advocates of drawing, the 
remarkable personal influence of Professor Walter Smith, 
the showing made at the centennial exposition of the suc- 
cessful work of the students of the Boston normal art school, 
and of the work of the Boston school children, gave a great 
impetus to the development and spread of the industrial art 
movement throughout the country, so that it seemed to be 
on the point of complete success, and of being adopted in 
all the public schools of the states. Suddenly, however, a 
change came. After twelve years of devotion to his import- 
ant work of supervision, Mr. Smith resigned as art director 
of the state, as principal of the normal art school, and as in 
charge of the art training of the Boston public schools, and 
returned to England. 

The marked change that followed in the direction of the 
educational movement from industrial art training- to manual 
training and the teaching of trades, was doubtless due some- 
what to the general indifference to art felt by a large part of 
the public ; but, more largely, to the failure of intelligent 
support of the art ideal, due in part, as suggested, to the 
return of Walter Smith to England — driven out by antago- 
nisms, but in a greater degree to the almost simultaneous 
removal by death of the able early promoters of an art pur- 



42 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [746 

pose in the study. To the concurrence of these lamentable 
events may fairly be attributed the almost total eclipse of any 
art idea in the study of drawing which for a time prevailed. 

At this period the purpose which inspired the early pro- 
moters of the new study of drawing seemed hopelessly lost 
in the new-born zeal for mechanical drawing as relating only 
to "manual training" — to making things; and to the pre- 
posterous, though popular, idea of graduating from the pub- 
lic schools boys of fourteen and eighteen years of age as 
thoroughly-trained expert mechanics ! 

The simplest principles of educational and technical 
industrial standards are alike violated by such claims and 
endeavors. 

Since statistics show that the vast majority of children in 
the United States remain in the public schools only five 
years — the period varying somewhere between the ages of 
five and of twenty years — no argument seems called for to 
demonstrate that the skill requisite for a competent, self- 
supporting mechanic can hardly be acquired during those 
few years of youthful, immature development. 

The not uncommon exhibition of steam engines and other 
complex machines, as having been designed and built in the 
school, by boys of only fifteen or eighteen years of age, 
needs no comment. 

The claim that the simple mechanical processes can be 
taught; some knowledge of the use of tools acquired, and 
much given that will serve to prepare the boy for the subse- 
quent technical training which is essential to his success, but 
suitable only to one of added years and maturer physical 
development, is perfectly tenable ; so that manual training, as 
elementary preparation for the technical study of future life- 
work, or, as giving some desirable general knowledge of 
mechanics, is to be warmly commended and encouraged, but 
it is not to be taught as antagonistic to the elementary instruc- 
tion in drawing, the alphabet of art as well as of mechanics. 

It is an evidence of the common sense of the community 
that such waves of feverish interest in educational experi- 



747] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 43 

ments are but of short duration. Inevitably somewhat later 
the new study, which at first was to revolutionize all former 
educational theories and methods, gravitates to its proper 
place in the general scheme of education, according to its 
proved relative importance. This was strikingly illustrated 
a few years since, in the schedule of studies in the Massa- 
chusetts institute of technology. When manual training 
was there first introduced a large workshop in a separate 
building was given to it, and pages in the catalogue were 
devoted to the outline courses of the new study, but, in a 
year or two, the grand common sense of General Francis A. 
Walker, while retaining it in the institute, had quietly rele- 
gated it alike in building and catalogue, to its rightful 
position as a subordinate feature among the varied courses 
taught in that practical university. 

So, within the past few years, a similar reaction has come 
in connection with the public schools, and the art quality of 
drawing is again recognized. 

It is to be hoped that the essential difference between the 
educational value of a study as a method of developing and 
stimulating the intellect, and that simple iteration of thought 
and movement, essential to the production of technical 
facility in mechanical operations, will not again be lost sight 
of by the educators or the public. 

OFFICIAL STATISTICS SHOWING THE GROWTH AND PRESENT CON- 
DITION OF MANUAL TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES 

In the statistical tables of the annual reports of the com- 
missioner of education, the facts in relation to the various 
public schools, and educational institutions of the country, 
are carefully tabulated ; and occasionally, at intervals of 
several years, full chapters of the report are given to the 
consideration of one or more of the several classes of edu- 
cational institutions. 

In the annual report for 1893-94, issued in 1896, were 
published full tables of statistics of manual and industrial 
training in city public schools, and other educational insti- 
tutions, in the United States. 



44 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [748 

These comprised full details of courses given in the pub- 
lic schools of ninety-five towns and cities; in forty-nine 
institutions of collegiate grade ; in nineteen normal schools, 
and in seventeen manual training schools. In addition, 
there were the industrial statistics of sixty-three colored 
schools ; fifty-five schools for the deaf ; twenty-six schools 
for the blind ; nineteen for the feeble minded ; fifty-three 
reform schools ; eighteen charity schools ; six trade schools, 
and twenty-seven United States Indian schools. This report 
also contains a most interesting chapter on " the rise and 
progress of manual training," by C. M. Woodward, director 
of the manual training school of Washington university, of 
St. Louis, Missouri. (Volume I, pages 877-949.) 

In the annual report for 1895-96, issued in 1897, were pub- 
lished several chapters relating to " industrial " and " indus- 
trial art" training. Chapter xvi, relating to "typical insti- 
tutions offering manual or industrial training," (see vol. II, 
pages 1001-1152), treats of city public schools in eighteen 
leading cities ; manual training schools in five cities ; trade 
schools, six ; normal schools, five ; schools for defective 
classes, eight ; schools for colored pupils, five ; miscellaneous 
institutions, many of them endowed, sixteen. These repre- 
sent all varieties of typical training schools, and of schools 
in which industrial training is an important feature. 

In the annual report for 1896-97, issued in 1898, Statistics 
of schools for manual and industrial training (vol. 2, pp. 
2279-2294) are given for public schools in ninety-nine cities, 
and in 359 institutions, other than city schools. There are 
sixty-six manual training schools and twenty-four industrial 
schools for Indian children. 

In the annual report for 1897-98, issued in 1899, chapter 
xlviii, volume 2, is given to detailed statistics of manual and 
industrial training, References are given to similar statistics 
in the several annual reports from 1888-89. 

Statistics for 1897-98 are given for 114 manual training 
schools, an increase of 15 over the preceding year. Of 
these, 24 are industrial schools for Indian children. 



749] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 45 

No attempt was made to collect statistics of manual train- 
ing given in other schools. Such statistics were given in 
the report for 1893-94. 

The following statistics show the steady growth of this 
training in public schools: In 1890, reports were given of 
37 cities; in 1894, of 93 cities; in 1896, of 121 cities, and 
in 1898 there were 146 cities in the schools of which manual 
training was taught. 

A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INTENT OF THE VOLUMES ALREADY 
ISSUED OF THE ART AND INDUSTRY REPORT 

As reference has been freely made to the " special report 
on art and industry," issued by congress, and the United 
States bureau of education, I briefly recapitulate here the main 
divisions of the three first volumes, before coming to the 
general consideration of the present condition of the country, 
both in its art development and in its facilities for education 
in art, and in the technical application both of art and of 
science to industry, which precedes the main body of part 
IV, the final volume of the report yet issued. 

The first two volumes of this report dealt mostly with the 
elementary public schools — these last two with the artistic 
and industrial training in other schools, and classes, for older 
pupils, and are given more directly to the methods of indus- 
trial training, though, in each volume, the art ideal, which 
inspired the Boston promoters of the new education, is ever 
kept in view, and it is to be hoped may not seem to have been 
neglected. This was the absolutely new element added to our 
American methods of public education, an element to us of 
priceless value. The universal Yankee Nation had shown no 
inferiority in the application of mechanical invention to indus- 
try, and there seemed no especial need of increasing educa- 
tional activity in that direction. "Necessity" had, early in 
New England, proved a prolific "mother of invention," and 
the increasing peoples in other parts of the land showed no 
falling off in mechanical ingenuity. It was far otherwise in 
all matters relating to the fine arts. 



46 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [750 

As the first volume of the art and industry report was 
given to an account of the introduction of drawing into the 
regular courses of study in the public schools, so the second 
volume was devoted to a similar account of the widespread 
movement for putting "manual training" and industrial 
education in its various forms in the public elementary 
schools. 

The third volume was given to an account of the volun- 
tary associations, by mechanics and others, in the several 
cities and towns, for mutual improvement by means of read- 
ing rooms, libraries, courses of lectures, etc., and which, also, 
in most instances, began with elementary common schools 
and, as rapidly as public free schools were established by the 
community, grew into special, technical trade schools, in 
some cases of a high technical or artistic character ; as new 
educational demands, not as yet met by the public schools, 
were recognized. These furnish a most interesting class of 
schools, varying with the local needs of their communities, 
and are admirable examples of the practical working out of 
educational and industrial problems by a voluntary effort of 
self-help by independent citizens. 

These were, in many places, eventually supplemented by 
the efforts of liberal individual citizens, who founded schools 
and institutions with similar purpose, namely, to give to 
youth, otherwise unable to secure them, educational facilities 
to fit them to become self-supporting citizens. This ever- 
growing throng of public benefactors, led by McDonough, 
Franklin and Girard, nigh a century ago, is one of the 
proudest glories of the American people. Space fails here 
to record the names already inscribed on this golden book 
of fame. Accounts of a number of these admirable institu- 
tions, mostly of superior technical character, are given in 
volume three. 

In the fourth volume, the last of the series as yet issued, 
accounts are given of the typical manual training schools ; 
of five leading technical mechanical schools ; of some trade 
schools ; of a most interesting educational experiment under- 



75 i] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 47 

taken by the Baltimore and Ohio railway under the auspices 
of President Robert Garrett, in 1885-87; and of the schools 
of science and engineering of the land grant colleges of 
agriculture and the mechanic arts. No attempt is made, 
however, to give a complete view of these latter institu- 
tions ; the accounts of these colleges are limited to notices 
of those departments which give instruction in drawing and 
the industrial arts. 1 

These two volumes thus continue the accounts of the 
development of industrial art education, begun in part I, by 
the history of the introduction of the study of drawing in 
the public schools and continued in part II, by accounts of 
the surprisingly rapid development of manual training, as a 
part of public school education in the United States. A 
phase of educational activity and enthusiasm which, for a 
season, seemed to threaten the extinction of any idea of 
artistic development ; and to substitute for the aesthetic cul- 
ture of the youthful mind, simply a certain amount of manual 
dexterity in the manipulation of mere mechanical move- 
ments, with a limited training in the elements of common 
industries. All of these practical bits of manual training 
are useful in their turn, but the sum of this training fur- 
nishes but a pitiful substitute, as an element of education, 
for that aesthetic industrial art training which those far-see- 
ing educators, Walter Smith, John D. Philbrick, and Charles 
C. Perkins, so successfully began in Boston in 1870. 

At that era it was evident to all intelligent observers that 
the one element absolutely lacking in all American education 
was the aesthetic. Art as an essential feature of education 
was unknown. It is true that the literary arts, poetry and 
oratory, received some little attention in the higher institu- 
tions, and that instruction in elementary music was not wholly 
neglected in the public schools ; but, so far from any attempt 
to give even the most cursory knowledge of the graphic 
and plastic arts, being made generally in the higher educa- 

1 For current statistics of these colleges see latest annual reports issued by the 
United States commissioner of education. 



48 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [752 

tional institutions of the country, they were simply ignored, 
while aesthetics were only thought of as forming a subordi- 
nate branch of metaphysics. 

This absence of any knowledge of, or training in, the fine 
arts, held true in all American public educational institu- 
tions, from the district school to the college. There were 
then no true universities, though several small but ambitious 
colleges were incumbered by the grandiose title. 

While this statement as to the absence of any general 
opportunity for seeing examples of the fine arts, and as to 
the lack of any attempt to give a knowledge of the arts of 
painting and sculpture in the public schools and other public 
educational institutions in the United States is not exagger- 
ated, it is nevertheless true that the fine arts were not wholly 
ignored in America, and that, as early as the latter part of 
the 1 8th century, the names of some few American artists 
were known to the world, while early in the present century 
efforts were made by a few people of culture to establish art 
centres in several of our cities. Facts relating to the early 
history of these sporadic efforts to form art academies and 
public art collections, have been most eagerly sought and 
collected for the present work. These interesting histories 
will be given in parts V and VI of this report. In view of 
the later developments, especially of the growing general 
interest in, and knowledge of, art matters since the begin- 
ning of the movement in Boston for teaching elementary 
drawing in the public schools, and the vastly greater impulse 
to public interest in everything pertaining to art, given in 
turn by the holding of the Centennial and the Columbian 
expositions, the story of these early efforts acquires added 
interest. To the self-denying efforts of a few artists and art 
enthusiasts, were suddenly added the enthusiasm and the 
active support of an awakened public. 

In view of the many collections of casts of antique sculp- 
ture, and of the private and public art galleries, rich in exam- 
ples of the work of the leading modern artists of Europe 
and America, which, as the result of this "awakening," are 



753] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 49 

to be found in the United States in the year 1898, and of 
the special art classes and art schools now in our cities, with 
the very general interest shown in the literature of the arts, 
and, further, in view of the present easy access by the public 
to the before-mentioned art collections, the statement con- 
cerning the scarcity in America, as recently as in 1870, of 
similar opportunities, would seem almost incredible. It is, 
nevertheless, the fact that, at that date, there were but four 
or five small collections of casts of classic sculpture in the 
whole country. Boston, New Haven, New York, Philadel- 
phia and Washington, had each a few examples of such 
casts ; but all the casts of sculpture then in the country, both 
in public and private possession, would not equal in num- 
bers or value, the casts now possessed by the leading art 
museum in any one of these cities ; while in towns, cities, 
and colleges, all over the land, are to be found valuable and 
interesting collections of casts and paintings. 

Two statistical tables in part I of this report, show clearly 
the poverty of this nation in public art collections, and in 
opportunities for learning art, as recently as 1873. 

There were then but eight colleges which gave any instruc- 
tion whatever in art, or that had any collections of art works, 
while there were but five public art museums in the whole 
land. (See tables on pages 502-507 ; part I of this report.) 

The Centennial exposition in Philadelphia, in 1876, was 
a revelation to the American people, not only of the glory 
of the graphic and plastic arts, as shown by the world's 
great living artists, sculptors and painters ; but, also, of the 
variety and beauty imparted to articles of usefulness and 
ornament by the wonderfully artistic weavers, potters, and 
metal-workers of the Orient, and by the skilled art workers 
of Europe. 

The impulse then given to public interest to art, in 
America, may perhaps be most readily realized by a glance 
at the table of statistics of institutions giving art instruc- 
tion, and of the public art museums, existing in the United 
States in 1883, given in part I of this report. (See part I, 



50 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [754 

pages 385-411.) Thirty-seven institutions, which give some 
form of art instruction, and thirty museums of art, are 
recorded in these tables, — certainly a remarkable increase 
in the opportunities for art culture provided for the public 
to have been effected in the short time of ten years ! 

The increase of such opportunities since 1883, by the 
opening to the public of similar facilities for art culture, 
both by the founding of public art galleries, the making of 
private collections of art, and the general dissemination 
of information on all matters relating to the arts, by the 
press, and by lectures and addresses, have been no less 
remarkable, stimulated as all this interest has been by the 
holding of the exhibition in Chicago, in 1892-93 ; for, 
wonderful as were the revelations of the Centennial, to the 
public of 1876, the marvellous showing of the Columbian 
exhibition, or world's fair, at Chicago, in 1892-93, com- 
pletely overshadowed them. 

In this latter exhibition of the world's industries and arts, 
was shown not only the striking advances made since 1876, 
by all the world, in every field of human activity, knowl- 
edge and enterprise, in art and industry ; but, also, more 
impressively if possible, — at any rate more significant educa- 
tionally, — than these myriad treasures from all the earth, was 
the revelation of the marvellous beauty of that white city 
by the inland sea ; with its classic peristyle, worthy of the 
Athens of Pericles and Phidias ; its lofty pillared fronts 
and swelling domes — its vast palaces stretching in seem- 
ing endless procession. The beautiful transitory treasure 
houses America had built for the world's richest offerings ! 
These stately structures — which filled every beholder with 
wonder and delight — proclaimed to the world that, in the 
intervening years following the Centennial, the young nation 
of the west had given birth to a race of great builders — 
architects, sculptors, painters and decorators, worthy to rank 
with the world's worthiest ! 

As the American architects had, as a body, early under- 
taken to secure thorough training in that art, for the young 



755] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 5 1 

men aspiring to enter their profession, this demonstration of 
the grand results of thorough artistic training in architecture 
and its kindred arts was in the nature of a triumphal verdict 
in favor of definite education — of special training — in art, 
as well as in science, or in the so-called " learned professions." 

Thus, while these temporary buildings by their variety, 
fitness and beauty of proportion, won the admiration of all 
beholders, they were, in fact, but a great object lesson, illus- 
trating on a gigantic scale what education in architecture, 
art and artistic decoration could effect. 

The noble building of the Boston public library, since 
erected, and the stately marble palace of the National 
library, so recently opened in Washington, are enduring 
monuments, showing what the art of American architects, 
builders, sculptors and painters can accomplish, in these 
closing years of the nineteenth century, in the construction 
and adornment of a great public library. 

The exterior walls and sculptures of the National library, 
the interior halls and grand stairways, and, above all, the pro- 
fusion, variety and general excellence of the sculptured and 
pictorial artworks enriching walls and ceilings within, remind 
us that we are, even now, in this nineteenth century, living in 
the years of that " renaissance " which did not pass away, as 
we once thought, with the passing of Angelo, Raphael, Da 
Vinci, and their peers, but which is still vital with inspiration, 
so that here, on this to them unknown continent, opportuni- 
ties are beginning for the future art masters of the world. 
When Hunt painted his two great allegorical pictures on 
the walls of the legislative chamber in the state capitol 
at Albany, that great artist " builded better than he knew," 
though, alas ! his own works so quickly passes ; for, by that 
single precedent, he opened up all wall spaces of public 
buildings to the future artists of America ; so that hereafter, 
in this land, it shall be held — just as it was in Europe cen- 
turies ago — that the walls and ceilings of all palaces, 
churches, and other public buildings are to be considered 
but as the durable canvas of the painters. 



52 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [756 

That " rebirth " of the past, which came with the dis- 
covery of a few of the art wonders of Greece, occurring 
almost simultaneously with the regaining of some of the 
intellectual glories of Greece and Rome, in the unearthing 
of a few manuscripts which gave to us moderns a glimpse of 
their glorious intellectual triumphs — as yet unsurpassed and 
seemingly unsurpassable — gave to our conception of the 
capacity of the human intellect a new ideal, and woke the 
world to life ! 

What the wonders of the classic age, in art and literature, 
must have been, we can faintly imagine, contemplating the 
works of the intellectual and artistic giants of Italy in the 
middle ages, who sprang into being at the magic call of a 
few scattered fragments of the words and works of the 
mightier ancients ; just as, in Holy Writ, we are told, the 
chance touch of the bones of the prophet Elisha woke the 
dead to life ! 

So, to-day, as Homer, Aeschylus, Demosthenes, Aristotle 
and Plato, dominate the world of letters in poetry, eloquence 
and philosophy, Phidias, Ictinus, Appelles, and their com- 
peers, lead the worshippers of art. 

In art, in our own day, have been repeated similar discov- 
eries to those which in literature, four centuries ago, aroused 
to new activities the mind of Europe ; for the revelations of 
Etruscan tombs, the patient explorations by Layard, Schlie- 
mann and Di Cesnola, the unearthing of the terra cotta 
figurines in Tanagra, the later work by English and Ameri- 
can enthusiastic scholars in Greece, in these very days, have 
brought home to us moderns a comprehension of the vitality 
of classic art ; which, contrary to our earlier impressions, we 
now find to have been busied not only with the ideal images 
of the Olympian divinities, but also with the every-day life 
of the people, all testifying to the solidarity of the human 
race ; for, quickened by the life-giving touch of their artists 
in those far-off centuries, the little figurines of the graceful 
maidens of Tanagra, reveal, in their unconscious attitudes, 
the same love of dress, the same delight in free movement 



757] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 53 

and flowing robes, in short, the same irrepressible joy in life, 
and the same marvelous beauty of youth, which meets us 
to-day on every hand, a-foot or a-wheel, in the blushing 
maidens of 16 years in this fair land, the unknown "ultima 
thule " of the ancients ! So past and present meet and 
blend, taking no thought of the thousand intervening years ! 
Here to-day, the thought, the art, of Athens and Rome, 
shape our thoughts and arts ; so that we, consciously or 
unconsciously, are the children of that elder civilization. 

The most recent illustration of this influence of classic 
examples upon our modern American art ideals, to which 
reference has been made, occurs among the buildings of the 
exposition held in Nashville, Tennessee, in this summer of 
1897, where the crowning architectural charm is found in 
the strikine restoration of the Parthenon of Athens, which, 
is the model taken for the art building, of the exposition. 
This reproduction is spoken of as full of grandeur and 
beauty. 

It is also remarked that the government building erected 
for showing the governmental exhibits, has, fortunately, 
been modelled after the Chicago exhibition art building ; 
so that, instead of being externally, as was the one at Chi- 
cago, a hideous enormity, in contrast with the artistic build- 
ings surrounding it, this copy in little, of the beautiful con- 
struction designed by Richard M. Hunt for the art building 
of Chicago, is not out of harmony even when brought into 
contrast with the world renowned chef d'azttvre of Ictinus 
and Phidias. 

This is all the more to be rejoiced in, because it began to 
seem that, under the stress for room in our modern cities, 
all ideas of beauty in architecture must, perforce, be wholly 
subordinated to the frenzy of piling stories upon stories, till 
the builders seemed to have no ideal other than that of the 
Tower of Babel. 

This epidemic of many storied buildings has had a most 
unfortunate effect, in many instances, in degrading the 
architectural aspect of our older cities. Perhaps some of the 



54 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [758 

most striking examples of this incidental evil, are to be 
found in the city of New York, where the ever beautiful old 
familiar landmark of Trinity church steeple has been elimi- 
nated from the once attractive view of the city as seen from 
the bay. In addition to this misfortune must be reckoned 
the recent belittling of that charming example of palace 
architecture, the New York city hall, formerly so well shown 
standing as it did in the ample open square given to it in 
the heart of the town, now, seeming as if at the bottom of 
some mountain valley, towered over by the clustering cliff- 
like business buildings that crowd about the square, shutting 
out all views save of their own precipitous walls. 

In Washington, an impertinent modern apartment house, 
towering in apparent emulation of the Washington monu- 
ment, obtrudes its awkward outlines and gigantic bulk in 
every possible view of the capital city, once so beautiful as 
seen from every point of vantage and uglifies it all. 

In some, at least, of the cities of Europe, the observer 
can hardly fail to notice that, while the residences and busi- 
ness buildings in the streets of the city may make no pre- 
tence to any display of architecture — often being notice- 
able rather by reason of excessive plainness — care has been 
taken to secure for the public buildings of church or state 
— the cathedral and the civic palace — ample space, where 
no private erections could ever destroy the harmony of pro- 
portion, or impair the true architectural effect of the building. 

In this country, notably in the very instance of the New 
York city hall, this effect was supposedly secured by the 
generation who built it only to be thrown away by a later 
generation of ignoble or careless successors. 

In the situation of the capitol building of the United 
States in Washington, D. C, and in those of the state capi- 
tol buildings in Albany, New York ; in Boston, Massachu- 
setts ; in Hartford, Connecticut ; in Nashville, Tennessee, 
and in many another state capital, the sites are commanding, 

It is to be hoped that in the choice of the situation of the 
new buildings of Columbia college and the new cathedral 



759] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 55 

on Morningside heights, New York city, the relative position 
of those several buildings have been so chosen as to be 
architecturally isolated, so that no such misfortunes can 
affect them, as have recently relegated Trinity church and 
the city hall to comparative obscurity. 

If, hereafter, American towns and cities, take pains to 
secure ample room and effective positions for their chief 
architectural buildings, the lesson to be learned from the 
humiliating experience architecturally, of New York city, 
may not be without compensation. 

In a republic, it seems eminently fitting that the powerful 
effects of great architecture should be reserved for the public 
buildings of church and state, rather than be lavished on the 
comparatively humble dwellings of private citizens, however 
wealthy, or personally powerful, they may chance to be ; for 
the individual passes, but the state remains. 

In a country like ours, where, fortunately, there is no 
hereditary class, it is absolutely wasteful for any private citi- 
zens to build palaces for their residences, only to leave them 
to be enjoyed by strangers, as has been, and seemingly must 
continue to be, the history of many of the costly private 
dwellings built by ostentatious millionaires in the United 
States, during the past few decades. 

It is well that this should be so. Great art is for all the 
people, and can no more be limited to a few, than can 
the blessed sunlight ; which floods alike the hut of the hind 
and the palace of the noble. 

The present volume of this report, as well as the one 
immediately preceding, is mainly given rather to a consider- 
ation of the opportunities afforded in these United States, 
for acquiring technical industrial and scientific training, than 
to the facilities for acquiring knowledge of, and skill in, the 
so-called fine arts ; though, in view of the intimate connec- 
tion which -exists between the industrial and fine arts, and of 
the fact that much of the elementary training is essentially 
the same in both, the consideration of either is in place in 
each and every volume of this report ; though the given 



56 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [760 

volume may be mostly occupied with the other. It is with 
this thought that the foregoing pages have been given to 
the brief summary of the recent remarkable development of 
the fine and decorative arts, in connection with the forward 
movement in the architecture of public buildings, so strik- 
ingly illustrated in the recently erected library buildings, in 
Boston and Washington. The just completed building of 
the Chicago public library, though on a smaller scale than 
the others, and, in further contrast, making larger use of 
merely decorative marbles in wall surfaces than of the work 
of the artist painters, is, nevertheless, unmistakably of the 
renaissance period. 

The wonderful wealth in decorative carvings and grandi- 
ose stairways, in the as yet uncompleted state capitol at 
Albany, suggests some of the undesirable features of the 
later renaissance, in which in the interiors, costliness of 
material and work, seemed to take the place of artistic 
inspiration ; while the ostentatious piling up of costly stone 
exteriors, suffocated all efforts of living art. A heathen 
apotheosis of mere material wealth, against which gothic 
art was a religious protest ; and concerning which John 
Ruskin has so earnestly and eloquently warned the men of 
his own day. Coldly inhuman, these towering piles of quar- 
ried stone, frowning above our city streets, seem as menac- 
ing as hostile fortresses. 

The grand marble stairway of the capitol building in 
Albany, designed by Richardson, and said to be the most 
beautiful and costly example of elaborate carved work in 
the country, which has taken more than twelve years in its 
construction, seems to repeat, in the lavish profusion of its 
carving, something of the extravagance of the later renais- 
sance. It is due, however, to the architects of this great 
building, Messrs. Fuller, Eidlitz and H. H. Richardson, to 
state that its exterior in nowise recalls the characteristics of 
those ostentatious buildings referred to; while it is well to 
remember that, if anywhere profusion of art decoration is 
fitly employed, it is in enriching and dignifying the impor- 



76 1] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 57 

tant public buildings designed for the uses of the people. 
In considering this particular people's palace, all who love 
art must ever remember that it was in this building, as has 
already been here stated, that William M. Hunt, the great 
painter, set to the American artists and builders of our 
time the striking lesson of noble art decoration so for- 
tunately followed in the great public library buildings just 
completed. 

In the zeal of this new awakening on the part of Ameri- 
can architects and their employers to a practical recognition 
of the value of art in the decoration of the interior wall 
surfaces of public buildings — the most recent examples of 
which I have instanced — -it should not be forgotten that, 
decades before these later buildings were planned, those 
who had charge of the construction of the grand building 
of the nation's capitol at Washington had freely availed 
themselves of the works of the American painters of their 
day, beginning as early as 1837, to illustrate memorable and 
pivotal events in the history of the republic ; so that, on 
entering the grand rotunda, the visitors found themselves 
encircled by a series of large historical paintings, of a size 
in harmony with the colossal proportions of the encircling 
walls which supported the upspringing arches of the crown- 
ing dome ; while in the dome itself, in a blaze of allegory, 
dear to the heart of Italy, was given the Italian artist's con- 
ception of the great powers essential to the prosperity of a 
people, and, though diplomatically disguised in appellation, 
a glimpse of the crowning triumph of the nation in its 
latest terrible struggle for existence. From the landing of 
Columbus to the coming of Lincoln, — he who runs may 
read ; in the paintings, the bas-reliefs and the encircling frieze, 
" in tempera" — (though little can be said in praise of the 
artistic excellence of the relievos and the frieze) — the 
dramatic events of the centuries which have resulted in 
giving to the world the republic of these United States of 
America. 

Our legislators called not only on the painters, but also 



58 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [762 

summoned the sculptors, to the adornment of this, the chief 
building of their country, and gradually important works by 
Greenough, Powers, Crawford and Rogers were secured. 
In addition to these works by native artists, the services of 
Italian artists, as decorators, were largely availed of in the 
halls, galleries and committee rooms of the building ; while 
in the wings, occupied, respectively, by the legislative cham- 
bers of the House of Representatives and the Senate, later 
American artists have added many fine works illustrating 
the history, or the scenery, of the country. 

It has been a fashion with many writers, posing as art 
critics, to speak contemptuously of the historical paintings 
in the rotunda. However true their criticism may have 
been, if comparison of these paintings with the chef d'ceuvres 
of the world's great artists — Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, 
Velasquez, Rubens, and other great art masters in historical 
painting, either in their conception of the subject or mastery 
of technique, are concerned ; it should not be forgotten, in 
endeavoring to estimate the value of this art work to the 
country, that, a half century or more ago, few American 
citizens who entered that building had ever before had the 
opportunity to look upon a fine work of art of any kind. 
It followed, therefore, that the sight of that grand rotunda, 
with its uplifting dome, its great paintings, was an event 
never to be forgotten ; and the grandeur and inspiration of 
the scene gave to many their first realization of the meaning, 
the power, and the possibilities of art. 

There have been American artists, before and since these 
works were painted, who justly rank as artists far in advance 
of Trumbull (though few have left works which can surpass in 
brilliancy his small, jewel-like originals of these large paint- 
ings, long the pride of the Yale college art gallery), Weir, 
Chapman, Vanderlyn, and Powell, the painters of the works 
in the rotunda ; but it may well be questioned whether, before 
1870, any other American artists have given to so many of 
their fellow countrymen their first appreciation of something 
of the glory of art ! 



763] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 59 

A debt of gratitude is due to the legislators who author- 
ized and the artists who executed these works. 

Nor, taken as a whole, are the art adornments of this, the 
noblest legislative building in the world, inferior to those of 
similar modern public buildings in European countries. Art 
in the early part of the nineteenth century, so far as shown 
in statuary on the exterior of buildings, was in nowise gen- 
erally superior to the grandiose sculptures by Persico, which 
stand in the east portico of the rotunda ; while the group by 
Greenough is far superior to the ordinary statuary of that 
day. Nor, in painting, was Trumbull so greatly inferior to 
his master, West! In fact, the era of the reign of the 
fourth George of England, and his immediate successor, 
was, nowhere in Europe, memorable as illustrating the 
highest ideals of art. Early in this century America had, 
in Allston and Stuart, art masters equal to their contempo- 
raries of any other nations. 

In view of this long-continued example of the possibilities 
of the artistic use of interior wall surfaces, as shown by the 
pictorial illustrations in the rotunda, of the history of the 
country, by well-known artists ; and, also, by decorative 
paintings on minor wall spaces, which adorn the interiors of 
the nation's capitol building ; the fact of the almost entire 
absence throughout this period of similar wall paintings 
and decorations in other civic public buildings in the land, 
as well as in churches, and private dwellings, so that the 
paintings by Hunt, in the state house, at Albany, can be 
accurately designated as marking the definite beginning of 
the present era of the general artistic interior decoration of 
buildings, civic and religious, public and private; — fur- 
nishes a convincing proof of the utter lack, on the part of 
the American people as a whole, of any general knowledge 
and appreciation of the value of art in its application to the 
buildings, and the furnishings, of life, prior to the holding 
of the Centennial exposition, in Philadelphia, in 1876. 

It may well be urged that, up to that time, this busy peo- 
ple were too fully occupied in completing the physical con- 



60 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [7^4 

quest of a vast territory, in subduing forests, bridging 
streams and opening virgin prairies to cultivation ; in pro- 
viding for the transportation, housing, and feeding of the 
ever-surging incoming tides of eager emigrants ; were in 
short too busy in their imperative task of making history ; 
to find time, or thought, for its artistic record ! When, 
at last, they found time to pause and study the lessons of 
that Centennial, they proved apt students ; as the Columbian 
exposition has shown ! 

Yet notwithstanding this later surprising and artistic 
evolution of the American people, so widespread and rapid 
has been the development of technical training in its appli- 
cation to industrial and fine art manufactures throughout 
the leading countries of the continent of Europe, and also, 
though begun later, in Great Britain, that, although the 
development in elementary artistic training and its facilities 
for the acquisitition of advanced instruction in these arts, 
in the United States, has been wonderfully increased since 
the beginning in Boston, in 1870, of the movement for school 
instruction in drawing, and the holding of the Centennial 
exposition in Philadelphia, in 1876; still, in the opportuni- 
ties offered for the training of skilled youthful workers in 
the industries of applied art, the United States, to-day, — in 
view of the persistent efforts and great advances made dur- 
ing the past twenty years, by European countries, in pro- 
viding such educational facilities, — are relatively, hardly in 
any better position to contest successfully with the products 
of the trained workers of Europe, than they were in 1870. 

Nevertheless the efforts made in this country by leading 
educators, and by liberal patrons of artistic and technical 
education, have been notable, and most worthy of honor ; 
while the great advance since the Centennial, as shown in 
the art qualities of American manufactures, in jewelry, in 
glass, in art fabrics in silk, in woolen and in cotton, as well 
as in architecture, and in all material pertaining to the 
decorative arts, has been simply marvellous. 

So far, also, as affording requisite opportunities for acquir- 



765] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 6l 

ing thorough training in the fine arts of painting, sculpture 
and architecture, the few art schools in the United States 
compare most favorably with those of the older countries ; 
so that it is no longer essential — though it may often be, 
for other reasons, desirable — for the ambitious young 
painter, sculptor or architect, to exile himself in order to 
obtain needed opportunities for instruction in those several 
arts. Nor are our leading technical schools of science infe- 
rior in equipment or in quality of instruction to the similar 
schools in Europe. These schools in the United States are, 
however, so few in number, in proportion to our increasing 
population as compared to the number and variety of those 
offered to the citizens of the leading art industrial European 
countries of Germany, Switzerland, Belgium and France — > 
not to mention Great Britain, Austria, Italy and Russia — 
that the inadequacy in numbers of our schools for training 
the captains of industry, not to mention those merely techni- 
cal trade schools designed for creating a force of trained 
workers, impresses itself painfully upon the investigator in 
these fields. 

With the increasing knowledge of the forces of nature 
acquired by the patient investigations continually carried on 
by scientists of every class, in chemistry, in geology, in natural 
philosophy, in mining, both in the methods of mechanical 
operations and in the reduction of ores ; in short, in the gen- 
eral application of the discoveries of science throughout the 
various realms of nature, to the needs of man, which so con- 
stantly revolutionize former methods and create ever new 
demands ; for example, in the endeavor to secure the eco- 
nomic production of electricity and to contrive the best 
methods for its application to human uses, not to speak of 
the similar needs in other fields, the demand on the commu- 
nity for the founding of institutions for giving thorough 
training in these latest discoveries of science is imperative. 

In all these ever-recurring demands for the invention and 
application of methods by which to make these discoveries 
of science available in the industries of life, a knowledge of, 



I 



62 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [766 

and practical facility in, the art of mechanical drawing," 
becomes absolutely indispensable ; consequently, this ele- 
mentary branch of industrial art clearly forms an essential 
factor in modern industrial education, and, of necessity, 
holds place in all the elementary and higher schools of tech- 
nology ; hence, though its relation to the so-called " high 
arts " may at times seem somewhat remote, its claim to a 
place in this report on art and industry is unquestionable. 

To close this sketch of the beginning and progressive 
development of this important educational movement, with- 
out making honorable mention by name of some, at least, 
of the many enthusiastic supporters and earnest co-workers 
with the three men who were literally the pioneers in this 
momentous experiment, is to leave it incomplete, indeed. 
To give here a complete list of the many educators and 
lovers of beauty who gave it warm welcome ; of the mod- 
est teachers who shrank from no labor in the effort to fit 
themselves to teach the unfamiliar lessons, were an impos- 
sible task. Great effort was made, however, by the writer 
in the volumes of the art and industry report, to secure 
full record of the names of all workers for this special 
branch of education. It may be said, greatly to the credit 
of our countrymen, that while there was at first, on the part 
of many, great and freely outspoken opposition to the move- 
ment, yet very many of the acknowledged leaders in educa- 
tional circles — state or city — school superintendents, with 
professors in colleges and normal schools, gave instant and 
hearty welcome to Walter Smith and his methods ; that the 
press generally gave support to the efforts to put both draw- 
ing and manual training in the schools, and that, as rapidly 
as the purpose and methods of industrial drawing were gen- 
erally known, that movement won for itself popular support, 
while the movement for manual training in the schools was at 
once heartily welcomed by the great majority of the people. 

One movement, almost cotemporary, for promoting 
instruction in the fine arts, both in the institutions of learn- 
ing and in the community at large, met with cordial response 



767] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 63 

from many of the colleges and from numerous liberal citi- 
zens. As the result of generous gifts, public collections of 
casts from the antique became accessible in many institu- 
tions of learning and in many localities where, before 1870, 
they were absolutely unknown. 

To patronize artists, and also to make art gifts to public 
museums and to colleges, became a fashion, so that great 
numbers of examples of the best modern art masters of 
Europe, are now in this country, either in the hands of pri- 
vate owners or in public art galleries. Meantime numbers 
of young American painters and sculptors are winning favor 
in Europe and America, while the art schools in this country 
are thronged with eager aspirants. Enough has been cited of 
American art accomplishment to convince us that one would 
no longer be justified in saying of this "era" of 1899, as 
was said of another era at the opening of this chapter, that 
"the one element absolutely lacking in all American educa- 
tion was the aesthetic !" Industrial art proves its worth to 
a country by its results, as shown in the industrial output. 
To record the amazing variety and exquisite charm of the 
countless productions of art work in metals, ceramics, and 
fabrics by Americans of this "era" would demand volumes. 



15 

EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 



BY 



EDWARD ELLIS ALLEN 



Principal of the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, 
Overbrook, Pennsylvania 



EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 



Systematic care of the defective classes began in America 
in 1815, when a young theological student, Thomas Hop- 
kins Gallaudet, started for Europe to study methods of 
teaching the deaf and dumb. A school for this class was 
opened in 181 7, one for the blind in 183 1, and one for the 
feeble-minded in 1845 — practically fifteen years apart. In 
each case the first schools were in New England, the second 
in New York, the third in Pennsylvania; and these schools 
followed one another quickly. All started in the face of 
more or less distrust as to their feasibility. At first all were 
experimental, being started through private initiative. A 
few pupils were taught and exhibited before the amazedi 
public, when in the case of the deaf and the blind private 
funds in abundance were contributed and the schools quickly 
established as private corporations. In the case of the feeble- 
minded the first school to be incorporated was a public 
organization — that is, it was supported by the state. 
Before 1822 the state had not been educated to the point 
of supporting schools for the special classes, but by 1848 it 
was ready to see its duty towards even the idiotic, though 
wealthy people were by no means prepared to contribute 
directly to schools for them. 

The three states named having led the way, the move- 
ment spread quickly into Ohio, Kentucky, Virginia and Illi- 
nois — in almost identical order for each special class. Here, 
however, the schools for the three classes arose as state insti- 
tutions. It had become an accepted part of public policy 
for the state to provide a means of education for all her 
children. The superintendents of the early schools for the 
deaf and dumb were generally clergymen ; those of the 
blind and the idiotic, generally physicians. The institutions 
were necessarily boarding schools ; and the early ones were 



4 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [772 

established as a rule in or near the state capitals, chiefly 
that their achievements might be kept before the members 
of the legislatures, on whose practical sympathy the continu- 
ance of the schools usually depended. 

The large private or semi-public institutions are confined 
to the eastern states, where the movement began. Their 
support comes chiefly from private bequests and the interest 
on invested endowment funds. All, however, receive what 
is termed state aid, and all make annual report to the state 
legislatures, to the commissioners of public charities or of 
public education, as the case may be. All these institutions 
are governed by honorary boards of trustees or managers, 
who appoint the superintendent or principal. In the semi- 
public organization the managers form a self-appointing, 
close corporation ; in the public, they are appointed usually 
by the state governor, by whom they may also be removed. 

The semi-public institutions are usually well endowed. 
Their expenditures are, therefore, not limited by legislative 
grant ; and, moreover, these institutions are free from politi- 
cal interference, an interference which, in the case of several 
of the state organizations, has seriously affected from time 
to time the efficiency of the institutions themselves. As a 
rule, the institution plants are large and well equipped. 
Even when within the built-up cities the buildings are sur- 
rounded with ample lawns and playgrounds. The appro- 
priations of money are generous, whether the schools are 
public or semi-public. The earlier institutions were built 
on the congregate plan ; the later and those that have 
been rebuilt have generally adopted the segregate or cot- 
tage plan. 

The pupils are not committed to these institutions, but 
are admitted or rejected by the boards of trustees on the 
recommendation of the superintendents. 

The early institutions for all three classes of defectives 
began purely as schools. And all those existing to-day, 
except those for the feeble-minded, discharge or graduate 
all pupils after these have completed the course of instruc- 



773] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 5 

tion. With the feeble-minded this plan was found to be 
inexpedient,' for reasons which will be stated later. 

A very recent movement, started by the instructors of the 
deaf, is the affiliation of the educators of the defective 
classes with those of the national educational association. It 
is being - more and more recognized that the line between a 
defective and a normal child cannot be drawn hard and fast, 
and that many a child who appears dull and stupid in school 
is in some measure defective. Hence, these special schools 
afford fields of most helpful suggestion to teachers of ordi- 
nary children. All persons intending to make teaching a 
vocation should become acquainted with these schools and 
their methods. 

It is interesting to note that systematic work for the deaf 
and dumb, the blind, and the feeble-minded began in France, 
and that to France America sent its early teachers to study 
methods and ascertain results. 

THE DEAF 

About the middle of the last century three schools for the 
deaf and dumb were opened in Europe, one in France, one 
in Germany, and one in Scotland. Though they sprang up 
at about the same time they were yet wholly independent in 
origin. In Paris the Abbe de l'Epee having observed two 
deaf-mute sisters conversing by means of gestures, seized 
upon the idea that in gesture language lay the secret of 
instructing the deaf and dumb. He therefore elaborated a 
system of gesture signs and made it the medium of instruc- 
tion in the school which he started. Heinicke in Dresden 
and Braidwood in Edinburg simply adopted articulate 
speech as the language of man and taught their pupils 
through it, requiring them to speak and read the lips of 
others. Thus arose the two important methods of deaf- 
mute instruction. 

Reports of the successes, chiefly in the British school, hav- 
ing reached America, several parents of deaf-mutes sent 
their children to Scotland to be educated. These deaf 



6 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [774 

children returned no longer as mutes ; they were able to 
converse readily by speaking and lip reading. One of these 
parents was so delighted with his boy's schooling that he 
published a book in London and wrote articles for the New 
England periodicals, with the intention of arousing interest 
in the new work. This man also took steps to ascertain the 
number of deaf-mutes in Massachusetts. Another man in 
Virginia, some of whose relatives had attended Braidwood's 
school, even opened a little school for deaf and dumb pupils 
in his state, employing as its teacher one of the Braidwood 
family, who had come to America for the purpose of continu- 
ing in the profession of his family here. This was in 1812. 
The school was the first of its kind started in America. 
However, it was soon given up, as was a similar effort in 
New York, where a clergyman undertook to instruct several 
deaf children whom he found in an almshouse. 

Though the events above touched upon seemed to result in 
little, they yet had great effect in directing intelligent atten- 
tion to this field of work. They constitute its preliminary 
stages. 

It happened in Hartford, Conn., that there was a physician, 
one of whose little daughters had become deaf. Why could 
not this child be educated as well as her hearing sisters ? 
With this thought he spent some eight years in agitating 
the question of starting a school for deaf children. In 181 5 
money enough was raised in a single day to defray the 
expenses of sending a teacher abroad to study methods. A 
young graduate of Yale college and of a theological semi- 
nary was chosen as the teacher to go. This was Thomas 
Hopkins Gallaudet, who was destined to become the founder 
of deaf-mute instruction in America. 

Of course he went to Great Britain. He proposed to 
study the only method that Americans knew about. But 
the doors of the British schools were closed to him. He 
found the science and art of teaching the deaf regarded as 
a business monopoly, whereas he had expected to find it 
conducted from his own motive of philanthropy. After 



775] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 7 

wandering about there for nine months he gave up hope of 
acquiring the Braidwood method and accepted an invitation 
to study methods at the Paris school. At this school he 
spent the three remaining months of the year, a time far too 
short in which to acquire the special language of gesture 
signs. Hence, he induced a deaf-mute, who was teaching in 
the school, to accompany him to America. This man was 
the brilliant and accomplished Laurent Clerk, who became 
an engine of power for establishing schools for deaf-mutes 
in our country. Thus was the French method or the sign- 
language method brought to America. It was improved and 
further systematized by our early teachers and in this form 
was the basis of instruction in all our schools for half a 
century. 

During the absence of Dr. Gallaudet, influential men of 
Hartford had secured from the state legislature the incorpo- 
ration of the Connecticut asylum for the education and 
instruction of deaf and dumb persons. Upon his return he 
and Mr. Clerk traveled for eight months among prominent 
cities in behalf of the cause of the deaf. The exhibition of 
Laurent Clerk alone helped the cause as nothing else could 
have done. On April 15, 181 7, school work began at Hart- 
ford with seven pupils. During the year 33 pupils came. 
This was the first permanent school in the country. While 
in other countries similar schools had no reliable basis of 
support, the founders of our schools immediately established 
theirs on a permanent basis. Private aid was necessary at 
first, but no sooner had the feasibility of the work been 
shown than public moneys were granted. 

In this year the Connecticut asylum changed its name to 
the American asylum at Hartford for the education and 
instruction of the deaf and dumb ; for it was then supposed 
that one school could accommodate for many years all the 
pupils of the country who would attend school. But interest 
in the schooling of deaf-mutes had been aroused in other 
places. In 181 8 a school was opened in New York under a 
teacher from Hartford ; and in Philadelphia, where Dr. Gal- 



8 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [776 

laudet and Mr. Clerk had gone to obtain aid for the Hart- 
ford school, an humble storekeeper by the name of Seixas 
began to teach, in 1819, a little class of deaf pupils, and he 
was so successful that an institution was organized in 1820 
with Seixas as first teacher and principal. In a very few 
months he was succeeded by a permanent principal from 
Hartford. Back in 18 19 Massachusetts had provided an 
appropriation for the education of 20 indigent pupils at 
Hartford, and in 1825 New Hampshire and Vermont adopted 
the same policy. " Other states soon followed this good 
example. Thus, through the efforts of the founders of this 
[the Hartford] school, the humane, just and wise policy of 
educating deaf-mutes at the public expense was firmly estab- 
lished in this country, and has been adopted by almost every 
state in the union. In some of the western states means 
for the education of deaf-mutes are secured by constitutional 
provision. This has put the schools for deaf-mutes in the 
United States on a better basis, financially, than those in 
any other part of the world." 1 

Only two years after the founding of the Pennsylvania 
school, Kentucky followed with its institution, being the 
first to be supported by a state. The act establishing it 
limited the pupils at any one time to 25, and their term of 
instruction to three years. In fact limits of this kind are 
usually prescribed in all the early institutions. (The Illinois 
school now has 612 pupils, and the New York schools allow 
a term of 17 years.) The first principal of the Kentucky 
school went to Hartford for a year to study methods. Ohio 
and Virginia soon followed in the good work. Both received 
their first superintendents from Hartford. Thereafter insti- 
tutions sprang up rapidly in the south and west, taking their 
early superintendents or teachers either from the parent 
school at Hartford or from one or another of the older 
schools. 

In 1857 there was incorporated by the national congress 
the Columbia institution at Washington, D. C, which requires 

1 Histories American schools for the Deaf. — American asylum, i: 13. 



77J'] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 9 

special mention. Though originally intended as a school 
where the deaf children of government beneficiaries could 
be educated, circumstances of which not the least influential 
was the energy of its principal, Dr. Edward M. Gallaudet, 
son of the pioneer, soon brought about a change enabling 
the institution to confer collegiate degrees. The institution 
was then divided into two departments, the advanced depart- 
ment taking the name of the National deaf-mute college. 
Thus, in 1864, America had taken a step "unprecedented 
in the history of deaf-mute instruction." 

Most of the deaf and dumb are either born deaf or 
become so before acquiring language. They are dumb 
because they are deaf, and without special instruction can 
never know any but a gestural language. The pioneer edu- 
cators of the deaf in this country were all " broad-minded 
men of liberal education," and they set a high standard at 
the outset for the work. A language of signs they saw 
was the key to the instruction of their pupils, who, indeed, 
were allowed so few years of schooling, that no time was to 
be lost in laboring over the extraordinary difficulties of 
teaching them speech. Moreover, these teachers saw with 
great satisfaction the development of their pupils through 
the language of signs. 

This language is ideographic — " being readily expressive 
of ideas and emotions," rather than of phraseology. Put 
into words their order is entirely different from the natural 
order, thus, " Let it be supposed that a girl has been seen by 
a deaf-mute child to drop a cup of milk which she was carry- 
ing home. He would relate the incident in the following 
order of sign words : Saw-I-girl-walk-cup-milk-carry-home- 
drop." z The late superintendent of the Illinois institution, 
Dr. Gillett, writes : " When reduced to a system they .[signs] 
form a convenient means of conveying to one mind the ideas 
conceived by another, though not clothed in the language 
in which a cultured mind expresses them. One addressed 
in the sign language receives the idea and translates it into 

'Encyclop. Brit. (9th ed.) Am. reprint — Art. Deaf and dumb. 



IO EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [778 

English without any intimation of the phraseology in the 
mind of the speaker, so that a dozen persons familiar with 
the sign language, observing the gesticulations of a speaker, 
would each translate correctly the thoughts given forth, but 
no two of them would be in exactly the same phraseology. 
It is a concrete language, in which the expression of abstract 
ideas is exceedingly difficult." x As the ideas are given out 
chiefly by means of hand gestures, schools using the sign 
language as a means of instruction are said to follow or use 
the manual method. 2 

Among the manually-taught deaf this language early 
becomes the vernacular. As it is a language of living pictures, 
such deaf people think in pictures and dream in them. The 
sign language is said to be to the deaf what spoken language 
is to the hearing ; and yet its use in the school room is deemed 
by many teachers extremely detrimental to the acquisition 
of the English language, and, therefore, unwise. 

All our educators of the deaf agree that giving to their 
pupils the ability to use the English language is their chief 
end and aim. They differ widely, however, over the use of 
signs. The greater number believe a moderate use of them 
to be economical of time and extremely useful to the deaf 
in the acquisition of knowledge. There is a small but grow- 
ing number who dispense with signs in toto just as soon 
as possible. These latter teach by the intuitive, direct or 
" English language method." They teach English by and 
through English, spoken, read and written. 

It is extraordinarily difficult to get started by the oral 
or English language method. But teachers of this method 
claim that once well started their pupils advance more 

1 Gillett. Some notable benefactors of the deaf. Pp. 14-15. 

5 The simple sign for cat well illustrates the graphic nature of the language. In 
order to teach this sign, a sign teacher "would show the child a cat, if possible, 
or a picture of a cat, which would be recognized by the child. The next step 
would be to direct attention to the cat's whiskers, drawing the thumb and finger 
of each hand lightly over them. A similar motion with the thumb and finger of 
each hand above the teacher's upper lip at once becomes the sign for cat. The 
instructed deaf child will be expected to recall the object, cat, on seeing this con- 
ventional sign." Gordon. The difference between the two systems of teaching 
deaf-mute children the English language. Pp. 1-2. 



'779] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES II 

logically, more surely, more precisely, and finally more 
-swiftly than the pupils of those permitting the intervention 
of signs. Advocates of using the signs together with other 
means claim that the minds of most of their new pupils are 
-sluggish from want of language to think in, and that they 
need to be aroused by the quickest method ; that their 
pupils have already lost too many years of youth, and that 
to cause them to lose more because of a theory is wrong 
and wicked. This school asserts that " A large percentage 
of the deaf under proper methods can obtain a very use- 
ful amount of speech and lip-reading, but [that] there is also 
a large percentage of them that would be greatly restricted 
in their mental development, if allowed no other means of 
instruction," and continues : 

" We are striving to take the golden mean, placing first in 
importance mental development and a knowledge of written 
language, and adding thereto in the case of every child 
speech and lip-reading to the degree that his capacity and 
adaptability allow him to acquire them." 1 

And again, " For rapid and clear explanation, for testing 
the comprehension of the pupil, for lectures and religious 
instruction before large numbers of pupils, there is no other 
means equal in efficiency to the sign language. Its proper 
and conservative use always tends to mental development, 
saves time, and is the most efficient aid known in the acqui- 
sition of written and spoken language." 2 

The other school affirms that the two methods or systems 
are mutually exclusive, saying : " Of course no pupil can 
be taught under the intuitive and the sign method at the 
same time, and it is impossible to combine into one system 
a method which is dependent upon the ' sign ' language at 
every stage of instruction with a method which dispenses 
absolutely with the ' sign ' language at every stage in teach- 
ing the English language. In the 'sign-language' method 
instructors aim to teach the vernacular language through 

1 Third Biennial Report American school, p. 12. 

2 First Biennial Report American asylum, p. 17. 



12 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [780 

the intervention of signs, but their deaf-mute pupils acquire 
a mixture of natural signs, pantomime, conventional signs 
and finger spelling which becomes the habitual vehicle of 
thought and expression, wherever it is possible to use a 
gestural language, to the exclusion of the English language. 
The intuitive method dispenses entirely with the crutch of 
the 'sign-language' in the mastery of English." 1 

A form of the English language method, taught at the 
Rochester (N. Y.) institution, substitutes finger spelling for 
signs as these are used in manual schools, and is called the 
"manual alphabet method." Superintendent Westervelt 
says of it, " It is the principle of our method of instruction 
that the child has a right to receive instruction through that 
form of our language which he can understand most readily, 
with the least strain of attention, and the least diversion 
from the thought to the organ of its expression." 2 

So much for the rival methods, which, however, it is 
absolutely necessary to understand if we would compre- 
hend the history of deaf-mute education in America. 

The history of the rise of the oral method is interesting. 
As has been said, the manual method reigned supreme for 
the first fifty years of the work. In 1843, Horace Mann, sec^ 
retary of the Massachusetts state board of education, and Dr. 
Howe, director of the Perkins institution for the blind in 
Boston, made a tour of Europe. In his next annual report 
Horace Mann praised the oral method as taught in Ger- 
many, stating that it was superior to the method employed 
in America. The report was widely read, and caused no 
little commotion among our teachers of the deaf, several of 
whom went abroad to see for themselves. These gentlemen 
did not agree with Horace Mann, and little change was then 
made in American methods. Still as a result of their recom- 
mendations, classes in articulation were introduced into sev- 
eral schools. Later, in 1864, the father of a little deaf girl 
in Massachusetts began to agitate for the incorporation of an 

'Gordon. The Difference between the two systems of teaching, etc., p. 3. 
2 Histories of American schools for the deaf, West. New York inst., 2: II. 



781] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 1 3 

oral school in that state. A small private school of the kind 
was soon opened near Boston. In the nick of time — for the 
opponents of opening an oral school were active — a Mr. 
Clarke of Northampton offered to endow a school for the deaf 
in Massachusetts. The project being favored by the governor 
of the commonwealth, and by Dr. Howe, who was then sec- 
retary of the state board of charities, the legislature incor- 
porated in 1867 the Clarke institution at Northampton, which 
was opened as an oral school. In the same year a former 
teacher of an Austrian school opened in New York what 
soon became the New York institution for the improved 
instruction of deaf-mutes. 

This invasion of the field so long occupied by the silent 
method of signs occasioned much controversy. Dr. Edward 
M. Gallaudet, president of the Columbia institution, at once 
went abroad to examine schools and their methods. Upon 
his return he reported that if the whole body of the deaf 
were to be restricted to one kind of instruction, he favored 
results to be obtained by the manual methods of America ; 
but he maintained " the practicability of teaching a large 
proportion of the deaf to speak and to read from the lips," x 
and advocated the introduction of articulation into all the 
schools of the country. As a result a conference of princi- 
pals of American institutions met at Washington, which 
adopted resolutions in the line of President Gallaudet's 
recommendations. Classes in articulation were then very 
generally introduced. 

During the next few years a gradual movement abroad 
towards the abolition of signs was evident ; and at the sec- 
ond international conference at Milan, in 1880, an over- 
whelming majority of the delegates present voted in favor 
of the oral method. Even the French delegates were found 
to have abandoned the method that originated with them in 
favor of the oral method. At the various conventions of 
the American instructors of the deaf, more and more atten- 

1 Quoted in Gordon's notes and observations upon the education of the deaf, 
p. xxix. 



14 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [782 

tion came to be paid to the question of methods. Then, 
conventions of articulation teachers were held. In the 
meantime Dr. Alexander Graham Bell had introduced to 
teachers his father's system of visible speech, a system of 
written characters devised to show the position taken and the 
movement made by the tongue, teeth, lips, glottis, and other 
vocal organs in articulation. A similar but simpler system 
of visible speech symbols had been independently worked 
out by a Mr. Zera Whipple, of Mystic, Connecticut ; and 
more recently the Lyon phonetic manual has been devised, 
which is founded on the principle of visible speech and may 
be written in the air by the fingers. In 1888 the royal com- 
mission of the United Kingdom voted "that every child who 
is deaf should have full opportunity of being educated on 
the pure oral system," but that those found physically or 
mentally disqualified " should be either removed from the 
oral department of the school or taught elsewhere on the 
sign and manual system." 1 In 1890 the American associa- 
tion to promote the teaching of speech to the deaf was incor- 
porated, with Dr. Alexander Graham Bell as president. Dr. 
Bell immediately endowed the association handsomely. 

Ever since Horace Mann stirred up the waters in 1843, 
they have remained in more or less agitation. And this 
fact has had a grand effect upon the work. It cannot be 
denied that at times the controversy over methods has been 
bitter ; to-day, however, it has been reduced to a generous 
rivalry, in which the champions of the various methods and 
systems are striving with might and main to find out the 
best means of instructing the deaf and to pursue it. The 
majority of our schools do not limit their teaching to any 
one method, but are eclectic, calling themselves " combined 
system " schools. Satisfaction with the original uniformity 
of method would not have meant progress ; and certainly 
the work for the deaf in this land of opportunity has pro- 
gressed remarkably. No other country has so many deaf 
pupils under instruction as this has, none has provided so 

1 Quoted in Gordon's notes and observations, p. xlii. 



783] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 1 5 

generously for them, and there is none in which their edu- 
cators are more alert to test new inventions and appliances 
that may bear upon the methods of instruction. And yet, 
unquestionably, the education of the deaf is still in its 
youth. 

The early principals saw the need of exchanging ideas, 
and soon after the beginning of the work started an organ 
of communication. This organ, " The Annals of the deaf," 
is now in its 44th volume. It is a quarterly magazine, 1 
conducted under the direction of a committee of the confer- 
ence of superintendents and principals of American schools 
for the deaf. It is a high-class, much-prized periodical, and 
is said to be the leading publication of its kind in the world. 
In the pages of the Annals have been published articles on 
all manner of questions relating to the deaf. Its editor, Dr. 
Edward A. Fay, has made a most thorough investigation 
into the results of marriages of the deaf. His data and con- 
clusions have appeared in a volume published by the Volta 
bureau. 

The Volta bureau is a unique institution. The Volta 
prize of 25,000 francs awarded by the French government to 
Dr. Bell for his invention of the telephone, he applied to 
the founding of a bureau for the purpose of collecting and 
diffusing knowledge concerning the deaf. This is the Volta 
bureau of Washington, D. C. It has already published a 
large number of papers, studies, and books. 

The influence of Dr. Bell upon the work for the deaf has 
been deep and lasting. The invention of the telephone 
itself resulted from his experiments upon a device which he 
hoped would enable the deaf to read the vibrations of the 
human voice. Though a Scotchman by birth, he is practi- 
cally an American, and has devoted his best energies and 
his means to furthering the work which he has made his 
profession. His great efforts have been towards the promo- 
tion of speech-teaching to the deaf. 

" The instruction of the deaf is one of the most difficult 

1 It now appears six times a year. 



16 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [784 

fields in the entire department of education for achievement 
at once successful and satisfactory to the x teacher." * For 
many years the parent school at Hartford was parent in the 
sense of providing principals and teachers for other schools. 
The New York institution has also furnished schools with 
many officers and teachers. It is only within comparatively 
recent years that normal classes, as such, have come to exist 
in a few of the schools. Among others, the Clarke institu- 
tion, the Wisconsin phonological institute, the school at 
Bala, Pa., and Gallaudet college have them — the latter 
announcing that it has opened to a limited number of col- 
lege graduates annually, normal fellowships of $500, tenable 
for one year. Thus has the standard of deaf-mute teaching 
come to be in line with modern university methods of train- 
ing teachers. 

Public day schools for the deaf have sprung up in vari- 
ous places. The Horace Mann school of Boston is a nota- 
ble example. They fill an unquestioned need, as many 
parents refuse to send their deaf children off to an institu- 
tion. A still further movement towards decentralization 
has come to pass in Wisconsin. Wherever in this state a 
few deaf children can be gathered near their homes, state 
aid will be given to pay teachers sent there to teach them. 
And this movement is tending to become more and more 
general. All these day schools spread the oral method. 
An important effect of the rise of this method has been the 
lowering of the age when deaf children are received, and of 
lengthening their term of instruction ; also of largely increas- 
ing the number of women teachers employed. The Home 
for the training in speech of little deaf children before they 
are of school age, at Bala, takes children at the age when 
normal children learn to talk and teaches speech by talking 
to them and having them talk back as if they heard. There 
are several private oral schools for the deaf in this country 
where the pupils pay tuition. One of the best is the Wright- 
Humason school in New York. 

1 Gillett. Some notable benefactors of the deaf, p. 3. 



785] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 1 7 

With the lowering of the age of pupils, kindergarten 
methods have been made use of more and more ; though no 
true kindergarten can be conducted in schools where lan- 
guage comes so hard and so late, where even natural signs 
are arbitrarily interdicted, and where there can be no music. 
But the occupations and the games are widely applicable 
and are now universally used. 

From the above discussion it is seen that the deaf child 
comes to school with almost no language to think in, his 
only means of expressing his wants being crude natural signs. 
Such being the case, the first duty of the teacher is to estab- 
lish communication with him and thereafter, during his whole 
course at school, more than in any other kind of educational 
work, to make language the end of training and other sub- 
jects the means of varying language teaching. This state- 
ment is strictly true only of elementary education, but then 
the majority of deaf pupils do not advance far beyond the 
elementary stage ; not because they cannot, for they can, 
but because so very much time is absorbed in language work 
that their progress in other things is slow ; then, too, parents 
are prone to call their boys away from school as soon as 
they believe these can help sustain the family. A few of 
the brighter and more ambitious pupils from the schools 
take the course at the National deaf-mute college, now called 
Gallaudet college, where they have "an opportunity to 
secure the advantages of a rigid and thorough course of 
intellectual training in the higher walks of literature and the 
liberal arts." Occasionally we hear of deaf pupils taking 
high school work in schools with hearing pupils, and even 
of being graduated from colleges of the hearing. 

The course of training at American schools for the deaf 
has always been practical. Indeed, industrial training is 
almost essential for those young people who would form 
industrious habits and facility in the use of tools that will 
put them on their feet when they enter the world of labor; 
for most deaf pupils will have to work for their living. 
Their educators have a magnificent incentive in the knowl- 



l8 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [786 

edge that the trained deaf are not at all disqualified from 
earning a living by simple inability to hear. In their schools 
general manual training is followed with a pupil until, for 
one reason or another, he chooses his trade or it is chosen 
for him. The general equipment for trade teaching is excel- 
lent. Printing is an extremely useful occupation for the 
deaf, especially in the acquisition of idiomatic language ; and 
nearly every institution for their instruction publishes one 
or more papers. 

Our educated deaf people form a quiet, well-behaved, self- 
supporting part of the community. They have formed 
local and national societies for mutual benefit. The conven- 
tion of the deaf that met in 1893 at the Columbian exposi- 
tion at Chicago was the largest meeting of the kind ever 
held. Their speeches and deliberations and social gather- 
ings occupied several days. That a convention so great and 
so remarkable could have been held was a source of great 
pride and satisfaction to those engaged in educating the 
deaf. 

Within the grounds of Gallaudet college at Washington 
stands a beautiful memorial statue of Gallaudet teaching a 
little deaf and dumb girl. It was presented to the college 
by the deaf of the whole country. In this memorial the 
deaf have made fitting recognition of their indebtedness to 
education. 

THE BLIND 

When it is stated that prior to 1830 the blind of America 
were to be found " moping in hidden corners or degraded 
by the wayside, or vegetating in almshouses," it is the adult 
blind that is meant. Still blind children were occasionally 
found in these places, though it could scarcely be said that 
they were vegetating, as could be said of the untrained deaf 
children. Their ability to hear and speak does not cut off 
the blind from the education of communion with friends and 
associates. The needs of the blind, then, were not so evi- 
dent or so early forced upon people's attention as were those 
of the deaf and dumb children. Blind children were less 



j2>7] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 1 9 

often seen than deaf children, for the simple reason that 
there were and always are fewer of them. This fact was 
not then realized. The British census of 1851 first showed 
the world that over 80 per cent of the blind are adults. Our 
schools for the blind were started, first, because of the wide- 
spread interest in the results of educating the young deaf 
and dumb, which furnished inspiration for new fields of 
educational endeavor ; secondly, because the country was 
coming to the conviction that all the children of the state 
should receive education both as a matter of public policy 
and as a private right ; and thirdly, because reports of what 
had been accomplished abroad in schools for the blind were 
being promulgated in our land. 

By 1830 the more progressive states of the east were 
ready to give their blind children school training. In that 
year the government first included in the national census 
the deaf and dumb and the blind. The work of the blind 
was to begin with scientific foreknowledge as to their 
number. 

Private ardor to begin the work had been smouldering 
for several years, when in 1829 certain gentlemen in Boston 
obtained the incorporation of the " New England asylum 
for the blind." This was before they had selected either 
the pupils or a teacher for them. By a most fortunate cir- 
cumstance, the interest and services were obtained of a 
graduate of Brown university, Dr. Samuel G. Howe, who 
after finishing his medical studies had chivalrously gone to 
the aid of the Greeks. This gentleman became the Amer- 
ican father and Cadmus of the blind. He went at once to 
Europe to study methods of instruction. Upon his return, 
in 1832, the school was opened with six pupils. In New 
York the act of incorporation of the New York institution 
for the blind was passed in 1831 ; but funds were needed 
and no one went abroad to study methods. This school 
opened in March, 1832, antedating by a few months the 
school at Boston. In the very same year a German teacher 
of the blind, a Mr. Friedlander, most opportunely came to 



20 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [788 

Philadelphia, in the hope of starting a school for the blind 
there. The way the enterprise was put through is typical 
of many other beginnings of special schools in America. 
Having trained certain blind children he exhibited their 
accomplishments, first, to a few influential people, secondly, 
before a large audience among whom he distributed a leaf- 
let, " Observations on the instruction of blind persons." A 
meeting of public-spirited citizens followed, funds were lib- 
erally contributed, fairs held, and the success of the cause 
was assured. The Pennsylvania institution for the instruc- 
tion of the blind was opened in 1833, fully ten months 
before an act of incorporation was obtained. 

The three schools at Boston, New York and Philadelphia 
are called the pioneer schools. All sprang from private 
effort and private funds. All were incorporated as private 
institutions, and remain so to this day. Two similar insti- 
tutions for the blind have arisen in this country, that at 
Baltimore and that at Pittsburg. 

The origin of the state schools differs from that of the 
type above given only in that classes of trained pupils from 
the earlier schools were exhibited before the state legisla- 
tures, as well as before the people. State appropriations 
followed and the institutions were inaugurated as state insti- 
tutions. The new schools sprang into being with astonish- 
ing rapidity. There are now in 1899 40 schools for the 
blind in the United States, and every state in the union 
makes provision for its blind of school age either in its own 
school or in that of a neighboring state. 

In our sparsely-settled country, especially west of the 
Alleghenies and south of Maryland, great efforts had to be 
made to find the children and still greater efforts to persuade 
the parents to send them to school ; and in many regions 
similar conditions of parental ignorance exist to-day. In 
certain states where the amount of the public fund seemed 
to preclude a special grant for the blind, pupils of this class 
were brought together in connection with a school for the 
deaf and dumb, forming " dual schools," as they are called. 



789] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 21 

These institutions could not help being unfair to their blind 
contingent ; for in nearly every such case the blind came to 
a school already established as a school for the deaf, and 
under the superintendence of a man especially interested 
in the education of the deaf ; moreover, the number of the 
deaf pupils usually far exceeded that of the blind. There 
are still a few of these dual schools, but wherever possible 
they have been divided into two distinct institutions. 

In northern schools the colored blind are educated with 
the white ; in southern schools it is best for the colored to 
have schools of their own. Both the whites and they prefer 
this arrangement. The first school for the colored blind 
was opened in North Carolina in 1869. 

All the institutions for the blind were in their very incep- 
tion schools. The pioneer schools imported literary teach- 
ers from Paris and handicraft teachers from Edinburg. At 
first only the brighter class of pupils came under instruc- 
tion. Teaching them was easy. They progressed with 
amazing strides ; all was enthusiasm ; exhibitions were called 
for and widely given (Dr. Howe's pupils gave exhibitions in 
1 7 states) ; large editions of the various annual reports were 
exhausted. Soon, however, less bright pupils came to be 
admitted ; then the curriculum of studies began to sober 
down to the practical and comprehensive one prevailing 
to-day. Whatever occupation the boy or girl expects to 
follow after leaving school, it is assumed he will follow it 
better and thus live more happily and worthily if he has a 
general education. When, as was formerly the case, the 
period or term of schooling allowed pupils was shorter than 
it is now, they were not admitted before the age of eight or 
nine. Now that kindergarten departments have been uni- 
versally added to the schools, the pupils are urged to enter 
at an early age ; because experience has shown that at home 
these little blind folks are coddled rather than trained, so 
much so in fact that by the time many of them come to 
school their natural growth of body and mind has been so 
interfered with by inaction, that all the efforts of the schools 



22 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES \_79° 

cannot make up for lost time and opportunity. The prin- 
ciple of periodicity of growth has now come to be under- 
stood and the importance of applying the proper stimulus 
at the period most sensitive to it, comprehended. Children 
with good sight and hearing have got along without kinder- 
garten training, and so have blind children, but of all the 
useful means of reaching and developing the average blind 
child none is so effective as the properly-conducted kinder- 
garten. It is not easy to overestimate the importance of 
hearing as giving the child language and all that this means, 
song and the joy it brings and the deep feeling it inspires. 
The practical knowledge of things comes to the blind 
through the hand, their fingers being veritable projections 
of their brains. Thus must their hands not only be trained 
to sensitiveness of touch but to be strong and supple, so that 
they may, indeed, be dexterous ; for as their hands are so 
are their brains. The kindergarten cultivates ear and heart 
and hand and brain as nothing else does. Even color is not 
wholly omitted in kindergartens for the blind. Many see 
colors, and those who do not love to talk about them and 
certainly derive some indirect value from considering them. 
Kindergartens for the blind may be true kindergartens in 
every sense of the word. A kindergartner of fully-sensed 
children would miss here only the brightness coming from 
the untrammeled ability to run and play and observe all that 
sight brings into view, the quick response of " I know," " I 
have seen this," and " I have been there." But, then, kin- 
dergartens for the blind have as their end and aim this very 
arousing of the children and the putting of them in touch 
with their surroundings. 

Blind children with kindergarten training are more sus- 
ceptible to instruction than those without it. Above this 
department the course of studies in American schools 
requires from seven to eight years, which means a primary, 
a grammar and a high school education, or instruction in 
object lessons, reading, writing, spelling, grammar, compo- 
sition, arithmetic, history, physiology, botany, zoology, geol- 



791 J EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 23 

ogy, physics, algebra, geometry, civics, English literature, 
typewriting and sometimes Latin and modern languages. 
Not a few pupils have fitted for college where they took the 
regular course with the seeing students, and from which they 
were graduated usually with distinction. Formerly much of 
the teaching was oral, which, in many cases, was apt to be 
more pleasant than profitable to the pupil. Since the gen- 
eral introduction of the embossed text book and tangible 
writing, the pupil has been forced to depend more and more 
upon himself, obviously with better results. In fact, the 
work has been growing more and more practical. The 
methods of teaching the blind correspond in general to those 
of teaching other hearing children. The common appliances 
have but to be raised and enlarged as in maps and diagrams, 
or simply made tangible, which may be done, for example, 
by notching an ordinary ruler so that the graduations can be 
felt. A successful teacher of the seeing readily adapts her- 
self to the instruction of the blind. She learns to write 
their punctographic systems and to read them with the eye. 
Industrial training has been an integral part of the school 
course from the beginning. Recently educational manual 
training has been generally introduced as preliminary to 
the trades. Sloyd has been found especially adapted to 
the blind. The handicrafts — chair-caning, hammock-mak- 
ing, broom-making, carpet-weaving, and a few others, alone 
remain of all the many trades taught at one time or another 
in our schools. Manual occupations of some kind will 
always be taught, even were it evident that none of them 
would be followed by the blind as trades ; for it is by doing 
and making that the blind especially learn best. Then, it is 
essential that they be kept occupied. They are happier so 
and far better off. In the past, before the introduction of 
such varieties of labor-saving machinery as the last half 
century has seen, many of the discharged pupils followed 
some manual trade and succeeded in subsisting by it. To- 
day this is less and less possible. The mind itself of the 
blind is least trammeled by the lack of sight ; hence some 



24 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [792 

pursuit where intelligence is the chief factor would seem to 
be best adapted to his condition. 

Music, of course, opens up his most delightful field. It 
is said that all the force of the superintendents of the early 
schools was required to prevent the institutions from becom- 
ing mere conservatories of music. To-day only those pupils 
pursue music in regular course who have talent for it ; but 
even those are not allowed to neglect other studies for it. 
It is the experience of the American schools as of the 
European, that the profession of music offers to the edu- 
cated and trained musician who is blind, a field -in which he 
can work his way with least hindrance from his lack of sight, 
and many are they who have found in it a means of liveli- 
hood for themselves and their families. A few in nearly 
every school fit themselves to be tuners of pianos. 

The importance of physical training was early recognized ; 
for the blind have less vitality and more feeble constitutions 
than the seeing ; besides, those of our pupils who most need 
exercise, are least apt to seek it of their. own accord. At 
first the schools had no gymnasiums ; of late years such 
have been pretty generally added, and systematic physical 
exercise is carried out. 

The American schools for the blind were founded upon 
embossed books. Dr. Howe states somewhere that the sim- 
ple reading from embossed print did more to establish the 
schools in the country than any other one thing. Extraor- 
dinary pains were taken by Dr. Howe and his assistants to 
perfect a system which should be at once readily tangible to 
the fingers of the blind and legible to the eyes of their 
friends. The result was the small lower case letter of Dr. 
Howe, the Boston line print, as it is often called. To this 
the jury gave preference before all other embossed systems 
exhibited at the great exhibition of the industry of all 
nations, in London, in 1852. | Backed by such indorsement 
and all the authority of Dr. Howe the system was rapidly 
adopted into the American schools. | It was then the theory 
that the blind would be further isolated from their friends 



793] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 25 

if their alphabets were dissimilar. ( The blind of themselves 
had devised a writable system — arbitrary and composed of 
dots or points — one which they could both read and write. \ 
But the early superintendents would not countenance it. 
I However, many of the blind failed to read the line letter 
system ; because to read it requires extreme nicety of touch, 
which all the blind by no means have. Characters composed 
of points not of lines are scientifically adapted to touch read- 
ing. J In the 33rd report of the New York institution, Supt. 
Wm. B. Wait wrote : " Now, which is the more important, 
that all the young blind should be able to read, thus being 
made, in fact, like the seeing, or that they should be taught 
an alphabet which in some sort resembles that used by the see- 
ing, but by doing which only 34 per cent of them will ever be 
able to read with any pleasure or profit?" This attitude of 
the New York school was the outcome of statistics gathered 
from seven institutions, in which 664 pupils were involved, 
and of experiments made by Mr. Wait with his own pupils, 
using a system scientifically devised by him, composed of 
points in arbitrary combination. This was in 1868. At 
the next convention of the American instructors of the 
blind, it was resolved " That the New York horizontal 
point alphabet as arranged by Mr. Wait, should be taught 
in all institutions for the education of the blind." Not long 
afterwards 'a national printing house was subsidized, from 
which the schools obtained free books, both in the point 
and in the line systems. In a very few years the point 
books were in increasing demand, and to-day most of the 
schools prefer them to those in the line print. 

The acceptance of the point was due to several things, — 
first of all, to its writability and superior tangibility, and 
secondly, to the extraordinary energy of a few of its advo- 
cates. The old world was a long time accepting a writable 
point system. That of Louis Braille, devised in 1829, 
though much used by individuals, was not officially adopted 
into the Paris school where it originated until 1854. In 
contrast, America devised, printed, spread, and resolved to 



26 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [794 

accept its writable system in less than one-half the time. 
The benefits of a tangible writable system are vast. It 
puts the blind more nearly on a par with the seeing, particu- 
larly as pupils in school. Its adoption here, next to that of 
tangible printing, makes obtainable the ideal of American 
schools for the blind. 

Every tangible system has its defects. French "braille" 
as adopted into England has antiquated abbreviations and 
contractions for the use of adults ; and is involved with rules 
allowing much bad use, like the omission of all capitals. 
The New York point as printed also laid itself open to much 
criticism as to " good use." The American braille, the latest 
system, combining the best features of French braille and of 
New York point, was devised by a blind teacher of the Per- 
kins institution. It takes full account of " good use," and 
those who use the system deem it very satisfactory. In 1892, 
when the American braille system was adopted into several 
schools, a typewriter for writing braille was invented, and this 
was followed by the invention of another machine for embos- 
sing braille directly on plates of thin brass from which any 
number of duplicates could be struck off on paper. 1 Here 
was a means of creating a new library at once. But the chief 
value of the invention lay in the fact that as the machine 
was simple and inexpensive and could be operated if neces- 
sary by a blind man, any institution could have a printing 
office of its own. And several schools immediately estab- 
lished such offices, from which they issued at once whatever 
their school classes demanded. By co-operating in the 
selection of the books to be embossed these schools have cre- 
ated in the space of seven years a library of books in Ameri- 
can braille than which there is no superior in any system in 
any country, and they have added an immense amount of 
music in the braille music notation, which is the same all over 
the world! A typewriter, and a machine for embossing brass 
plates in the New York point system, have also appeared. 

1 For these inventions, which have been of the greatest recent service to the 
education of the blind, the work is indebted to Mr. Frank H. Hall, sup't of the 
Illinois school. 



795J EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 2j 

The production of books in both point systems is going on 
parallelly. Whether this is wise or not it is certainly waste- 
ful. And yet the antagonism of the advocates of the rival 
systems is so great that the race may continue for some 
years yet. The matter is, however, not so " stupid " as it 
would seem to be. There is nothing like competition to 
eliminate defects and bring out excellences. Moreover, 
there has been evolution in systems of ink print as there 
has been in systems of embossed print. In either case that 
which eventually survives will be the fittest and will be worth 
all the trouble it caused to make it survive. 

Excellent embossed libraries exist in all three of the sys- 
tems. Books in all three may be obtained from the National 
printing house for the blind at Louisville, Ky., where many 
of the plates have been made and where most of them are 
kept. This printing house was subsidized by congress in 
1873, and since that time has spent $10,000 annually in the 
production of books in the various systems, music scores in 
the New York point notation, and tangible apparatus, each 
school ordering from the published list, books, etc., to the 
value of its quota or part proportional to the number of its 
pupils. The printing office of the Perkins institution at 
Boston is the largest private enterprise of its kind in the 
world. It has been running almost continuously since 1834, 
and has put forth a splendid list of books in the Boston line 
print. 

American generosity to its defectives has not only pro- 
vided institutions unsurpassed in their general appointments 
elsewhere, but the proverbial American ingenuity has sup- 
plied the classrooms with appliances and mechanical aids to 
instruction unequaled in any land. \ The interest in the 
work for the blind taken by those actually engaged in it may 
be seen by a reading of the annual reports of the superin- 
tendents, which have served as a means of communication 
among the schools and between these and the public. 
France, Germany and Italy have been publishing for many 
years, magazines or periodicals in the interest of the blind. 



28 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [796 

For four years this country produced " The Mentor," a 
monthly which was so excellent and timely that it ought to 
have been kept up. However, it was supported but poorly 
and was stopped for that reason. America, then, has no 
organ of communication among workers for the blind. The 
superintendents and teachers engaged in this work first met 
in convention in 1853. The Association of American 
instructors of the blind was formed in 1871, and has met 
biennially ever since, usually as the guest of one or another 
of the institutions. The proceedings of each convention 
have been published. 

The principles underlying the scheme for educating the 
blind being to make them as little as possible a class apart 
from the rest of the community, it has not been deemed wise 
to attempt to establish a national college for the higher edu- 
cation of those capable of taking it, but efforts are making 
towards enabling the brighter and worthier pupils to attend 
one of the colleges for the seeing, at the expense of the 
states or the schools from which they come. The school 
instruction of the blind is comparatively an easy matter. 
The work is less of a science than the more difficult task of 
instructing the deaf and dumb. But if we consider the 
results, it must be admitted that it is far easier to fit the 
intelligent deaf to be self-supporting than it is to fit the 
blind to be so. The world of practical affairs is the world 
of lieht ; and if the blind succeed in that world it is cer- 
tainly to their credit. And yet we expect them to succeed 
in it ; and having given them the best preparation we can 
devise, we find that many do succeed, some brilliantly. Just 
what proportion "succeed" is not known; for in the vast 
areas of our large states the majority go out and are lost to 
view. Many — especially the girls — go home to become 
helpful in the family, and these live on there as centers of 
light and culture, and so what was once deemed a calamity, 
may become to the family a blessing in disguise. 

In 1878 an exhaustive census of the graduates from all 
over the country was compiled. It revealed the following - 



797] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 29 

encouraging facts : 1 6 became superintendents of other insti- 
tutions ; 214 became teachers or were otherwise employed 
in institutions ; 34 became ministers of the gospel ; 84 
authors, publishers or lecturers ; 3 10 were engaged as teachers 
of music or were vocalists outside of institutions ; 69 had been 
organists in churches; 125 piano tuners; 937 had been 
engaged as teachers, employees, and workers in handicraft ; 
277 were storekeepers, etc. ; 45 became owners and man- 
agers of real estate ; 760 (mostly women) were employed at 
housework at home or in families, or at sewing with machines, 
or by hand, and 78 were in homes of employment. 1 Fur 
ther, according to the 10th census of the United Stales 
(1880) when there were 48,928 blind in the land, but 2,560 
were found in almshouses. 2 What proportion of these 
ever attended our schools, will never be known, but it must 
be remembered that blindness is an affliction of old age. 

According to statistics printed in the report for 1879 °f 
the New York institution, "More than 1,200 persons have 
been instructed, and have gone out from the institutions 
for the blind in this state [New York], only 21 of whom 
were found to be in almshouses on the 30th of Octo- 
ber, 1879. Such facts give great force to a statement made 
by the board of state commissioners of public charities upon 
this subject. They say : " As observation shows that edu.- 
cated blind persons seldom become a public charge, it would 
seem important, not only in its social bearings, but as a 
question of political economy, to bring as many of the blind 
as practicable under proper educational training." 3 

THE DEAF-BLIND 

" Obstacles are things to be overcome " is the motto 
given by Dr. Howe to the Perkins institution for the blind. 

When this remarkable man learned in 1837 that up in the 
mountains of New Hampshire there was a little girl not only 

1 Proceedings fifth bien. conv. of the American association of instructors of the 
blind, p. 21. 

2 Compendium loth census, 2, 1702. 
3 Pp. 32-33. 



30 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [79$ 

blind but also deaf and dumb, he eagerly sought out the 
child and obtained the parents' consent to take her to South 
Boston to be educated. He had already formed a theory as 
to how he would reach a mind thus doubly shut in, and 
with the finding of Laura Bridgman came the wished-for 
opportunity to test this theory. 

It should be noted that Laura Bridgman saw and heard 
until she was two years old. She had been rather a delicate 
child, however, having enjoyed only about four months of 
robust health, when she sickened, her disease raging with 
great violence during five weeks, " when her eyes and ears 
were inflamed, suppurated and their contents were dis- 
charged." x Her sufferings continued for months, and it was 
not " until four years of age that the poor child's bodily 
health seemed restored." 2 She was intelligently active, fol- 
lowing her mother about the house, seeming anxious to feel 
of everything, and thus to learn about it ; and she devel- 
oped signs for her father and her mother, and for some 
things. 

She was eight years old when brought to the Perkins 
institution. Dr. Howe writes : " There was one of two ways 
to be adopted : either to go on and build up a language of 
signs on the basis of the natural language, which she had 
already herself commenced, or to teach her the purely arbi- 
trary language in common use ; that is, to give her a sign 
for every individual thing, or to give her a knowledge of 
letters, by the combination of which she might express her 
idea of the existence, and the mode and condition of exist- 
ence, of anything. The former would have been easy, but 
very ineffectual ; the latter seemed very difficult, but, if 
accomplished, very effectual ; I determined, therefore, to try 
the latter." 3 After the child had become adjusted to the 
change of homes, Dr. Howe began teaching her by means of 
common articles with which she was familiar — spoons, forks, 

1 From reports of Dr. Howe on Laura Bridgman, appendix C, 48th annual report, 
Perkins institution for the blind, p. 160. 

2 Same source and page. 

8 Same source, pp. 162-3. 



799] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 3T 

keys, etc., on which labels with their names printed in raised 
letters had been pasted. Similar detached labels were given 
her to feel. Her touch was acute enough, hence she was 
able to match labels, placing that for book on the book, etc. 
She did this easily and willingly because she received appro- 
bation for so doing ; but the idea that the printed word 
stood for the name of the object had not entered her brain. 
Then other detached labels were cut up into their component 
letters. These her memory soon enabled her to build into 
wholes or the words she had felt. Such exercises continued 
for many weeks to be only a meaningless play to the poor 
child. The success had been " about as great as teaching a 
very knowing dog," when suddenly the idea flashed upon 
her that " Here was a way by which she herself could make 
up a sign for anything that was in her own mind, and show 
it to another mind, and at once her countenance lighted up 
with a human expression ; it was no longer a dog or parrot, 
— it was an immortal spirit, eagerly seizing upon a new 
link of union with other spirits ! I could almost fix upon 
the moment when this truth dawned upon her mind, and 
spread its light to her countenance ; I saw that the great 
obstacle was overcome, and that henceforward nothing but 
patient and persevering, plain and straightforward efforts 
were to be used." * 

Next, she was given metal type each bearing some 
embossed letter, and a frame with holes to receive them. 
With this appliance Laura readily wrote the name of any 
object she knew and by writing them fixed in mind an 
extensive vocabulary of common names. Then the less 
cumbrous manual alphabet was taught her. Here was a 
means by which she could both write and read ; she could 
spell to her teacher and read what her teacher spelled into 
her hand. 

Dr. Howe's reports teem with interesting psychologic 
material. At the end of the year he writes : " She is nine 
years of age, and yet her knowledge of language is not 

1 Same source, p. 164. 



32 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [SOO 

greater than a common child of three years. There has 
been no difficulty in communicating knowledge of facts, 
positive qualities of bodies, numbers, etc. ; but the words 
expressive of them, which other children learn by hearing, 
as they learn to talk, must all be communicated to Laura by 
a circuitous and tedious method. In all the knowledge 
which is acquired by the perceptive faculties, she is of course 
backward ; because, previous to her coming here, her per- 
ceptive faculties were probably less exercised in one week 
than those of common children are in one hour." 1 

And so her instruction went on. Through it all the child 
showed, an eagerness to learn and to put herself in touch 
with the world that was a powerful aid to the teacher. In 
a few years, when Oliver Caswell, also deaf, dumb, and 
blind, came to the institution, Laura naturally took great 
interest in teaching him, and thereby profited much herself. 
As she approached womanhood her education was already 
good. Laura had learned to sew, to knit, and to do fancy 
work, and so employed her time when not reading or con- 
versing with her many friends. She often visited her home 
but her true home was the institution. There she lived to 
her 6oth year and there she died, the first case of any one 
so afflicted made capable of leading an industrious and 
happy life, and as the first case, historically the most 
remarkable. 

Popular interest in Laura Bridgman, both in this country 
and abroad, was naturally very great. The printed reports 
of her progress which were eagerly awaited were as eagerly 
absorbed. Distinguished foreigners coming to Boston 
visited her. Charles Dickens wrote in his American notes 
a sympathetic account of his impressions of her. Naturally 
enough in succeeding cases of the deaf-blind that from time 
to time came under instruction in one school or another, 
much less interest was shown. The way to give liberty to 
the imprisoned mind had been made plain. 

In the year 1887, however, something like the old interest 

1 Same source, p. 167. 



8oi] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 33 

was aroused by the publication of accounts of the brilliant 
deaf, dumb, and blind child in Alabama, Helen Keller. 
This child had lost sight and hearing at 19 months as a 
result of a serious illness. Like Laura she kept actively 
interested in all that surrounded her, and like Laura she 
developed her own little language of signs. When she was 
six years old, her friends, who knew of Laura Bridgman's 
case, applied to Boston for a teacher. In the following 
year Miss Annie M. Sullivan was sent. This lady was 
able to put herself in touch with Helen in a very short time 
and in a marvelous way. In fact, she has proved herself to 
be a most remarkable teacher. Following in general the 
methods adopted in teaching Laura, Miss Sullivan began 
her work by putting Helen in possession of the manual 
alphabet. A doll was happily chosen to begin with ; and 
with the doll on the child's lap, the teacher formed in Helen's 
hand the finger letters d-o-l-l. Other familiar objects were 
similarly introduced, and strange as it may seem, that which 
had taken three months to reach in Laura's case in Helen's 
took but a few days ; x or, in Miss Sullivan's words, " it was 
more than a week before she understood that all things were 
thus identified." 2 Her teacher writes : " Never did a child 
apply herself more joyfully to any task than did Helen to 
the acquisition of new words. In a few days she had mas- 
tered the manual alphabet and learned upwards of a hundred 
names." 3 After teaching verbs and prepositions through 
action and position Miss Sullivan made a departure. She 
began to use new words in connection with old words, let- 
ting Helen understand them if possible from the context. 
The child adopted these words " often without inquiry." In 
this way she became familiar with the use of many words 
whose meaning never had to be explained to her. 

As to the letters of the raised alphabet, Miss Sullivan 
writes : " Incredible as it may seem, she learned all the let- 

1 See 56th an. rep. Perkins inst. for the blind, p. 82. 
s Same source, p. 101. 
8 Same source, p. ior. 



34 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [8o2 

ters both capital and small in one day." 1 Then came the 
primer ; then pencil writing than which there is scarcely a 
more difficult exercise for the blind to learn ; and yet Helen 
"wrote without assistance a correctly spelled and legible 
letter to one of her cousins ; and this was only a little more 
than a month after her first lesson in chirography." 2 Braille, 
or tangible point writing, became a constant delight to her. 

Words like perhaps and suppose and those indicative of 
abstract ideas she learned more through association and 
repetition than through any explanation of her teacher. 
The child had the language sense largely developed. Much 
of the time when no one was talking with her she was read- 
ing in books printed in raised letters. Dr. Bell in trying to 
account for Helen's wonderful familiarity with idiomatic 
English, considers of great significance the statement of 
Miss Sullivan that, "long before she could read them [the 
books] . . . she would amuse herself for hours each 
day in carefully passing her fingers over the words, search- 
ing: for such words as she knew." 3 

In 1888, when Helen was 8 years old her teacher took her 
to South Boston where she could have the advantage of all 
the appliances and embossed books that a school for the 
blind affords. Thenceforth an account of her progress 
reads like a romance. It was no more difficult for her to 
learn a new word in German or in Greek than in English ; 
and she took great delight in picking up and using French 
or Greek phrases. And when later she came to study these 
languages, she seemed to advance without effort in the 
knowledge of them. 

The educators of the deaf, who have good reason to com- 
prehend the exceeding difficulty of teaching their pupils to 
articulate intelligibly, feel that Helen Keller's rapid mastery 
of speech is by all odds her most wonderful achievement. 
After she had been in South Boston some little time she 
heard of a Swedish girl afflicted like herself, who had learned 

1 Same source, p. 103. 

2 Same source, p. 104. 

8 Amer. annals of the deaf, April, 1892, p. 134. 



803] EDUCATION OP DEFECTIVES 35 

to speak, and she said, " I must learn to speak." Miss Sul- 
livan took her to Miss Sarah Fuller, principal of the Horace 
Mann school for the deaf, and though Helen's only means 
of learning the position of the vocal organs in speech was 
to put her fingers on the lips, tongue, teeth, and throat of 
the speaker, she learned in ten lessons 1 to articulate so well 
that she could carry on an intelligible and audible conver- 
sation, having communication addressed to her spelled into 
her hand by the manual alphabet. She has learned since 
that time to read from the lips and throat of a speaker by 
placing her fingers lightly on them ; so that any one sitting 
near her can converse with her just as though she could both 
hear and see. She spent a winter at the Wright-Huma- 
son private school for the deaf, where she improved her 
articulation. 

When Helen was sixteen years old she entered the Cam- 
bridge school for girls, Miss Sullivan accompanying her. 
There, under the guidance of Mr. Arthur Gilman, the 
director of the school, she took the course preparatory to 
entering RadclirTe college. At the end of one year she took 
the regular required examinations in the history of Greece 
and Rome, in English, in Latin, in elementary French, in 
elementary German, and in advanced German. As the 
questions and other matter were read into her hand by Mr. 
Gilman himself, Helen wrote her answers and translations. 
on an ordinary typewriter. Her papers were read by the 
regular examiners. She passed the tests in every subject, 
taking " honors " in English and German. Mr. Gilman 
writes : " I think that I may say that no candidate in Har- 
vard or Radcliffe college was graded higher than Helen in 
English." 2 

There are still other children afflicted like Helen who are 
doing splendid work, but, "taking this child all in all," says 
Dr. Job Williams, principal of the American school for the 

1 See Sarah Fuller's article How Helen Keller learned to speak, Annals of the 
deaf, Jan. 1892, p. 26. 

2 Miss Helen Adams Keller's first year of college preparatory work. American. 
Annals of the Deaf, November, 1897. 



36 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [804 

deaf at Hartford, " and making due allowance for every pos- 
sible aid that has been given her, and for all unconscious 
exaggeration due to friendly admiration, there yet remains 
so much that is marvelous as to place her beyond compari- 
son with any other child of whom we have ever heard. The 
whole history of literature reveals nothing equal to her lan- 
guage productions from one of her years, even among those 
possessed of all their faculties. She is a genius, a prodigy, 
a phenomenon." x 

The other deaf-blind children under instruction are some 
at schools for the blind, some at schools for the deaf. They 
must always have a special teacher, and use embossed books 
and adapted appliances. All are being taught on principles 
used in teaching Helen. In South Boston, where there are 
several, they attend classes with other pupils, the special 
teacher acting simply as interpreter and companion. 

THE FEEBLE-MINDED 

The term feeble-minded is now used to embrace all classes 
and grades of the mentally defective, excepting the insane, 
who, properly speaking, are mentally sick. Idiocy was the 
term formerly used to cover the same range. Idiocy or feeble- 
mindedness may be defined as " mental deficiency depend- 
ing upon imperfect development, or disease of the nervous 
system, occurring before, at or after birth, previous to the 
evolution of the mental faculties." 2 At the time the feeble- 
minded were first taught, it was supposed that their growth 
of body and mind, which was seen to be but partial, had 
simply been stopped by malign influences, and that in many 
cases all that was needed was proper environment in order to 
start the growth again ; it was hoped that the improvable 
cases at least could be educated and trained to approach in 
capacity the normal-minded individual. 

With the end in view of so educating idiots, as they called 
them, the first attempts to train them in this country were 

1 Annals of the deaf, April, 1892, p. 159. 

3 Quoted in Fernald's Feeble-minded children, p. 2. 



805] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 37 

made in 1848. Before then idiots who were not kept at 
home were to be found in almshouses or in insane asylums, 
where they were sadly out of place. Kind-hearted physicians 
who saw this "rubbish of humanity" cowering in terror 
before lunatics or abused by almshouse associates, agitated 
for their relief, care, and training. The movement began in 
New York and Massachusetts in the year 1846. Massachu- 
setts was more ripe for the work ; for the matter had no 
sooner been presented to the legislature than this body 
appointed a commission to report upon the number, condi- 
tion, and the best means of relieving the idiots in the com- 
monwealth. Dr. Samuel G. Howe, the director of the Per- 
kins institution for the blind, was made chairman of the 
commission. Its report made in 1848, and widely known as 
" Dr. Howe's report on idiocy," was exhaustive, and ended 
by recommending the opening of an experimental school.. 
One was opened at the expense of the state and under the 
guidance of Dr. Howe himself. The results were so favor- 
able that in three years' time the state doubled its appropri- 
ation, and founded in South Boston the Massachusetts 
school for idiots, the first state school for them. The state 
of New York followed, establishing its school similarly, or 
experimentally, in 1851, and permanently in 1853. 

Between the appointment of the Massachusetts commis- 
sion and its report, a country physician, Dr. H. B. Wilbur, 
had opened a small private school for idiots at Barre, Mass., 
really the first school of its kind in America. Dr. Wilbur 
was soon called to take charge of the New York state school. 
The Pennsylvania school followed in 1852, and was estab- 
lished in Philadelphia as a private corporation in 1853 ; then 
in 1857 came the Ohio state institution at Columbus; in 
1858 the semi-public school in Lakeville, Conn.; the Ken- 
tucky state school at Frankfort in i860; the Illinois state 
school in 1865 ; the Hillside home, a private school at Fay- 
ville, Mass., in 1870. "Thus up to 1874, twenty-six years 
after this work was begun in America, public institutions 
for the feeble-minded had been established in seven states. 



38 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [806 

These institutions then had under training a total of 1,041 
pupils. There were also two private institutions in Massa- 
chusetts, . . . with a total of 69 inmates." x Applica- 
tions for admittance were numerous and pressing. At first 
it was the theory that only imbeciles, the improvable idiots, 
should be taken into the institution, that the institution 
should be a school and should graduate its pupils into the 
world. Still, it was but a few years before most of the 
superintendents recognized that the pupils would always be 
children though adult in years ; and that as children they 
needed guidance and protection always ; that for obvious 
reasons girls and women of child-bearing age should not be 
discharged — for no girl is so exposed as the simple, weak- 
willed, feeble-minded girl — and finally that practically all 
cases would have to be retained within the protection of the 
institution. Physiology and pathology now teach that " men- 
tal deficiency generally, if not always, is the result of a defi- 
nite cerebral abnormality or defect, or the result of actual dis- 
ease or damage to some part of the central nervous system ;" 2 
that feeble-mindedness is practically a permanent condition, 
and that it cannot be cured. From the time this fact came 
to be realized the institutions began to change in character 
There arose two distinct departments — the training school 
and the asylum. 

The school Was, is, and ought to be the fundamentally 
important department. Education is just as much a right 
of the improvable imbecile or feeble-minded child as it is of 
any child ; and what are always acknowledged to be the 
benefits of an education are no less benefits to the one than 
to the other. It is in the school that the feeble-minded 
child is to be aroused, developed and trained to lead a use- 
ful and a happy life.j The aim in the education of an ordi- 
nary child is to give a liberal all-round training, fitting him 
for anything in life he may choose to take up. With our 
feeble-minded child the aim of his education, which is to 

1 Fernald, The history of the treatment of the feeble-minded, p. 8. 
2 Fernald, Feeble-minded children, p. 2. 



807] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 39 

lead a useful life within the institution, is kept ever in mind. 
He is happiest when occupied. Hence, his education is 
principally a practical education. The difference between a 
normal person and a feeble-minded person after training is 
that the latter has no initiative, no power to resist the seduc- 
tion of stronger minds. He may be useful and even self- 
supporting, but he can become so only under guidance and 
direction. 

When they come to school these children have extremely 
weak will power. In fact the feeble-minded as a class have 
been divided according to the attention, thus : 

" 1. Absolute idiocy. Complete absence and impossibility 
of attention. 

" 2. Simple idiocy. Attention feeble and difficult. 

" 3. Imbecility. Instability of attention." 1 

With all these the condition of the hand indicates that of 
the brain. The " idiotic hand " is proverbial. Many imbe- 
ciles see but do not perceive ; hear but do not understand. 
They rarely make a purposive effort, but need to be directed 
in everything. When it is comprehended that though they 
love games they do not even play of their own accord, it 
will be understood how their teachers must begin at the very 
bottom rung in the ladder of education. The special senses 
of seeing, hearing, and feeling, actually have to be aroused 
and developed, first, as simple physiological functions ; sec- 
ondly, as intellectual faculties. Calisthenics in classes, 
marching to music, military drill — movements and exercises 
of all kinds — exert a most salutary and energizing influ- 
ence, and are in great use in all the schools. 

The normal child does not need to be taught each step ; 
his power of attention, his will, his desire, his originality 
enable him to fill the gaps in instruction from his own daily 
experiences. In fact he often learns more out of school 
than in. On the contrary, the feeble-minded child has to be 
taught each step, hence, his education is extremely slow. 

1 Sollier: Psychologie de l'idiot et l'imbecile, Paris, 1891. Quoted from G. E. 
Johnson, Pedagogical seminary, 3, 246. 



4<D EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [808 

The simple occupations of the kindergarten fit these chil- 
dren of eight to twelve years of age as they do bright 
children of four and five. The teacher devises all manner 
of busy work for them, generally using coarse materials ; 
the stringing of spools ; beads ; buttons ; spool-knitting ; 
plain knitting ; braiding with broad leather strips, with shoe- 
strings, with straw ; and block building from the simple 
cube to the forms that are more complex. 

No instruction is in more general use and is more helpful 
to the children than that of the kindergarten. After this 
all their education continues on a very elementary plane 
beyond which it is impossible for them to go. Many learn 
reading, writing, and arithmetic. The brightest read simple 
stories with pleasure, and go as far in arithmetic as multi- 
plication. Division is beyond them. 1 Calculation in the 
abstract they cannot master. The greater part of their edu- 
cation is, therefore, of a purely practical kind. They are 
taught a good deal of fancy work, like knitting, crocheting, 
embroidery and lace-making ; but chiefly domestic work, 
sewing, washing and ironing, baking, farming, housepaint- 
ing, shoemaking, brushmaking, etc. 

Entertainments flourish at these institutions. One is got 
up on every possible occasion ; and the " men and women 
children" are always present. No discrimination as to age 
or capacity is permitted. Happiness prevails because, in 
direct contrast with what happens in the world, the simple 
are not scoffed at and driven to a corner, but are made to 
feel that they are as good as any one. 

The institution is a small community. It must have a 
given number of employees, one or more to each section or 
department. But the stronger grown up children do the 
bulk of the work : baking, laundry work, shoemaking, sew- 
ing, mending, dressmaking and tailoring. Each institution 
aims to have as many acres of land as it has children, and 
on the grounds a barn, cattle, horses and all the parapher- 
nalia of a farm. This farm is worked by the boys, their 

1 See Fernald. Feeble-minded children, p. 14. 



809] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 4 1 

cows producing all the milk the institution can consume, 
and the farm hands raising all their own vegetables and 
fruit, selling what they cannot store. By utilizing the ener- 
gies of the pupils in profitable labor the average per capita 
expense may be reduced to $125 or $150 a year. Supt. 
Doren of the .Columbus institution has said that if the state 
will provide him 1,000 acres of good land he will care for 
all the custodial cases in Ohio free of expense to the state. 
When an old school has moved to a new site as the Massa- 
chusetts school has recently done, the labor of the boys has 
been utilized in clearing the land and ditching it, in building 
the roads, etc. Where the grounds contain suitable clay soil, 
as at Fort Wayne, Indiana, the boys have made the bricks 
with which to build new structures as needed. But in all 
this care is taken that there is no overwork. The work of 
an average laboring man more than supports himself — it is 
generally reckoned to support three people. If the feeble- 
minded man does one-half or one-third of a man's work, and 
does it every day, his support costs only that which will pay 
for his superintendence and care. 

The lowest cases of the unimprovable idiots, whom nearly 
all the institutions have been forced to admit, are termed 
the "custodial cases," and are kept by themselves. They 
are profoundly helpless, can neither speak nor attend to 
their bodily wants, but must be cared for like babies which 
they are. However, they must be attended to — washed, 
fed, and kept as decent as may be. Attendants willing to 
do this work are not easily found. But trained feeble- 
minded girls are delighted and flattered at the privilege of 
taking care of those more helpless than themselves. And 
it has been found that they make the best attendants for 
such cases. 

So far, then, as methods of instruction go, American 
teachers have but broadened the physiological methods of 
the Frenchman, Seguin. The distinctive results of our 
schools lie in training the pupils to be helpful, especially in 
the way of labor for the institution which harbors them. 



42 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [8lO 

A distinctive result of work for the feeble-minded has 
been the gathering of statistics of causes. It has been 
known that a very large percentage of cases, variously 
estimated from 50 per cent to 70 per cent, are of con- 
genital origin ; that of all classes of defectives the feeble- 
minded most surely tend to transmit their defect ; hence, 
that the feeble-minded must be sequestrated for life. It has 
been shown that there is a strange but strong correlation 
between the forms of degeneracy, i. e., the criminal, the 
inebriate, the prostitute, and the feeble-minded. Of late 
years the energies of charitable and sociologic organizations 
" Have turned towards combating the causes of degeneracy, 
thereby protecting posterity." 1 The United States census 
for 1890 gives in round numbers 95,000 feeble-minded and 
this number is undoubtedly short of the actual number. 
Still but one-twelfth or about 8,000 of those returned in 
the census are cared for in special institutions. Here is 
a terrible problem ahead for the sociologists to work out. 
Those who have most thoroughly studied the feeble-minded 
are convinced that, as prevention is cheaper than cure, so 
the gathering of all this vast army into institutions and 
especially colonies where fifty per cent of them can be taught 
to be at least partly self-supporting, and where their multi- 
plication can be cut off, is, by all odds, the most economical 
and the best policy for the states to pursue in the future. 
It should not be forgotten that for every idiot cared for we 
restore at least one productive person to the community ; 
some writers say more than one. The whole matter is 
receiving widespread and intelligent attention. A large 
number of our colleges offer courses in practical sociology, 
and the number of students taking these courses is con- 
stantly increasing. 

The work for the feeble-minded is considered by those in 
it as being still in a tentative stage. Nearly all the superin- 
tendents are physicians ; they do not agree on the different 
questions involved. They meet regularly in convention, and 

1 Powell, Care of the feeble-minded, p. 10. 



'8ll] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 43 

have an organ of communication, called " The Journal of 
psycho-asthenics." 

As the methods of teaching the feeble-minded and the 
other defective classes have become understood, they have 
modified the old methods of teaching children of normal 
intelligence. Child study is now interesting teachers, and 
already has led to the sending of many feeble-minded chil- 
dren to special schools for their training. The city of 
Providence, R. I., has recently led the way in a new move- 
ment, that of teaching in special classes the dull or back- 
ward pupils of the public schools. The movement is slowly 
spreading elsewhere, and, in justice both to the dull and the 
bright children, is of inestimable value, and, as such, is a 
hopeful sign of the times. 1 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 2 

The deaf 

American annals of the deaf. Washington, D. C. 

Arnold, Thos. The education of the deaf and dumb. London, 

1872. 

The languages of the senses. Margate, 1894. 

Bell, A. G. Condition of articulation teaching in American schools 

for the deaf. Boston, 1893. 
Deaf-mute instruction in relation to the public schools. Volta 

bureau, 1884. 
Education of the deaf. The little deaf child, vol. 2, no. 2, 

1898. 
Growth of the oral method of instructing the deaf. Boston, 



1896. 

Bell, A. M. English visible speech. Volta bureau, 1899. 

Clarke institution. Addresses at the 25th anniversary of. North- 
ampton, 1893. 

Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Art. deaf and dumb. 

1 Note : A very radical experiment is being tried, particularly at the Kansas 
institution. The operation of castration has been performed on several boys, 
after which they have been found to be so improved that some were transferred 
from the custodial to the school department, some sent home. 

3 The bibliographies here printed constitute but a small part of what might be 
given. 



44 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [8 1 2 

Fay, E. A. Index to American annals of the deaf. Vols. 31-40 

(1886-1895), and previous indexes. 

Marriages of the deaf in America. Volta bureau, 1898. 

Gallaudet, E. M. The combined system of educating the deaL 

Volta bureau, 1891. 

The deaf and their possibilities. Chicago, 1898. 

Values in the education of the deaf. Colorado Springs, Col., 

1893. 
Gillett, P. G. Some notable benefactors of the deaf. Rochester, 

N. Y., 1896. 
Gordon, J. C. The education of the deaf, being evidence of Drs. 

Gallaudet and Bell, presented to the royal commission of Great 

Britain. Volta bureau, 1892. 
Notes and observations on the education of the deaf. Volta 

bureau, 1892. 

The difference between the two systems of teaching deaf-mute 



children the English language. Volta bureau, 1898. 
Green, Francis. Vox oculis subjecta, part 1. Boston, 1897. 
Histories of American schools for the deaf. 3 vols. Volta bureau, 

1893. 
Hubbard, G. G. The story of the rise of the oral method in 

America. Washington, 1898. 
Johns, Rev. B. G. The land of silence and the land of darkness. 

London, 1857. 
Kitto, John. The lost senses. New York, 1852. 
Mann, Horace. Life and works of. 3:244. Boston, 1891. 
Proceedings of American association to promote the teaching 

of speech to the deaf. 
Proceedings of conferences of principals and superintendents of 

the deaf. 
Proceedings of conventions of American instructors of the deaf. 
Reports of American institutions for the deaf. 
Seguin, E. Education of the deaf and mute, in report on educa- 
tion. Milwaukee, 1880. 

The blind 
Anagnos, M. Education of the blind. Boston, 1882. 
Armitage, T. R. Education and employment of the blind. 

London, 1886. 



813] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 45 

Cary, T. G. Memoir of Thomas Handasyd Perkins. Boston, 

1856. 
Diderot. An essay on blindness. London reprints, 1895. 
Education of the blind, from " The North American Review," 

vol. 37. 
Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Art. The blind. 
Hauy, V. An essay on the education of the blind. London 

reprints, 1894. 
Howe, Julia Ward. Memoir of Dr. S. G. Howe, Boston, 1877. 
Howe, S. G. 43 annual reports of the Perkins institution. 1833— 

1875. 
Jubilee celebration, Yorkshire school for the blind. London, 

1884. 
Kitto, John. The lost senses. New York, 1852. 
Mell, A. Encyclopadisches Handbuch des Blinden-wesens. Wien 

und Leipzig, 1899. 
Prescott, W. H. The blind, in " biographical and critical essays." 

Boston, 1846. 
Report of the conference of the blind and their friends. Royal 

normal college, July, 1890. 
Reports of the biennial conventions of American instructors of 

the blind. 
Reports of American institutions for the instruction of the 

blind. 
Robinson, E. B. F. The true sphere of the blind. Toronto, 

1896. 
Rutherford, John. William Moon and his work for the blind. 

London, 1898. 
Sizeranne, M. de la. Les Aveugles par un Aveugle. Paris, 1891. 
Sturgis, Dinah. The kindergarten for the blind. New England 

magazine, December, 1895, p. 433. 
The Mentor. Boston, 1891-94. 

Wickersham, J. P. History of education in Pennsylvania. Lan- 
caster, Pa., 1886. 

The deaf -blind 

Anagnos, M. Helen Keller; a second Laura Bridgman. Boston, 

1888. 
Reports of the Perkins institution. 1887-98. 



46 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [8 1 4 

Chamberlain, J. E. Helen Keller, as she really is. Annals of the 
deaf, June, 1899, pp. 286-301. 

Chappell, Jennie. Always happy, or the story of Helen Keller. 
London. 

Fuller, Sarah. How Helen Keller learned to speak. Annals of 
the deaf, Jan. 1892, p. 23. 

Dickens, C. An account of the Institution for the blind at Boston. 
"American Notes," vol. 1. London, 1842. 

Gilman, A. Miss Helen Adams Keller's first year of college pre- 
paratory work. Volta bureau, 1897. 

Hall, G. S. Laura Bridgman, from "Aspects of German culture." 
Boston, 1891. 

Howe, S. G. Education of Laura Bridgman; extracts from reports 
of. Boston, 1890. 

Lamson, Mary S. Life and education of Laura Dewey Bridg- 
man. Boston, 1878. 

Sullivan, Annie M. How Helen Keller acquired language. 
Annals of the deaf, April, 1892, p. 127. 

The language of the deaf-blind. Annals of the deaf, April, 
1899, p. 218. 

The feeble-minded 

Association of medical officers of American institutions for idiotic 
and feeble-minded persons. Proceedings, 1876-98. 

Barr, M. W. Children of a day. Phila., 1896. 

. Mental defectives and the social welfare. Popular science 

monthly, April, 1899. 

Doren, G. A. Our defective classes. Columbus, O., 1897. 

Fernald, W. E. Feeble-minded children. Boston, 1897. 

. The history of the treatment of the feeble-minded. Bos- 
ton, 1893. 

Henderson, C. R. Dependent, defective and delinquent children. 
Boston, 1893. 

Howe, S. G. Report on idiocy. Boston, 1850. 

Indiana bulletin of charities and correction. Indianapolis, 1898. 

Johnson, Alexander. Concerning a form of degeneracy. Amer- 
ican journal of sociology, November, 1898. 

■ . The mother-state and her weaker children. Boston, 1897. 



8.i5] 



EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 



47 



Johnson, G. E. Contribution to the psychology and pedagogy 
of feeble-minded children. Pedagogical seminary, 3 : 246. 

Kerlin, Isaac N. Feeble-minded children. West Chester, Pa., 
1879. 

. The mind unveiled. Philadelphia, 1858. 

Powell, F. M. Care of the feeble-minded. Boston, 1898. 

Psycho-Asthenics, journal of. Faribault, Minn. 

Report of 10th anniversary and annual meeting of the associa- 
tion of the New Jersey training school for feeble-minded 
children. Vineland, 1898. 

Reports of commissioner of education. Washington, D. C. 

Reports of institutions for the feeble-minded throughout the 
country. 

Seguin, E. Education of idiots and feeble-minded children from 
report on education. Milwaukee, 1880. 

. Idiocy and its treatment by the physiological method. 

New York, 1870. 

Shuttleworth, G. E. Mentally deficient children. London, 1895. 

Sollier, Paul. Psychologie de l'idiot et de l'imbecile. Paris, 1891. 

Tuke, D. Hack. Modes of providing for the insane and idiots in 
the United States and Great Britain. Medical rec, 1887. 

Warner, A. G. American charities. A study in philanthropy 
and economics. Crowell & Co., pub. 

Wilbur, W. B. Suggestions on principles and methods of ele- 
mentary instruction. Albany, 1862. 



Statistics of schools for defective classes 

Compiled from report commissioner of education 1896-77, 2 : 2335-60 



Blind 



State 

public 

institutions 



Public day 
schools 



Private day 
schools 



Feeble-Minded 



Public 
institutions 



Private 



Institutions 

Volumes in library 

Value of scientific apparatus 

Instructors 

Pupils .. 

Expenditures 

Value of grounds and build- 
ings 



36 

95 879 

$13 300 

387 

3 6 3° 

$920 224 

i<5 183 538 



54 

qo 184 

$21 394 

877 

9 391 

$2 461 402 

$i" 373 873 



60 

506 

$42 827 



190 

8 177 
\\ 362 791 

h 63 1 917 



58 

357 



4 8 



EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 



[8 1 6 



Public schools for the deaf 

From report of commissioner of education, 1896-97, 2 : 2346-9 



STATE 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

D. C 

D. C. Kendall school 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

North Carolina 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania . 

Pennsylvania 

Pennsylvania . 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas. ...... 

Texas 

Utah 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 



City 



No. of 
pupils 



Talladega 

Little Rock 

Berkeley 

Colorado Springs 

Hartford 

Washington 

Washington 

St. Augustine 

Cavesprings . . 

Jacksonville 

Indianapolis 

Council Bluffs 

Olathe 

Danville 

Baton Rouge 

Portland 

Baltimore 

Frederick 

Northampton 

Flint 

Faribault 

Jackson 

Fulton 

Boulder 

Omaha 

Trenton 

Santa Fe 

Buffalo 

Fordham 

Malone 

904 Lexington ave., New 

York 

Washington Heights 

Rochester 

Rome . 

Morganton 

Raleigh 

Devil's Lake 

Columbus 

Salem 

Edgewood Park 

Bala, Philadelphia 

Mt. Airy, Philadelphia... 

Scranton 

Providence 

Cedar Springs 

Sioux Falls 

Knoxville 

Austin 

Austin, colored d. and b. . 

Ogden 

Staunton 

Vancouver 

Romney 

Delavan. 



143 

22S 

171 

78 

157 

132 

65 

45 

139 

534 

312 

316 

250 

323 

93 

69 

40 

96 

155 

417 

227 

114 

345 

18 

143 
149 

14 
152 

355 
87 

211 

465 
199 

137 

186 
70 
47 

484 
5i 

209 
42 

509 
7i 
60 
96 
43 

259 

262 

36 

67 

105 

66 

128 

221 



Value 

of lands and 

buildings 



5125 OOO 
IOO OOO 
450 OOO 
220 894 
250 OOO 
700 OOO 

25 OOO 

80 OOO 

455 000 

526 OOO 

500 OOO 

250 OOO 

200 OOO 

300 OOO 

30 OOO 

35 000 

255 OOO 

135 149 
426 255 
271 625 

75 000 
310 OOO 

30 OOO 
120 OOO 

IOO OOO 

6 000 

154 560 
509 236 

89586 

360 OOO 

506 OOO 

130 OOO 

125 OOO 

160 OOO 

30 OOO 

22 500 

650 OOO 

25 OOO 

257 137 
48 431 

OOO OOO 

160 OOO 
60 OOO 
55 000 
60 OOO 

150 OOO 

225 OOO 
37 500 

200 OOO 
80 OOO 

ICO OOO 
85 OOO 

118 OOO 



Expendi- 
tures for 
support 



$30 222 
43 500 
59 650 
25 266 

43 100 
70858 

4648 

22 OOO 

97 000 

62 059 
61 700 
46 500 
48 061 
16 500 
14 OOO 

1 10 645 

26 5S8 

43 756 

63 558 

45 455 
16 430 
92 000 
1 6 250 
55 240 
40 000 

4 OOO 

30 720 

92 994 
22 936 

48 753 
112 216 

46 647 
39 612 
35 000 
10 000 

9638 
84 OOO 
12 OOO 
50 134 
12 869 

135 940 
l6 237 

19 OOO 

1 17 288 

12 250 
30 800 

43 ii4 
8 500 

20 000 

1 21 OOO 

29 OOO 

1 25 737 

39 800 



1 Includes the blind. 



817] 



EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 



49 



Public day schools for the deaf 

From report of the commissioner of education, 1896-97, 2 : 2350. 



STATE 


City 


No. of 

pupils 


Value 

of land and 

buildings 


Expendi- 
tures for 
support 




Chicago (six schools) 


120 
IO 

123 

15 

35 
36 
6 
38 
6 
7 
9 
9 
6 

54 

13 

7 

12 


$98 OOO 
20 OOO 

12 OOO 




Indiana 


$1 OOO 

21 569 

650 




Boston 




Detroit 






Ohio 


Cincinnati 


3 600 

800 

2 500 

585 
630 

525 
1 019 

522 
6 291 
1 000 

875 
1 261 


Ohio 




Ohio 








Fond du Lac 








Marinette 

















Private schools for the deaf 

From report of the commissioner of education, 1896-97, 2 : 2351. 



STATE 



California 
Connecticut . . 

Illinois 

Iowa 

Louisiana 
Maryland 
Massachusetts 
Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Missouri 

Nebraska 
New Mexico. . 
New York. . . . 
New York. . . . 

Ohio 

Wisconsin. . . . 



City 



North Tamescal 

Mystic 

Chicago (three schools) 

Dubuque 

Chincuba , 

Baltimore 

Beverly 

West Medford , 

North Detroit 

St. Louis (two schools) . 

Omaha 

Santa Fe 

Albany 

New York 

Cincinnati 

St. Francis 



No. of 

pupils 



27 
29 
146 
5 
56 
26 
24 
10 

36 

80 

9 

8 

15 
18 
12 
3i 



5o 



EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 



[818 



Schools for the blind 

From report of commissioner of education, 1896-97, 2 : 2340-1. 



STATE 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas.. 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Maryland colored b. and d 

Massachusetts 

Michigan , 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

New York 

New York 

North Carolina. ... 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Pennsylvania 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Texas colored b. and d. . . 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 



City 



Talladega 

Little Rock 

Berkeley 

Colorado Springs 
St. Augustine. . . . 

Macon 

Jacksonville 

Indianapolis 

Vinton 

Kansas City 

Louisville 

Baton Rouge 

Baltimore , 

Baltimore , 

South Boston. 

Lansing 

Faribault 

Jackson , 

St. Louis 

Boulder 

Nebraska City. . 

Batavia 

New York , 

Raleigh 

Columbus 

Salem , 

Philadelphia 

Pittsburg 

Cedar Spring. 

Nashville 

Austin 

Austin 

Staunton 

Vancouver 

Romney 

Janesville 



70 



50 

55 

7 

126 

220 

137 
186 

137 
127 

33 

99 

25 

251 

106 

70 

30 

117 

6 

77 
130 
227 
157 
301 

24 
192 



102 
169 
40 
48 
14 
56 
125 



$55 000 



450 000 
220 894 

20 000 
125 000 
225 000 
548 870 
300 000 
100 000 
100 000 

40 000 
350 000 

35 000 
517027 
165 484 

50 000 

60 000 
150 000 

45 000 
375 000 
384 957 
150 000 
550 000 

17 000 
157 306 
260 000 

55 000 
100 000 

75 000 

37 000 

80 000 
100 000 

85 000 
200 000 



515 000 



57 616 

17 944 
8507 

18 000 
52 000 
26 130 
32 847 
20 570 

24 522 
9 577 

25 99 2 
8 000 

30 000 

25 098 

17 074 

3 600 

29 100 
1 800 

20 103 

41 500 
76 001 

30 000 

42 936 

7 150 
53683 
15 226 

17 000 

18 000 
39 35o 

8 200 
15 000 

11 260 
23 000 



1 State grant. 



8i 9 ] 



EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 



5* 



Public institutions for the feeble-minded 

From Powell : Proceedings of the 24th national conference of charities cor- 
rection, 1897, p. 290 



STATE 



California 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Nebraska 

New York : 

Children 

Women 

Custodial 

Randall's Island 
New Jersey : 

Children 

Women 

Ohio _ 

Pennsylvania : 

East 

West 

Washington 



Eldridge. . . , 

Lincoln 

Fort Wayne 
Glenwood . 
Winfield ... 
Frankfort . 
Waltham .. . 

Lapeer 

Faribault . . 
Beatrice 

Syracuse ... 

Newark 

Rome 

New York . 

Vineland .. . 
Vineland .. . 
Columbus . 1 

Elwyn 

Polk 

Vancouver. 



1) 

6 

a 


"o 

^3 . 

U 4-1 
" ft 

.2 ^ 


■a 
. 

"id 




a. 
u 


6 
Z 


d 

z 


6 
Z 


d 
Z 


470 


256 


154 


98 


642 


171 


J 37 


124 


554 
690 
118 


320 

33 1 

63 


233 

359 

36 


135 
178 

26 


123 
423 


"5 
228 


195 


6 

60 


200 


127 


38 


4 


574 
220 


210 
112 


310 
60 


138 
60 


532 
386 


400 


133 
386 


45 
16 


327 
364 




327 


11 


217 








04 






33 


973 








1 028 


402 


5i6 


197 


225 




55 


30 


41 


41 







(1400 000 
300 500 
375 000 
350 000 
60 620 

80 ODO 
25O OOO 

75 000 
359 720 
200 OOO 

421 330 

179 on 
271 733 



698 582 
560639 



W- 



$75 OOO 

101 139 
79 5 60 

102 080 
17988 
25 OOO 

63 377 

35 OOO 

98 767 

36 500 

90 112 

51876 



46 609 

20 000 
143 231 

163 137 



1 From report of the commissioner of education, 1896-97, 2 ; 2353-4. 



Private schools for the feeble-minded 

From report of the commissioner of education, 1896-97, 2 : 2355. 



STATE 


City 


No. of 

pupils 






168 

3 
32 


Illinois 


Ellicott City 








Massachusetts 




49 
4 
30 
17 
19 
25 























16 

SUMMER SCHOOLS 
AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 



BY 
GEORGE E. VINCENT 

Associate Professor of Sociology in the University of Chicago 
Principal of Chautauqua 



SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 



THE ORIGIN OF SUMMER SCHOOLS 

The student of institutions is tempted to discover obscure 
origins and to trace beguiling analogies. Thus the Olym- 
pian festivals of ancient Greece, the philosophical schools of 
Athens, the medieval universities all have been suggested 
as remote foreshadowings of American summer schools. 
However fascinating the tracing of such parallels may be, 
the truth is that summer schools as they are known in the 
United States are the growth of practically the last thirty 
years. They have sprung up in response to varying 
demands and to meet widely different ends. They have 
passed gradually from an early or spontaneous stage into 
certain types and organization until they are recognized as 
a part — although a somewhat unrelated part — of the edu- 
cational system of the United States. 

The specific demands which have called summer schools 
into being fall naturally into groups. University teachers 
in supplementing their regular work have gathered students 
about them in the long vacation, and in later years the uni- 
versities themselves have established summer instruction. 
Again, the need of better training for public school teachers 
has created not only institutes but also summer schools 
which prepare teachers for professional examinations, and 
in other ways offer means of advancement. 

Furthermore, groups of people with common interests, 
schools of thought, societies for promoting reform and 
other organizations have deepened the loyalty of their 
members and carried on a propagandum by means of sum- 
mer gatherings. So, too, individual teachers with their 
assistants have gone to the country to teach languages, 
music and art. Finally, religious bodies and educational 



4 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [824 

institutions dominated by religious motives have played an 
important part in summer school enterprises. 

These varied demands are to-day met by scores of insti- 
tutions, some of which combine many different functions, 
while others are devoted to special purposes. By inevitable 
processes of experient and imitation, uniformities have 
begun to appear, and the conventionalizing stage is already 
well advanced. Perhaps the most striking feature of this 
organizing movement has been the tendency to bring sum- 
mer schools into closer relations with the institutions of 
higher education. Indeed, the summer school movement 
is only one aspect of that democratizing of the higher edu- 
cation which finds expression also in reading circles, in 
university extension, in the library movement, in social 
settlements and other agencies for bringing the intellectual, 
esthetic and moral resources of the few into the possession 
of the many. 

THE GROWTH OF SUMMER SCHOOLS 

If we take into account summer excursions undertaken 
by university professors of geology and biology in company 
with groups of students, we can push the beginnings of sum- 
mer instruction into the first half of the nineteenth century. 
Thus, Professors Marsh and Dana of Yale, Professor Orton 
of Vassar, and Professor Agassiz of Harvard, were accus- 
tomed to take with them into the field small parties of their 
more promising students. 

In 1869 summer instruction in geology was conducted in 
Cambridge under Harvard auspices. In connection with 
this work expeditions were made to western Massachusetts. 
In 1 87 1 the Massachusetts institute of technology gave 
field instruction in metallurgy and mining in parts of New 
Jersey and Pennsylvania, while two years later Professor 
Lewis Agassiz opened his zoological laboratory on Peni- 
kese island in Buzzards bay. In 1874 the first Chautauqua 
assembly held a ten days' session on Chautauqua lake in 
southwestern New York. This was destined to prove a 
center from which a peculiar type of summer institution 



825] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 5 

has spread to all parts of the country. In 1876 Dr. Sauveur 
established at Amherst, Mass., a school for the specialized 
type designed to deal wholly with linguistic study, the chief 
stress being laid upon French and German, although the 
classical languages, as well as Italian and Spanish, were 
included in the curriculum. A year later the University of 
Virginia established summer teaching in chemistry, while 
during the same season an institution of the Chautauqua 
type was founded at Lakeside, Ohio, and in Chicago the 
first summer school of oratory was opened under the auspices 
of the Soper school. At Martha's Vineyard in 1878 the 
needs of public school teachers were first definitely provided 
for in a summer school of pedagogy. And during the same 
season three assemblies on the Chautauqua plan appeared 
in Indiana, Kansas and California. A summer gathering of 
a new kind was established at Concord, Mass., in 1879 by a 
group of men and women interested in the idealistic phi- 
losophy. During the next eight years few new schools 
were founded. In 1887 the Harvard medical school estab- 
lished summer courses, and in 1888 a marine laboratory 
began its work at Wood's Holl, Mass. In 1889 the Massa- 
chusetts institute of technology offered summer courses 
in engineering. In 1890 a number of new institutions 
appeared in different parts of the country. The first natural 
science camp for boys was inaugurated on the shores of 
Canandaigua lake ; the Shinnecock summer school of art 
began its work on Long Island ; the Art academy of Cin- 
cinnati established summer instruction ; the State university 
of Indiana offered summer courses at Bloomington ; the 
Drake university of Des Moines, Iowa, announced a summer 
school of methods designed especially for school teachers ; 
the Kansas state normal school at Emporia entered the 
same field ; the Young Men's Christian Association held its 
first student conference at Lake Geneva, Wis., and another 
Chautauqua assembly convened at Madison, S. D. The 
next year saw continued activity in the spread of summer 
institutes. Schools of methods were established in Boston 



6 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [826 

and in Evanston, 111. Hull House, the social settlement of 
Chicago, held its first summer school at Rockford, 111., while 
at Grand Rapids, Mich., a summer school for kindergarten 
training was opened. During the same season the State 
university of Minnesota began to offer regular summer 
courses. 

In 1892 the Catholic summer school of America 
announced lecture courses and classes. The school was 
held at Cliff Haven, N. Y. Clark university, at Worcester, 
Mass., and Ohio university, at Athens, joined the ranks of 
higher institutions providing summer instruction. The Y. 
M. C. A. held student conferences at Northfield, Mass., and 
at Asheville, N. C. In 1893 the number of centers for 
summer teaching multiplied rapidly. Teachers' institutes 
and Chautauqua assemblies were added to the list of sum- 
mer schools. The University of Nebraska also opened its 
doors to vacation students. The season of 1894 saw new 
teachers' training schools established in Massachusetts, 
North Carolina and Colorado. The University of Michigan 
for the first time announced summer courses. The next 
year a summer theological seminary was opened at New- 
burpfh, N. Y., while the most notable event of the season 
was the inauguration by the state of New York of two 
institutes for teachers, one at Chautauqua and the other at 
Thousand Island Park. During this same season the Uni- 
versity of Indiana set up a biological station on Winona 
lake, Ind. ; the Catholics announced a summer school at 
Detroit ; the University of Michigan gave summer courses 
in law, and a school for library training was opened at 
Madison, Wis. 

During the season of 1896 the New York state library 
gave instruction in library methods at Albany ; a school of 
comparative religions was established at Elliot, Me., and 
the University of Illinois began to offer vacation courses. 
A year later the Jewish Chautauqua began its annual session 
at Atlantic City, N. J. 

In 1898 the Cleveland summer school of library science 



827] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 7 

held its first session. The next season the University of 
California adopted the summer school policy. In 1900 
Columbia university, New York, and Cincinnati university 
opened their doors to summer students. The Brooklyn 
institute established a biological laboratory at Cold Spring 
Harbor. Throughout this entire period each year saw a 
number of Chautauqua assemblies founded in various parts 
of the country, and many more or less ephemeral schools of 
art, music, industrial training, etc., sprang up. The whole 
history of the movement serves to emphasize the fact already 
mentioned, that schools have developed in response to local 
needs and as a result of waves of imitation spreading from- 
one end of the country to the other. 

STATISTICS OF SUMMER SCHOOLS 

It is difficult to gather trustworthy data for accurate sta- 
tistical statements concerning summer schools. The United 
States bureau of education has published a list of summer 
schools. 1 This does not, however, contain statistics as to 
attendance. The Home education department of the Uni- 
versity of the State of New York has, since 1893, gathered 
facts concerning summer schools. Bulletin No. 39* contains 
a list of schools for the summer of 1900. The total number 
of schools reporting is 124. Of these 13 were established 
before 1880; 7 between 1881 and 1885 ; 22 during the next 
five years; 50 between the years 1891 and 1895 ; 22 in the 
period 1896-1901. Twelve schools, in their reports, fail to 
give a date of organization. 

As to the distribution of schools, the north Atlantic 
division heads the list with 46, of which 20 are in New York 
and 1 5 in Massachusetts. The north central states are 
credited with 42 schools, of which 12 are in Illinois, 8 in 
Ohio, 7 in Michigan and 6 in Wisconsin. Virginia reported 
4 schools, North Carolina 3. In the western states Colo- 

1 Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1894-5, pp. 1483-1503. 

2 Home Education Dept. Report of Extension Teaching, 1900, University of 
the State of New York, Albany, 1903, pp. 389-90. 



8 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [828 

rado is credited with 4, California with 5 and Oregon with 
1. The total number of students reported by these sum- 
mer schools in 1900 was 28,708. Of these, a majority 
were women. It is not possible to state with accuracy the 
distribution by sex because of the carelessly prepared returns. 
It is necessary to exercise caution in interpreting such statis- 
tics as these. When it is borne in mind that a good many 
of the schools are interested in making a satisfactory show- 
ing ; when it is further remembered that the idea of " stu- 
dent " varies widely in the different schools, this total should 
be considerably reduced in order to approximate the num- 
ber of persons engaged in serious study. 

A more satisfactory judgment can be based upon the fol- 
lowing- table, which summarizes the official returns from four- 
teen leading universities which offer summer instruction : 



82 9 ] 



SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 



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IO SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [83O 

An inspection of the table discloses certain facts. First, 
there is on the whole a steady increase in the number of 
summer students at the universities. The numbers at Chi- 
cago, Cornell, Columbia, Minnesota, Michigan and Missouri 
are noteworthy. The large increase at Harvard in 1903 is 
to be attributed almost wholly to the fact that the National 
Education Association met in Boston last July. The figures 
further show that in so far as universities offer a wide range 
of subjects and approximate the normal work of the regular 
curricula that the number of men increases. On the other 
hand, the universities which offer summer work appeal- 
ing especially to school teachers have a large proportion of 
women. 

Tuition Fees and Expenses. — In the case of universities 
which charge a summer tuition fee we find a tendency to 
something like uniformity. A fee of about $20 for three 
courses extending over six weeks has come to be the rule. 
The fee varies somewhat, but tends toward a pro rata of 
ordinary academic fees. In some schools a fee is charged 
for each course. This varies from $5 to $10 for one hour a 
day, or five hours a week for six weeks. In case of special 
schools much higher fees are often charged. In schools of 
music, art, elocution and the like the fees are usually those 
charged for private lessons in city studios — they may even 
exceed these rates, although the tendency is to fall below 
rather than to rise above the average winter charge. 

The cost of board varies from $2 to $10 per week. The 
average price may be placed at about $5. The cost of living 
varies with the locality and with the accommodations avail- 
able. Several of the universities, such as Harvard, Columbia, 
the University of Chicago, admit summer students to the 
university dormitories, and in some cases serve meals in 
the university commons. In many of the summer normal 
schools held in smaller towns the price of board and lodging 
is very low, while in cities and at the more popular summer 
resorts the cost of living tends to rise. On the whole the 
expenses of the summer student are about the same as those 



831] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION II 

of a student in residence for the same length of time during 
the regular academic year. 

THE CLASSIFICATION OF SUMMER SCHOOLS 

The multiplicity of purposes which have found expression 
in the summer schools makes it a puzzling task to classify 
them. Several principles of classification have been applied. 
Thus, Dr. Stephen B. Weeks 1 has classified them into five 
groups, according to the phases of education which they 
emphasize, and again he has made three groups from the 
standpoint of control. Dr. W. W. Willoughby 2 subdivides 
summer schools into (1) those for original research and the 
training of specialists ; (2) summer schools which give 
instruction in single subjects ; (3) Chautauqua assemblies 
and a large miscellaneous residuum. On the whole, it is 
believed that the following classification will serve as a 
fairly satisfactory method of grouping summer schools : 

1. Academic schools. 

2. Schools of pedagogy. 

3. Specialized schools. 

4. Schools of art, music, expression, etc. 

5. Popular classes and lectures, of the Chautauqua type. 
Academic Schools. — Under this head may be grouped 

those schools which offer a wide range of college and sec- 
ondary subjects for a period of six weeks. Most of the 
university and college summer sessions fall into this class, 
to which also belong certain other schools, such as those of 
Chautauqua, Winona and Bay View. These schools appeal 
especially to teachers who are not pursuing strictly pro- 
fessional courses, but who are rather increasing their control 
over subject-matter while they at the same time aim at gen- 
eral culture. To some extent college students resort to 
these schools either for advanced standing or to make up 
entrance and college deficiencies. Schools of this academic 
type really provide a continuation of college and high school 

1 Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1894-5, pp. 1485-90. 

2 Report of the Commissioner of Education, iSgi-2, pp. 895-7. 



12 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [832 

instruction of the more conventional sort. The summer 
term for schools in this class is almost uniformly six weeks. 
The session opens soon after the fourth of July and closes 
about the middle of August. Experience has shown that 
these dates include the period which the majority regard as 
most convenient for summer study. Instruction in schools 
of this class is given almost wholly by university, college 
and high school teachers, who employ practically the same 
methods which they use throughout the rest of the year. 
In certain cases the lecturing may be somewhat less formal, 
and almost always the tests are less rigid. Inasmuch as 
most of these schools have no system of certificates, this 
laxity of administration works a minimum of harm. It should 
be noted that in the case of certain colleges and universities 
the standard for summer instruction is virtually the same as 
that which prevails throughout the rest of the year. The 
greater maturity of summer students makes it possible to 
employ a somewhat different system of class administration. 
Schools of Pedagogy. — The chief reason for making the 
separate classification of the schools which offer professional 
training to teachers lies in the fact that the overwhelming 
majority of summer students belong to the teaching profes- 
sion. While teachers are resorting in increasing numbers 
to schools of the academic class, a majority are still found 
in schools which aim at a special professional training. 
Many of these schools have features of the academic type, 
but they lay stress upon educational psychology, teaching 
methods, "drill and review" courses in school subjects and 
other disciplines which bear directly upon school work, and 
which fulfill requirements for certificates and professional 
promotion. The large summer normal schools appear nat- 
urally in this class. More than twenty summer institutes 
under state auspices belong also in this category, to which 
might be added hundreds of county and district institutes 
which meet during the summer in all parts of the country. 
The fact already noted that the work of these summer 
schools bears directly upon the promotion of teachers to 



833] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 1 3 

higher positions is a source of danger. The schools are too 
likely to become coaching machines for examination and 
certificate purposes. The leading schools of this class, how- 
ever, are holding up higher ideals and rendering an import- 
ant service to professional training of a broader kind. 

Specialized Schools. — To this class may be assigned those 
summer institutions which concentrate upon one subject or 
one group of closely related subjects. The schools of this 
group may be further subdivided : 

(a) Summer schools for research. Under this head belong 
the marine laboratories which have already been mentioned. 
These schools are designed for specialists and not for ordi- 
nary students. The numbers who frequent them are, from 
the nature of the circumstances, small. The sessions extend 
over six weeks, and in some cases include the entire sum- 
mer vacation. In one sense these schools are not strictly 
" summer schools," but rather the extension of university 
laboratory work into the vacation. The marine laboratory 
at Wood's Holl, Mass., and the Clark university school of 
psychology at Worcester are most conspicuous types of this 
subdivision. 

(b) Professional schools. Under this head belong summer 
schools of law, medicine, theology, library training and other 
institutions which aim at preparation for definite professional 
or specialized occupations. These schools are for the most 
part under academic auspices, although some of them are 
conducted for profit on a commercial basis. The law 
schools at the University of Virginia, University of Michi- 
gan, University of Chicago, the library schools at Albany, 
Chautauqua, Winona and Madison may be cited as repre- 
sentative of this subdivision. 

(c) Schools of philosophy and ethics. Certain groups 
or schools of thinkers have from time to time established 
summer schools which deal with a specialized interest, and 
yet belong in a subdivision of their own. The Concord 
school of philosophy, the School of applied ethics at 
Greenacre, the school of the same type at Plymouth, Mass., 



14 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [834 

are representative of this class. The instruction is uncon- 
ventional, consisting" of lectures and conferences. In the 
case of these schools we have a distinct departure from the 
regular academic methods which prevail in the schools above 
described. It is difficult to estimate the educational value 
of these institutions. They appeal exclusively to people of 
education and a certain degree of reflective power ; they are 
" schools " in a different sense from that in which the word 
has heretofore been used in this classification. 

(d) Religious and biblical conferences. In the late 
eighties Mr. D. L. Moody established at Northfield, Mass., 
summer conferences on biblical and religious themes. 
These meetings were soon developed into a gathering for 
college students at the end of June or the beginning of 
July ; and later in the season a general conference for Chris- 
tian workers, biblical students and others. In 1895 Dr. Sol 
C. Dickey was a prime mover in founding the Winona 
assembly and summer schools at Winona lake, Indiana. 
Here a few years later Dr. J. Wilbur Chapman established 
what is known as the Winona bible conference. Both 
Northfield and W T inona attract large numbers. At the lat- 
ter place especially ministers have gathered by the thousand 
for a ten days' series of addresses, sermons, conferences and 
devotional services conducted by leading evangelists and 
noted preachers from England, Scotland and the United 
States. Winona is an institution of the composite type 
including summer schools, a popular program and other 
features. Those who administer Winona seek to combine 
the Chautauqua and Northfield ideas in a more or less origi- 
nal way. It is further to be noted that both Northfield and 
Winona, the latter on a large scale, are adding industrial 
and technical schools for young people. These schools 
continue throughout the usual academic year, while the 
buildings are utilized in July and August for summer school 
and other purposes. 

Schools of Art, Music, Expression. — Under this head 
belong schools which usually represent a personal following. 



835] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 1 5 

For example, Mr. William M. Chase, the artist, goes for a 
a few weeks each summer to the Shinnecock hills, Long 
Island, where he gathers about him a group of pupils whose 
work he criticises and to whom he gives informal lectures. 
In the same way well-known musicians and teachers of ele- 
cution and oratory give instruction during the vacation sea- 
son. Occasionally the work is conducted in city studios but 
usually these summer schools are held at attractive places 
in the country. To these schools resort many teachers of 
art, music and expression who, released from their own 
work, seek contact with leaders in their own professions. 
These summer schools, therefore, serve as normal institutes 
for the teaching of those arts which as yet have not been 
regularly admitted to the curricula of academic institutions^ 
Popular Classes and Lectures. — There remains another 
type of summer institution which it is hard to classify, i. e. r 
a Chautauqua assembly, or, as it is often called, " a Chau- 
tauqua." The name comes from an assembly held for the; 
first time in western New York in August, 1874. Many of 
these Chautauqua assemblies combine elements which have 
already been described in preceding classifications. Thus,, 
some of them have a complete system of academic summer 
schools ; they offer pedagogical and professional training.. 
They provide classes in art, music and oratory. Chautau- 
quas of this kind are really composite in their nature. 
They add, however, another idea — that of a series of pub- 
lic lectures, conferences, entertainments and concerts not 
technically of an educational character but which represent 
important influences. Moreover, in origin and generally in 
the extension of Chautauqua assemblies a strong religious 
motive has been present. In most cases the assemblies are 
non-sectarian, in a few they are fostered directly by denomi- 
nations. Nearly two hundred assemblies have taken the name 
Chautauqua, although scores of them have imitated only one 
or two features of the original Chautauqua plan, neglecting 
its more fundamental principles. The average Chautauqua 
of the imitative type lays chief stress upon popular lectures, 



l6 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [836 

concerts, readings and entertainments. Noted lyceum lec- 
turers, men prominent in public life, well-known reformers 
and persons who for various reasons are temporarily con- 
spicuous are invited to the platforms of these institutions. 
Many of them are commercial enterprises, sometimes subsi- 
dized by railways, street-car lines or merchants' associations, 
sometimes managed as stock companies for profit. 

There is another and smaller group of Chautauqua assem-. 
blies which introduce class exercises extending over ten 
days or two weeks. These classes usually deal with 
literature, Bible study, elementary science, elocution, music, 
practical arts, such as cookery, various forms of manual 
training and the like. In the lecture schedule the miscel- 
laneous, unrelated addresses are to some degree replaced 
by courses of continuous lectures of the university extension 
type. Even in these assemblies the popular program plays 
a leading part. It is the means by which the institution 
secures its revenue. An economic necessity compels 
the management to exploit persons technically known as 
"attractions" or " talent." 

There is a still smaller group of Chautauqua assemblies, 
among which the original Chautauqua institution is the 
most conspicuous, in which stress is laid upon a wide range 
of class instruction extending over six weeks, upon syste- 
matic university extension courses and upon other exercises 
which have a direct educational value. In these institutions 
the popular program also has an important place in providing 
timely addresses in great variety ; music of a worthy kind ; 
wholesome entertainment, thus adding to the pleasures of a 
community life which the institutions seek to foster. 

TYPICAL SCHOOLS 

A clearer idea of the character of summer schools may 
be gained from a rather more detailed description of certain 
institutions which may be regarded as typical of the classes 
already outlined. Of the academic schools we may select 
two types : First, a summer school under university auspices, 



83'j'] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION I 7 

i. e., teaching at a university ; second, summer instruction 
as a regular part of the university year, or teaching by a 
university. To represent the first class we may select the 
Harvard summer school, while for the second we may 
choose the University of Chicago. 

The Harvard Summer School. — Summer teaching at 
Harvard was originally wholly in science. It began under 
the impulse given by Agassiz and his friends. As early as 
1869 Harvard professors gave instruction in geology with 
field excursions. In 1872 Agassiz held his first school on 
Penikese island. It was not until 1874 that regular summer 
instruction in botany and chemistry was given at Cambridge. 
From year to year the course was enriched by the adding 
of other sciences. In 1887 a departure was made in the 
establishment of a school of physical training under the 
direction of Dr. Sargeant. A year later courses in French 
and German were offered for the first time, while in 1889 
physics and field engineering were added to the list. Gradu- 
ally subject after subject has been included until in 1903 
courses were offered in twenty-nine departments, namely : 
Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, English, speaking and reading, 
German, French, Spanish, Russian, history, civil govern- 
ment, economics, pyschology, education, theory of design, 
drawing, music, mathematics, teaching of mathematics, 
astronomy, surveying, shop work, physics, chemistry, botany, 
geology, geography, mineralogy, physical education. The 
registration of students in 1903 was unusually large. This 
was doubtless due to the fact that early in July the National 
Education Association held its annual meeting in Boston. 
Thus the registration for 1900 was 784 ; for 1901, 767 ; for 
1902, 737; while for 1903 the number reached 1,186. If 
1902 be regarded as a normal year an analysis of registra- 
tions will give some idea of the special work of the Harvard 
summer school. The total number of registrations in 1902 
was 890. Of this number 204 were in physical education, 
165 in English, 80 in theory of design, 70 in mathematics, 
70 in education, 44 in chemistry, 38 in history, 33 in 



J 8 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [838 

geography and 30 in geology. In all other departments the 
registration was comparatively light It is clear from these 
figures that there is a concentration at Harvard upon a few 
departments, of which physical education and English are 
far in the lead. 

The Harvard summer school was originally an unofficial 
affair. Certain members of the faculty offered courses on 
their own responsibility, receiving compensation from the 
tuition fees of students. Little by little the university has 
assumed a responsibility for the summer work, which is now 
under the control of a faculty committee. The students' 
fees are paid to the university burser, while salaries for the 
summer staff are appropriated directly by the trustees. In 
this sense the work has secured official recognition. The 
Harvard summer session has passed from private to official 
control. Yet the six weeks' session is not an organic part 
of the university work. Credit for the summer courses is 
not regularly granted by the university, although, in certain 
circumstances, university standing may be secured. The 
summer students are not included in the regular statistics 
of university attendance, or, rather, these numbers always 
appear in a separate category. One of the features of the 
Harvard summer school, which has been adopted by other 
institutions, is the plan of Saturday excursions into the his- 
toric regions about Boston. It is interesting to note that 
the first work at Cambridge was in connection with geo- 
logical expeditions. The policy has been extended to 
include excursions to Concord, to Lexington, to Plymouth 
and to other places of historic and literary interest. Field 
excursions in science and nature study are also continued. 

A notable episode in the history of the Harvard summer 
school was the special provision made for Cuban teachers, who 
were brought to the United States in the summer of 1901. 
Nearly thirteen hundred of these Cuban teachers were trans- 
ported free by the government, while the Harvard author- 
ities raised an entertainment fund of $70,000. As to definite 
educational results secured by this experiment there is very 



839] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION Ig 

little tangible evidence, but the experiment undoubtedly had 
important social and political bearings. It was conceived 
in a liberal spirit and is a sufficiently notable undertaking to 
deserve mention in connection with the Harvard summer 
school. 

The University of Chicago. — In 1891 the University of 
Chicago announced continuous instruction on the quarter 
plan, i. e., an academic year of four quarters of three months 
each. It was explicitly stated at the outset that the summer 
quarter would have in every respect the same academic 
status as that of any other quarter of the year. The uni- 
versity opened its doors to students October 1, 1892. On 
account of the World's fair the summer quarter of 1893 
was omitted, but the following year the full system was 
inaugurated and since then has been in continuous opera- 
tion. All departments of the university are open to stu- 
dents during the summer quarter. A considerable percent- 
age of students who register in the summer are also in 
residence during the other quarters of the year. It is true, 
however, that the majority of students in the summer are 
registered for the summer quarter only. From the very 
outset, summer teaching at the University of Chicago has 
been upon a university rather than upon the summer school 
basis. The policy of the university is to afford continuity 
of work for regular students, of whom an increasing number 
take advantage of the opportunity to shorten their college 
courses. Again, by the summer quarter the university seeks 
to provide full university privileges for teachers in the pub- 
lic schools as well as for instructors and professors in smaller 
colleges. Experience has shown that a large constituency 
are eager to avail themselves of the opportunities offered. 
The statistics for the last few years indicate a large attend- 
ance, and show the distribution of students among the 
different departments. In 1900, 1,006 men and 668 women, 
making a total of 1,674 were enrolled. In 1901 the total 
enrollment reached 2,375, of whom a little more than half 
were women. The next year 2,246 students were in attend- 



20 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [84O 

ance. At this session the men were slightly in majority. Dur- 
ing the last summer (1903) the enrollment was practically the 
same, 2,244, of whom 1,137 were men and 1,107 were women. 
A somewhat detailed analysis of the registration for 1903 
gives the following results : In the divinity school there 
was a total registration of 2 2 3, of whom 200 were men. Of the 
7 1 2 graduate students in residence, 45 1 were men. The regis- 
tration in the graduate department is explained by the fact 
that high school and college instructors and advanced stu- 
dents take advantage of the summer quarter. In the senior 
-and junior years of the undergraduate course, 213 students 
were registered, 125 men and 88 women. In the sophomore 
and freshman classes 86 men and jy women were enrolled. 
Students who are not able to matriculate with regular 
academic status, i. e., with full high school courses or with 
a high school course and advanced college standing, are 
known as "unclassified" students. In 1903,445 unclassi- 
fied students were in residence. Of these 321 were women. 
Here we have represented a large number of public school 
teachers pursuing special courses. In the medical school 
81 were registered, a ll but three of whom were men. The 
46 students of the law school were men, while out of the 
361 pursuing courses in the school of education, all but 27 
were women. At this point again we note a constituency 
of school teachers. 

The distribution of registrations for the summer quarter 
is significant. Of the 4,223 registrations in 1903, 593 were 
in English, 265 in philosophy, 2>77 in history, 375 in Latin, 
307 in Germanic languages, 224 in romance languages, 239 
in mathematics, 210 in chemistry. The other departments 
were represented in approximately normal proportions. 
These figures make it evident that the work of the univer- 
sity in summer is typical university work in which normal 
demands are made upon all departments. There is no con- 
centration upon a few specialized lines of work. 

Marthas Vineyard Summer Institute. — Although many 
pedagogical institutions are at the present time more promi- 



841] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 21 

nent, the Martha's Vineyard institute deserves especial 
notice because of the pioneer service which it has rendered. 
Founded in 1878 by Dr. Homer B. Sprague and his col- 
league, Professor Elliwood, the school originally assumed an 
academic character. Instruction was offered for six weeks 
in botany, entomology, geology and mineralogy, zoology, 
microscopy, French, German, Greek and Latin, English, 
literature and oratory, industrial training and pedagogics. 
In the first year the teaching staff included representatives 
of Cornell, Vassar, the Boston Latin school and the state 
normal schools of Rhode Island and New Jersey. Eighty 
students were enrolled. The numbers increased steadily 
from year to year. The Shakespearean scholar, Professor W. 
J. Rolfe succeeded Dr. Sprague as president. Col. Francis 
W. Parker, Dr. William T. Harris, Mr. F. L. Soldan were 
prominent in the work of the institution during the earlier 
years. By 1887, 250 students were in attendance. In 1888 
a school of methods was incorporated with the academic cur- 
riculum. By 1 89 1 a comprehensive course in subject-matter 
and teaching methods had been developed. Elementary, 
high school and academic divisions were included, stress 
being more and more laid upon the pedagogical side of the 
instruction. The school, now under the charge of Dr. Wil- 
liam A. Mowry, has maintained its honorable position to 
the present time although as has already been indicated it 
is overshadowed in numbers of students and in resources by 
several pedagogical schools which have sprung up during 
the last ten years. In 1903 30 instructors conducted courses 
for 300 students. 

The Summer School of the South. — In 1902 the Summer 
School of the South, a school of methods for teachers, was 
opened at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. The 
session lasted for six weeks. The attendance was unex- 
pectedly large. In 1903 the experiment was continued; 
149 different courses were offered in a wide range of sub- 
jects among which may be mentioned kindergarten and 
primary work, drawing, art, manual training, domestic 



22 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [842 

science, expression, music, physical culture, nature study, 
agriculture and horticulture, physiology and hygiene, psy- 
chology, education and the usual academic branches. The 
teaching staff included 91 members while 2,150 students 
were enrolled, of whom 662 were men. Exhibits of 
school work from different parts of the United States, model 
libraries, exhibits of apparatus, text books and school sup- 
plies were important features of the school. The expense of 
maintaining the school in 1903 was approximately $30,000. 
The school was subsidized by the General Education Board 
and by Knoxville citizens. 1 This institution must undoubt- 
edly be regarded as a very important step in raising the 
educational standards and the qualifications for teachers in 
the south. 

The Marine Biological Laboratory. — In 1881 a marine 
laboratory was established at Annisquam, Mass., under the 
joint auspices of the Women's Educational Association of 
Boston and the Boston Society of Natural History. The 
school was conducted successfully for five years. Unlike 
other experiments of this kind students as well as investi- 
gators were admitted. In 1886 an appeal was made to the 
biologists of the country to make the laboratory a center of 
biological research. Funds were raised, a charter secured, 
and in 1888 a marine biological laboratory, with Dr. C. O. 
Whitman as director, was re-established at Wood's Holl, 
Mass., a point on Buzzards bay admirably situated for the 
collection of specimens. In his opening address Dr. Whit- 
man made it clear that the laboratory was to be regarded as 
devoted primarily to research. " I have no sympathy," he 
said, " with anything merely devoted to elementary instruc- 
tion, and unless the greater part of the energy is given to 
original work it is of no interest to me." The attendance 
for the first year was 15. In 1896 there were 74 investi- 
gators and 103 students. In 1899 the numbers were 71 and 
78 respectively, while in 1903 the investigators numbered 

'University of Tennessee Record, Nashville, Oct., 1903, pp. 262-3. 



0843] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 23 

76 and the students 54. By the co-operation of nearly 
30 colleges and universities, research rooms and " tables " 
are provided for investigators and students. The laboratory 
publications now number about 400, and represent contribu- 
tions of first importance. The laboratory is a " biological 
clearing house " for the whole country. It promotes inter- 
university fellowship, stimulates the growth of biological 
science, and tends to become an agency through which uni- 
versities and colleges recruit their teaching staffs. The 
marine laboratory at Wood's Holl is, in its very nature, a 
university institution, appealing only to investigators and to 
advanced students. 

Chautauqua Institution. — In 1874 the Chautauqua Sun- 
day school assembly was founded by Lewis Miller, of 
Akron, Ohio, and Dr. John H. Vincent, now a bishop of the 
Methodist Episcopal church. The first session was held 
for ten days in August on the shores of Chautauqua lake 
in southwestern New York. The fundamental idea of the 
assembly was to afford a broader training for Sunday school 
teachers, to combine formal instruction with informal con- 
ferences and to provide elements of recreation and enter- 
tainment. Although the founders were members of the 
Methodist Episcopal church, the assembly was made from the 
outset unsectarian. Among the speakers were representa- 
tives of all the leading denominations. More than 1,000 per- 
sons interested in progressive Sunday school ideas attended 
the first session, which aroused an enduring interest. 

The next year the plan was continued and extended. 
Instruction in Hebrew and Greek from a biblical point of 
view was begun in 1875. The following year English 
literature was included. By 1878 French and German had 
been added to the list of studies, and in the same year the 
"teachers' retreat" was inaugurated under the charge of 
Dr. J. W. Dickinson, of Boston. Thus, within four years 
of its founding, the Chautauqua assembly began to provide 
instruction for the teachers of the public schools. Each 
year now saw a lengthening of the session, an enrichment 



24 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [844 

of the popular lecture program, an enlargement of the cur- 
riculum of the summer schools. In 1883 Dr. William R. 
Harper, now president of the University of Chicago, became 
the head of the summer school department of Chautauqua, 
and for fourteen years rendered service of the greatest value 
in building up the distintively educational side of Chautau- 
qua work. It was in 1878 that the Chautauqua Literary 
and Scientific Circle was founded. This plan of home 
reading extending over four years and offering what was 
described as the " college outlook " to mature people met 
with instant success. The first year over 7,000 readers 
were enrolled and within a few years 60,000 were pursuing 
the prescribed courses of the circle. After 1883, under the 
direction of Dr. Harper correspondence work in college 
subjects was inaugurated and carried on successfully for a 
number of years. Thus, within ten years from its found- 
ing, Chautauqua had developed from a Sunday school 
assembly into a popular educational institution appealing to 
earnest and ambitious people of all classes, providing sum- 
mer school instruction, directing home reading, conducting 
thorough personally supervised correspondence courses. 
The institution has grown steadily from the beginning. At 
one time under a charter from the state of New York, 
Chautauqua was empowered to confer degrees. A few 
degrees were granted, chiefly to bachelors of divinity and 
to, perhaps, a score of bachelors of arts. With the assum- 
ing of correspondence instruction by two or three leading 
universities Chautauqua was relieved from work of this type 
and surrendered the degree conferring power. In 1902 a 
new charter was issued to Chautauqua, the name being 
changed to the Chautauqua institution. 

Chautauqua is a summer community with a maximum 
resident population of 10,000 or 12,000 people. More than 
30 public buildings provide accommodations for the educa- 
tional work. In 1903, 74 instructors offered 187 courses to 
2,158 students in 15 different schools. In connection with 
the popular program, there were 113 lectures, 48 religious 



845] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 25 

addresses, 14 illustrated lectures, 26 readings, 20 entertain- 
ments, 38 concerts, 9 sermons. 

Chautauqua is more than a summer school and a popular 
program. It is community and an institution. From the very 
beginning the sentiment of loyalty has been fostered by 
many devices. Ritual, ceremony, processions, anniversaries, 
songs, have all played their part in developing an esprit de 
corps which gives the place a distinctive character. The 
strong religious motive which was present at the beginning 
has dominated the whole life of the institution. This relig- 
ious motive has not, however, taken a narrow or sectarian 
form. The institution recognizes the symmetry of a life 
which includes intellectual, sesthetic, recreative, associative 
as well as distinctively religious elements. It attempts to 
combine these in the summer into a stimulating and sane 
environment, and throughout the year to direct and encour- 
age the reading of thousands of persons to whom regular 
educational opportunities are denied. 

THE THEORY OF SUMMER SCHOOLS 

It is characteristic of human nature to solve problems, to 
develop institutions and then to seek a reason for the thing 
that has been done. We have seen that summer schools 
sprang up in response to certain needs. It was inevitable 
that the conservative elements in the community should 
resist the new idea. At the beginning, college and univer- 
sity men were naturally skeptical concerning summer schools. 
Thirty years ago the democratic tendency in higher educa- 
tion was far less marked than it is to-day. The old aristo- 
cratic traditions were still dominant. The college professor 
and the college graduate were suspicious of popular educa- 
tion. These are some of the points which were raised 
against summer schools : They would encourage super- 
ficiality in education ; would foster the idea that the higher 
education after all is comparatively a simple matter, and 
that a summer course would go far toward accomplishing 
the results achieved by a whole year of resident study. It 



26 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [846 

was insisted that thousands of people would be induced 
merely to. dabble in intellectual pursuits. This would beget 
in these ephemeral students a kind of arrogance which 
would be nothing short of intellectual hypocrisy. In a 
word, these brief courses would turn out vain and compla- 
cent persons who would not only be insincere themselves, 
but would bring true learning into disrepute. 

Moreover, the critics feared that competent teachers 
could not be secured. Men engaged in university and col- 
lege work throughout the year ought not to assume further 
burdens of teaching ; those likely to be engaged for the 
work would be of the cheap and "popular" type, intel- 
lectual middlemen mediating between the university and 
the vulgar herd. Then, too, the majority of the students, 
school teachers, ought not to spend their time of rest in 
continued confinement to the class room. The long vaca- 
tion was regarded as a time of sacred idleness, not to be 
employed in intellectual work of any kind. Still other 
critics who were not wholly unsympathetic, pointed out the 
dangers of unrelated summer study. The absence of a 
fixed curriculum, the application of the elective system 
without supervision, seemed to them to make for a kind of 
mental dissipation, a sort of intellectual " sloppiness," which 
could not fail to be a real menace. There were even a few 
who seemed to fear that by summer study many would be 
led to forego a regular college course, substituting vacation 
pursuits for the more serious and persistent academic work. 
Then there was, from certain supersensitive sources, a 
kind of sarcasm and ridicule heaped upon the whole 
idea. 

In reply to these criticisms the advocates of the summer 
school movement urged that superficiality was at best a 
relative term, and that while summer study could not be 
expected in the main to make for profound scholarship, yet 
concentration upon a single pursuit for six weeks might 
result in distinct progress toward the mastery of many a 
subject. The evils of diffused effort were frankly recog- 



847] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 2 J 

nized, and attempts were made to guard against the dangers 
involved. Much was made of the value of informal per- 
sonal contact between students and teachers of strong 
individuality. It was asserted that summer schools, so far 
from competing with the regular college courses, would 
popularize higher education and increase the number of col- 
lege students. The important influence of social contact 
between students from various parts of the country was also 
urged. Then, too, it was insisted that in almost all summer 
schools there is a combination of study with recreation ; 
that the conditions of summer study are so different from 
those of the winter work of teachers that under wise regu- 
lation summer school study may be made genuinely recrea- 
tive. Moreover, the great national summer schools were 
described as " clearing houses of ideas " and " nerve cen- 
ters" for the control of public opinion. Under these some- 
what commercial or biological figures we have expressed the 
important truth that professional and intellectual enthusiasm 
are greatly stimulated and made more effective by such con- 
tacts as the summer schools provide. Of late years more 
has been heard of the loss of time involved in the long 
vacation. It has been pointed out that this long vacation 
originally grew out of economic and social conditions which 
have been greatly modified ; that it is not, therefore, a 
sacrosanct period which may not be encroached upon. 
Vacation schools for children, summer camps and other 
places for juvenile instruction are now common. These are 
but another form under which the summer school idea is 
finding recognition. On the whole, the critics have served 
a useful purpose in pointing out dangers which have existed 
and still lurk in summer schools, but experience has demon- 
strated that these objections are not vital, and that the dan- 
gers which they impute may be either avoided or minimized. 

THE FUTURE OF SUMMER SCHOOLS 

It is never safe to make precise prediction as to the future 
of human institutions. It is possible, however, to suggest 



28 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [848 

the projection of a curve of tendency. The facts seem to 
warrant the following general predictions : 

1. The number of summer schools will not continue to 
increase rapidly. The statistics given by the University of 
the State of New York 1 show a diminution in the number 
of schools reporting. In 1893 there were 105 ; in 1896, 251 ; 
in 1900, 105. If we except the multiplication of so-called 
Chautauqua assemblies of the local, commercial type, we 
shall find that the weaker schools are yielding to the com- 
petition of the larger and stronger institutions. The result 
seems likely to be that a few strong schools in each state 
will serve the purpose of summer instruction. This in itself 
is an encouraging sign. 

2. There is undoubtedly a tendency to strengthen the 
teaching staffs in summer schools. Thus, at the universities 
professors of higher rank are in increasing numbers tak- 
ing the places which at first were filled almost exclusively 
by young instructors. In the case of summer schools not 
directly connected with universities, the practice is to 
secure stronger men, chiefly from well-known educational 
institutions. 

3. Summer instruction tends to come more and more 
directly under the control of colleges and universities ; that 
is, to be incorporated in the regular educational system of 
the country. The utilizing of the university plants, the 
economies of administration, etc., will inevitably lead to this 
result. 

4. The state, notably in the middle west, may be expected 
to give increasing support to summer schools especially for 
public school teachers. Here, again, the summer institutes 
will be assimilated and incorporated into the normal school 
system. 

5. It seems likely that the tendency to specialize which 
characterizes all modern movements will play a part in the 
development of summer schools. There is sufficient evi- 
dence at hand, some of which has already been cited, to 

1 Bulletin No. 39, cited above. 



849] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 29 

snow that certain schools and certain universities will offer 
unusually rich opportunities in some one subject or group 
of subjects, as, for example, the Cornell summer department 
of geography. 

6. With the admission of history, art, expression, physical 
culture, to the list of college and university subjects, schools 
which deal especially with these departments will be drawn 
into closer relations with higher educational institutions. 

7. In spite of this general tendency a few strong centers 
may be expected to persist as independent institutions, 
offering instruction under college and university auspices, 
maintaining religious exercises in close association with the 
leading churches and fostering a community life which shall 
have a distinctive and traditional value. 

Above all, the one great tendency which seems to be 
revealed by facts of past and present is that toward a more 
intimate and direct relationship, organic or personal, between 
summer schools and the centers of higher education — the 
universities and the colleges. 

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 
The term university extension is used in a specific and in 
a general sense. It describes a certain type of popular edu- 
cation developed in England twenty-five years ago. It is 
also employed for example by the University of the state of 
New York, in a general sense, to include home education, 
study clubs, summer schools, correspondence schools, read- 
ing circles and traveling libraries. We shall deal first 
with university extension in the special sense, and then 
briefly call attention to some of the other forms of popular 
education. 

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION IN ENGLAND 

If we ignore two or three vaarue foreshadowing^ of uni- 
versity extension which diligent students have discovered in 
the records of Oxford and Cambridge, we may date the 
movement from 1872, when the University of Cambridge 
received memorials from mechanics' institutes in Leeds, 



3<D SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [85O 

Birmingham and Nottingham, and from the North of Eng- 
land Council for the Education of Women. These appeals 
asked for some form of university teaching for large num- 
bers of clerks, artisans and others in the same position who 
felt the need of higher education, but were unable to resort 
to the university. In 1873, in response to these requests, 
courses of lectures were given, one at Leicester, another at 
Derby and a third at Nottingham. To the new movement 
was applied a term, " university extension," which had been 
coined in 1850, when William Sewell of Exeter college, 
Oxford, had proposed the establishment, in the large towns 
of England, of local colleges in affiliation with Oxford. The 
new idea was summed up in the sentence : " The university 
must go to the people who cannot come to the university." 
During the first two or three years experience in the field 
brought out devices which were soon made a part of the 
system. For example, Mr. James Stuart, after addressing 
an audience of women, was diffident about questioning his 
hearers. He asked for written papers and thus one feature 
of the plan was hit upon. The natural desire of some of 
the audience to remain after the lecture and discuss the sub- 
ject led to the adoption of the " after-class " idea. The 
financial advantage of having the lecturer meet in the after- 
noon a special class usually of women who could afford to 
pay rather generous fees led gradually to the adoption of 
the study-class plan. The desire to aid auditors unskilled in 
notetaking and to furnish suggested readings led to the 
adoption of the printed syllabus. From the outset continu- 
ity in the lectures was a basal principle. Within a compara- 
tively short time, therefore, we find the university extension 
system of teaching in practically complete form. It includes 
the following features : 

1. A course of six, twelve or even more lectures dealing 
with one subject or one subdivision of a subject, e. g., a 
period of history. 

2. A printed syllabus containing an outline of the lectures 
with suggested readings and topics for written work. 



851] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 31 

3. An after class for which a part or all of the auditors 
remain to ask questions and discuss with the lecturer points 
raised in his discourse. 

4. A study class, usually in the afternoon, for teaching 
and discussion rather than for formal lecturing. 

5. A library either provided locally or sent from a central 
extension office. 

6. Weekly papers written by members of the audience and 
submitted to the lecturer for revision and comment. 

7. A final examination set by a person other than the 
lecturer, the successful passing of which is recognized by a 
certificate. 

The conditions in England were ripe for the spread of 
this movement. The establishment of board schools, the 
breaking down of barriers of admission to the universities, 
the prosperous economic conditions of the higher artisan 
class with consequent leisure, the system of social classes in 
England which made the patronage of the plan by the upper 
classes a feasible method of support, the compact area of 
Great Britain — all favored the growth of university exten- 
sion work. In 1876 the London Society for the Extension 
of University Teaching 1 was established and at once began 
to play an important part. The University of Oxford 
adopted the plan in 1878, but did not begin active work 
until 1885. Durham university joined the University of 
Cambridge, Victoria university established centers in Lan- 
cashire and Yorkshire, the four Scottish universities com- 
bined to foster university extension in north Britain, and in 
the north of Ireland a society was formed. In 1892 Mr. 
Saddler estimated that 60,000 people were attending exten- 
sion lectures in Great Britain, of whom 15,000 were writing 
weekly papers and 5,000 standing for final examinations. 

At the twenty-fifth anniversary in 1898 the reports from 
the Cambridge, London, Oxford and Victoria societies 
showed that during the previous winter (1897-98) 488 

1 This society ceased to exist Oct. I, 1902, when its work was transferred to the 
University of London. 



32 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [852 

courses had been attended by 50,000 people. It is to be 
noted that university extension in England has dealt exclu- 
sively with academic or cultural subjects. It has not entered 
the field of technical training with regard to which so much 
interest has recently been manifested in Great Britain. The 
county councils, the mechanics' institutes and the trade 
schools have reached large numbers, but this work is not 
included in the university extension field. It is interesting 
to note that the English plan has been widened to include 
a summer meeting suggested by the American idea, notably 
that of Chautauqua. I 

The experience of twenty-five years at Cambridge has 
been summed up in this conservative fashion. 1 Two facts 
are said to have been established : 

a. Apart from a demand for technical and professional 
education there is a considerable demand for general 
education. 

b. Of the persons interested in such general education 
from twelve to twenty per cent are prepared to read, to 
study, to write papers ; in short, to become serious students. 

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES 

To the late Professor Herbert B. Adams, of Johns Hop- 
kins university, belongs the chief credit for introducing uni- 
versity extension in the United States. He presented the 
matter for the first time publicly at a meeting of the Ameri- 
can Library Association at Thousand islands in September, 
1887. The following winter the plan was put into effect in 
Buffalo, where Professor E. W. Bemis gave a course of 
lectures on economics in connection with the Buffalo public 
library. In January, 1888, Mr. Melvil Dewey urged the uni- 
versity extension plan upon the regents of the University 
of the State of New York. This resulted in May, 1891, in 
the incorporation of extension as one of the five great divi- 
sions of the University of the State of New York. At the 

1 Quoted in Concerning University Extension. Amer. Soc. for the Ex. of Univ. 
Teaching. Phila. 1899, p. 12. 



853] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 33 

same time a special appropriation of $10,000 was made by 
the Legislature for the support of the new work. 

In February, 1890, a meeting was held in Philadelphia to 
consider the organization of university extension in that 
city. The following summer Mr. George Henderson, as 
secretary of this movement, was sent to England to study 
university extension methods. On his return in the autumn 
the American Society for the Extension of University Teach- 
ing was organized ; the first center was formed on November 
3, 1890, and during the winter the number was increased to 
twenty-three. A year later, November, 1891, university 
extension was organized in Chicago with Mr. Charles 
Zueblin as secretary, and Professors Butler, E. A. Ross 
and J. A. Woodburn as the chief lecturers. 

The idea spread with great rapidity. It seemed a 
simple thing to put the English plan into operation in the 
United States immediately. There were thousands of col- 
lege professors presumably ready to lecture on a great 
variety of topics. There were undoubtedly scores of thou- 
sands of people eager to receive instruction from university 
sources. The colleges and universities vied with each 
other in the rapidity with which they issued circulars, 
announcing lists of lectures and proposing the organization 
of centers. The state universities of the middle west saw 
in the movement an opportunity to get into closer relations 
with their constituency, and lost no time in entering the 
field. 

A national conference on university extension was called 
for December 29-31, 1891, at Philadelphia, under the aus- 
pices of the American Society for the Extension of Univer- 
sity Teaching. Dr. William T. Harris, the United States 
commissioner of education, representatives of Chautauqua, 
of the Young Men's Christian Association, of leading 
churches and of many universities and colleges were 
present. Reports indicated that university extension had 
already been organized in 28 states and territories. A note 
of optimism ran through all the addresses. Few of the 



34 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [854 

speakers suggested doubts or difficulties. The general 
feeling seemed to be that university extension was pecu- 
liarly adapted to a great democracy and would quickly 
triumph. 1 Dr. Harris said : " This enterprise is one of the 
most important undertaken in our century since the estab- 
lishment of the common public school." 

Mr. Melvil Dewey was almost alone in sounding a note 
of warning. In his address on university extension in 
New York, he introduced this paragraph : 

" Then there is the kindling wood danger. In lighting a 
hard coal fire there is a great blaze, a roar and not a little 
heat as the shavings and kindlings blaze fiercely up. We 
are now in just this period of university extension, and it is 
altogether probable that after a little the blaze and roar and 
heat will die down and the casual observer will say, ' That 
is ended,' and turn to the next new fad ; but, as with the 
fire, if we handle it properly it will mean only that the coal 
is just kindling, and after a little will give a strong heat 
and we shall be in an era of real university extension." 2 

This acute observation foreshadowed truly what was to 
follow. By more than half the organizations the experi- 
ment was continued for two or three years with waning 
enthusiasm on the part of lecturers and audiences. By 1895 
many of the universities had abandoned the work altogether 
or continued it in a feeble fashion only. In three centers 
the work maintained itself and grew. These were Phila- 
delphia, New York and Chicago. The American society 
in Philadelphia was efficiently administered, and an annual 
deficit was met by generous friends. Lecturers of tried 
ability were brought from England to strengthen a staff 
recruited from able Americans. Among the men whose 
names are associated with the Philadelphia work may be 
mentioned Professors Richard G. Moulton, H. J. Mac- 

1 A notable exception was Professor George H. Palmer, who wrote an article, 
"Doubts About University Extension," for the Atlantic, March, 1892. 

Proceedings of the First National Conference on University Extension. Phila. 
1892, p. 272. 



855] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 35 

kinder, Hudson Shaw, Frederick H. Sykes, Edward Howard 
Griggs and Earl Barnes. 

In New York the University of the State of New York 
has not directly conducted regular extension work, but in 
New York city the free lecture courses under the auspices 
of the board of education have in many cases been moulded 
more and more into the extension form. The Teachers' 
college and the Brooklyn institute of arts and sciences offer 
university extension courses of unusual thoroughness. 
In 1897 the People's institute was organized and began 
extension work. A year later the People's University 
Extension Society of New York entered the field in which 
it has maintained itself with growing efficiency ever since. 
In Chicago, the original university extension society 
withdrew when in 1892 extension was made an organic part 
of the University of Chicago which has maintained this 
division with increasing success to the present time. The 
university early secured the services of Professor Richard G. 
Moulton, whose lectures in England and afterward in Phila- 
delphia made him the most notable figure in the extension 
field. With him are associated Professors Charles Zueblin, 
Edwin E. Sparks, William H. Hudson, J. H. Raymond and 
a large number of other lecturers who either give all their 
time or devote a part of it wholly to university extension 
lecturing. Until recently the extension division was admin- 
istered by Professor E. J. James — now president of North- 
western university — who was one of the originators of the 
Philadelphia society. 

The experience of a dozen years in transplanting this 
movement to American soil has proved clearly that the 
exotic takes root and grows only where certain conditions 
can be steadily fulfilled. These are : 

1. Lecturers of the Right Type. It is a serious blunder 
to suppose that the average college professor is fitted for 
university extension work. The extension lecturer must not 
only know his subject but must have those rare personal 
qualities which give him control over a popular audience 



36 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [856 

whose stability of attention may not be counted upon unless 
it is secured by the arts of skillful public speech. 

2. The staff lecturers must give their whole time to 
extension work or must devote a part of their time exclu- 
sively to this field. Only in this way, under American con- 
ditions, can the work be done effectively and economically. 

3. There must be adequate financial support. In Phila- 
delphia the annual deficit of about $7,000 is made up by 
subscription. In Chicago the university appropriates a 
part of its revenue to the support of the extension division. 
In New York there is state and municipal aid. The Eng- 
lish plan of selling tickets at two prices, one for the well-to- 
do, the other for the artisan class, cannot be successfully 
undertaken in democratic American communities. 

STATISTICS OF UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 

Courses and Audiences. — The average number of lec- 
tures in the university extension course is much lower in 
the United States than in England. The English ideal is 
a twelve-lecture course ; the American standard is approxi- 
mately six. At the University of Chicago in 1892-3 the 
average number of lectures per course was six, in 1 901-2 
the average was about six and a half. The same average 
(1902-3, 6.7) prevails in the work of the American society 
at Philadelphia. 1 For the winter of 1 899-1 900 the board 
of education in New York offered fifty-four lecture courses. 
Of these three were of ten lectures each, one of eight, four- 
teen of six and thirteen of five. It should be noted, how- 
ever, that in many cases these courses were not given by the 
same lecturer, but consisted of different lectures on related 
topics. This is a departure from regular extension methods. 
The same season the People's institute in New York gave 
sixteen courses, three of which were of ten lectures each and 
ten of six. At the Teachers' college and at the Brooklyn 
institute the standard is thirty lectures in each course. 



'The average number of lectures per center (1902-3) given by the American 
Society was 6. 3 ; by the University of Chicago, 6. 6. 



857] 



SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 



37 



The statistics of attendance are rather misleading. 
Sometimes a society reports the total number of admissions, 
in which case the work is greatly magnified. For example, 
if 200 people attend a course of six lectures the aggregate 
of admissions, 1,200, is imposing. The University of Chi- 
cago and the American Society for the Extension of Univer- 
sity Teaching report average attendance as well as aggregate 
admissions. Thus for the season of 1902-3 the American 
society reports an average attendance at courses, 253 ; a total 
attendance at courses, 24,794 ; a total attendance at lectures, 
141,427. 

TABLE SHOWING THE EXTENSION WORK OF THE AMERICAN 
SOCIETY AND THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 



YEAR. 



I 890-I 
1891-2 
1892-3 
1893-4 
1894-5 
1895-6 
1896-7 
T897-8. 
1898-9. 
1899-O, 
I 900-I. 
1901-2. 
I902-3. 



American Society. 


University of Chicago. 


No. 


No. 


Attendance 


No. 


No. 


Attendance 


centers. 


courses. 


at courses. 


centers. 


courses. 


at courses. 


21 


42 


9, 282 








60 


121 


20, 570 








65 


107 


18, 404 


67 


I24 


26, 728 


76 


112 


16, 128 


72 


89 


14, 063 


91 


126 


20, 034 


95 


128 


23,757 


85 


IO4 


21, 2l6 


81 


122 


25,345 


57 


79 


12,245 


95 


141 


29. 344 


61 


79 


18, 09I 


92 


141 


30,315 


60 


89 


21,983 


93 


125 


24, 993 


65 


95 


22, 705 


97 


127 


29, 693 


74 


95 


24, 70O 


IIO 


139 


32, 807 


64 


84 


22, O92 


140 


I90 


35,9 2 2 


79 


98 


24, 794 


146 


208 


43, 564 



In 1899 the American society made an investigation 
which resulted in securing reports from sixteen extension 
offices, which, combined with the statistics of the American 
society, showed that up to the date of the inquiry, 541 
centers had been organized, and 2,487 courses, averaging 
six lectures each, had been given. The aggregate attend- 
ance at courses was estimated to have been 2,758,466. 

For the winter of 1902-3 the University of Chicago 
reports 146 centers, 208 courses, 25 lecturers and 43,564 
attendants. For the same year the Philadelphia society 
returns 81 centers, 98 courses and 24,794 auditors. The 



38 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [858 

work of the chief societies in New York city, when reduced 
so far as possible to a university extension basis, i. e.\ to 
attendants upon consecutive lecture courses, is estimated as 
follows : The free popular lectures under the auspices of 
the New York board of education, 800 courses, with an 
attendance of 250,000; the People's institute, 30 courses, 
with an attendance of 15,000. Obviously, these figures are 
incomplete and, in some measure, misleading. There are 
numerous duplications. For example, many courses given 
by Philadelphia lecturers are counted both by the Ameri- 
can society 1 and by the New York People's institute and 
board of education. Moreover, these returns obviously 
ignore an immense amount of lecturing of a systematic 
character carried on under various auspices throughout 
the country. The statistics (see table) show that the 
work of the University of Chicago under direct university 
control with an endowed support has grown, with many 
fluctuations, from an attendance of 26,728 in 1892-3 to an 
attendance of 43,564 in 1902-3. The American society in 
Philadelphia has also grown, though rather less rapidly. It 
reported, in 1896-7, 20,000; in 1902-3, approximately, 
25,000. The popular work in New York increases steadily 
under city subsidy and with the aid of private contributions. 
Finances. — The cost of a university extension course to 
a local center varies from $100 to $130, in addition to local 
expenses and the traveling expenses of the lecturer. The 
usual fee of the University of Chicago is $125 plus expenses, 
The University of Wisconsin began with $60 for a course 
of six lectures, but has raised the fee to $100. At these 
figures it is practically impossible to maintain lecturers of 
the first rank who will give their whole time to extension 
work. As has already been pointed out, the Philadelphia 
society has succeeded because of private subscriptions. The 
University of Chicago has spent from $5,000 to $10,000 a 
year over and above the revenues from extension centers. 
Experience has proved conclusively that university extension 

1 Of 98 courses reported by the American Society last year 39 were given under 
the auspices of other organizations. 



859] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 39 

dealing with culture studies, not with professional pursuits, 
cannot be made permanently self-sustaining. 

DISAPPOINTMENTS IN UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 

It has already been mentioned that the early enthusiasm 
for university extension in the United States did not long 
survive. Within two years a writer has spoken dogmatically 
of the "failure of university extension." z Professor H. B. 
Adams, not long before his death, frankly asserted that the 
zeal for university extension was steadily diminishing. He 
attributed the situation to, " first, lack of suitable extension 
lecturers ; second, lack of financial support ; third, the vast 
distances to be traveled by university men already over- 
worked ; fourth, the necessity and greater importance of 
academic service on college and university premises ; and, 
fifth, the recognition of better and less expensive instru- 
mentalities for popular education." 2 

Not only has there been a decline in interest, but the 
work itself has had its disappointments. It has not created 
so large a body of serious students as it was expected to 
do. To a considerable degree university extension lectures 
have replaced lyceum lectures and have attracted audiences 
who were accustomed to attend lectures of a somewhat dif- 
ferent type. This has led to the popularizing of lectures, the 
increased use of stereopticon illustrations and other devices 
adapted to competition with prevailing entertainments. 

While it is true that a good many people remain after the 
extension lecture for more or less desultory discussion, the 
word class is hardly an accurate description for this group. 
A small and probably decreasing number of people write 
weekly papers. An almost negligible number stand for 
final examinations. Thus, the American society reported in 
1 899-1 900 that 22,794 persons attended lectures, 348 classes 
were held, 381 papers written and only 29 certificates were 
granted. In many of the popular courses in New York the 

1 " Failure of University Extension." Henry R. Palmer, N. Y. Observer, March 
14, 1901. 

2 Education in the U. S. (Ed. by Nicholas Murray Butler.) Vol. 2, p. 849. 



40 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [860 

class, the written work and examinations play no part what- 
ever. Thus, judged by many of the enthusiastic expecta- 
tions of 1892 university extension in 1903 is a distinct 
disappointment. 

Moreover, during the decade a comparatively small num- 
ber of successful extension lecturers has been developed. 
The American society at one time proposed a seminary for 
the training of lecturers, but this plan was never carried 
out. The peculiar qualifications demanded of an exten- 
sion lecturer are not easily discovered or developed. It is 
pretty clearly recognized that the average college or uni- 
versity professor is not fitted for extension lecturing. 
The hope, therefore, that hundreds and even thousands 
of university and college professors would be brought into 
personal contact with multitudes of their fellow-citizens has 
by no means been realized. The vast majority of genuine 
extension lectures to-day are being given by perhaps twenty- 
five or thirty men. 

THE SUCCESS OF UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 

While in the respects already pointed out university exten- 
sion has not accomplished what it was counted upon to do, 
it has rendered many important services. 

1. It has set a high standard for literary and scientific 
lecturers; it has emphasized continuity in subject-matter 
and clearness and system in presentation. Many an old- 
time lecturer has revamped his material upon the university 
extension model. The public demands this standard which 
university extension has helped in a notable way to establish. 

2. The printed syllabus and the traveling library have 
been of great value outside the university extension field, 
developing into study club outlines, traveling picture collec- 
tions as well as traveling libraries. 

3. It has diffused widely a knowledge of higher education, 
popularizing scholarly ideals, and giving a more adequate 
conception of culture. 

4. It has thus brought a large public into more intimate 



86 1] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 41 

sympathy with universities and colleges, with the effect of 
increasing the demand for higher education. 

5. It has reacted upon the universities themselves, arous- 
ing a keener sense of obligation to the community, develop- 
ing a deeper sympathy with the national life. 

6. It has drawn together in many localities various groups 
and agencies and led them to co-operate in the interests of 
the higher life of the community. 

7. It has mediated between school education and the 
library and museum, encouraging the use of books and 
interpreting the meaning of art and literature. 

THE FUTURE OF UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 

As in the case of summer schools, though to a still greater 
degree, university extension of the future will be a part of 
university work. Only where permanent support can be 
assured, and an adequate staff secured, can university exten- 
sion of the special type be successfully continued. The 
logic of events would point to the transfer to the University 
of Pennsylvania of the work of the American Society for the 
Extension of University Teaching. The University of 
Chicago will maintain its extension work as in the past. 
Columbia university has recently established a department 
of extension under the direction of Dr. F. H. Sykes, a suc- 
cessful lecturer and administrator. Other universities may 
be expected to adopt the plan, but it will doubtless be modi- 
fied with changing conditions and in adjustment to Ameri- 
can life. 1 If a congress were to be held to-day, one would 
not hear the same optimistic note that was struck ten years 
ago ; but, nevertheless, university extension is a fact of 
importance to-day, and is likely to remain a valuable feature 
of popular education in the United States. 

1 The University of California has recently announced a new form of extension 
teaching, by which the instructor will spend a day or two on each visit in per- 
sonal conferences with students. 



42 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [862 

READING CIRCLES 

In 1878 the Chautauqua Reading Circle was founded at 
Chautauqua, N. Y. It is known as the Chautauqua Liter- 
ary and Scientific Circle. It offers a four years' course of 
reading, which seeks to provide the " college outlook " for 
people unable to attend regular educational institutions. 
The amount of reading at first was considerable in quantity 
and rather fragmentary in character. The success which 
greeted the new idea showed that it met a real need. It 
was not many years before 60,000 people were enrolled, and 
many other thousands were doing a part of the reading. 
Nearly fifteen per cent of the readers continued to the end. 
of the four years, receiving a certificate in recognition of 
their work. 

The essentials of the Chautauqua plan are : Certain pre- 
scribed volumes, most of them written especially for the 
purpose ; a monthly magazine with additional readings, notes 
and comments ; a memorandum paper with questions to be 
filled out, not as an examination, but as an aid in systema- 
tizing and memorizing the topics for the course ; a reading 
schedule prescribing certain chapters for each week. From 
year to year the course has been made more coherent and. 
intensive. Fewer subjects have been treated, but these 
have been dealt with in a more detailed and exhaustive way. 
With the increase of cheap magazines, the growth of the 
library movement, the multiplication of popular lectures, the: 
distribution of books by the ingenious and tireless agen- 
cies for this purpose, the multiplication of women's clubs 
and other semi-literary societies, the original conditions 
have changed and the field has been greatly subdivided. 
Nevertheless, the Chautauqua Circle still enrolls its thou- 
sands, and if it suffers at all in the competition it is because 
of the rather severe tasks which it imposes in an age given 
over largely to rapid and easy methods of getting informa- 
tion and acquiring polish. 



863] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 43 

A number of other reading circles on the Chautauqua 
plan have been organized, among which may be mentioned 
the Winona Reading- Circle in connection with the Winona 
Assembly. In 1901 this circle was affiliated with the origi- 
nal Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. In connec- 
tion with the assembly at Bay View, Mich., a circle was 
organized early in the 90's. It has maintained itself to the 
present time. In several of the states reading circles for 
teachers are directly fostered by state departments of 
instruction. The state of Indiana has one of the largest and 
most successful of these readino- circles. The Home Read- 
ing Union, of England, is a direct outgrowth of the Chau- 
tauqua movement, having its origin in a suggestion made by 
Bishop Vincent during a visit to England in 1887. The 
reading circle idea has permanent value and may be expected 
to render important service, especially to isolated readers 
and groups of readers in smaller towns and villages. The 
multiplication of educational opportunities in cities causes a 
certain amount of distraction and in many ways offers a sub- 
stitute for home reading. 

CORRESPONDENCE INSTRUCTION 

Dr. William R. Harper instituted correspondence courses 
of instruction in Hebrew as early as 1 880. When he became 
associated with Chautauqua this system of instruction was 
extended to other subjects, and the Chautauqua college of 
liberal arts from 1885 to 1895 conducted correspondence 
courses in ancient and modern languages, in literature, his- 
tory, economics and all other academic subjects, with the 
exception of certain laboratory sciences. Like university 
extension, this correspondence work dealt wholly with cul- 
tural and not with technical subjects. A similar institution 
under Chautauqua auspices, the Chautauqua school of the- 
ology, conducted courses in Hebrew, New Testament Greek, 
church history, homiletics, systematic theology and the other 
subjects of the theological curriculum. In 1892 the Uni- 
versity of Chicago made correspondence instruction one of 
the subdivisions of its extension department. A little later 



44 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [864 

the University of Wisconsin and the University of West 
Virginia undertook work of the same sort. In 1895 Chau- 
tauqua, which had maintained correspondence work at a loss 
for ten years, felt that it might withdraw from the field and 
leave to endowed institutions the carrying on of such 
teaching. 

Early in the 90's correspondence schools of law, of com- 
merce, bookkeeping, stenography and the like began to be 
advertised and pushed upon a commercial basis. Many of 
these enterprises were successful. The most notable exploit- 
ers of correspondence instruction, however, are those schools 
which teach technical subjects by mail. Schools of engi- 
neering have sprung up during the last few years and num- 
ber their students by thousands. The idea has spread 
rapidly to all subjects of human knowledge, and correspond- 
ence instruction is urged on every hand. A popular maga- 
zine for December, 1903, announces in its advertising pages 
correspondence instruction in mercantile training, " college 
education at home," teaching of the art of advertising, train- 
ing in proofreading, in caricature, in lettering, journalism, 
nursing, music, shorthand and the profession of the optician. 
Many of these schools undoubtedly offer valuable aids to 
their students. A large number of them are unquestionably 
enterprises of doubtful utility and a few are shameless 
frauds. 

It is to be noted that correspondence instruction falls into 
two general classes : that which is purely cultural, with no 
utilitarian end in view, and that which is professional, aim- 
ing at putting students in the way of earning a living or 
increasing their incomes. The latter class, obviously, as 
they appeal to an economic motive, have had by far the 
greatest success. Some of the correspondence institutions 
which seem to be of the cultural type are, on further analysis, 
discovered to be professional, i. e., designed to prepare 
teachers for examinations and in other ways to help them 
secure better teaching positions. The genuinely cultural 
work cannot be carried on on a commercial basis. Like 
university extension it requires some form of subsidy. In 



864a] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 44a 

the long run, therefore, correspondence instruction of gen- 
uine value in the humanities and pure sciences must be sub- 
sidized by the university, the state or in some other way. 

The value of correspondence teaching in the abstract has 
been discussed at great length. It is obvious that the 
absence of the living teacher is a serious thing. On the 
other hand, in certain subjects, if the work is intelligently 
and carefully planned, faithfully pursued by the student and 
conscientiously revised by the instructor, experience shows 
that valuable educational results can be achieved. During - 
the past year the University of Chicago had upon its books 
1,593 correspondence students. The university recognizes 
correspondence work by crediting it in the same ratio as 
resident work for a degree, although limiting the amount of 
correspondence credit which may be offered for graduation. 

Professor Edward Marburgh, secretary of the Society for 
the Promotion of Engineering Education, and professor of 
civil engineering in the University of Pennsylvania, has 
made a careful study of correspondence instruction in tech- 
nical education. After a judicial analysis of the facts, and 
after making careful distinctions between different classes 
of correspondence schools, he summarizes his conclusions 
in this paragraph : 

" It is believed that any attempt at giving, by the corre- 
spondence method, a broad and thorough education to per- 
sons who, at the same time, follow their daily occupations 
must end in failure. Narrow and shallow courses of the 
kind described may be regarded as the inevitable issue. It 
should, however, again be emphasized that in the absence 
of better means, in so far as these schools are honestly con- 
ducted, they hold out opportunities to the many and rewards 
to the few well worth the effort of attainment. And, in 
conclusion, their highest destiny will have been achieved if, 
by their coming, they shall but quicken the birth of a system 
of popular education — industrial and commercial — worthy 
in every sense of this great nation." 1 

1 Report of Extension Teaching. Bulletin No. 39, University of the State of 
New York. Albany, Feb., 1903, pp. 455, 456. 



44b SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [864b 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A selected bibliography on summer schools and univer- 
sity extension, prepared by Mr. Frederick William Ashley, 
was appended to Dr. Adams' monograph, No. 16, in the 
series prepared under the auspices of the state of New- 
York for the United States commission to the Paris Expo- 
sition of 1900. To this may be added important publica- 
tions which have appeared since this bibliography was pre- 
pared. Report of Extension Teaching, Bulletin No. 39, 
Home Education Department, University of the State of 
New York, Albany, Feb., 1903. University Record, of the 
University of Chicago, University Extension numbers, Sep- 
tember, 1 901 ; August, 1902, and August, 1903. 



17 

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 



BY 
JAMES McKEEN CATTELL 

Professor of Psychology in Columbia University 



SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 



The educational activity of a nation is not confined to its 
schools. Societies, journals, museums, laboratories and 
other institutions devoted to- the advancement and diffusion 
of knowledge are an important part of the educational sys- 
tem of the United States. These agencies are on the one 
hand for the use of those who teach, and thus represent the 
most advanced educational work. On the other hand they 
extend the range of education widely among the people. 
The rapid development of the United States, its large area 
and scattered centers of culture, have in some respects 
favored and in other respects retarded the institutions with 
which we are concerned. They, however, show great 
activity and great progress, and the present review will 
indicate that they need not shun comparison with the similar 
institutions of the other great nations of the world. 

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES 

The National academy of sciences, corresponding to the 
Academy of sciences of Paris or the Royal society of Lon- 
don, was incorporated by act of congress in 1863. By 
the terms of this act the academy, whenever called upon by 
any department of the government, is required to investigate 
and report upon scientific questions. Thus a report has 
recently been presented to the department of the interior 
on a policy for the forested lands of the United States, and 
other reports have furnished the basis for important legisla- 
tion. As a matter of fact the academy has not been as 
frequently employed by the government as was originally 
intended or as sound policy dictates. Established like our 
schools of agriculture and the mechanic arts when the country 
was involved in a great civil war, the academy represents a 
forward movement the importance of which can scarcely be 



4 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [868 

overestimated. Under the constitution of the United States 
the executive, legislative and judicial functions of the govern- 
ment are defined and separated with remarkable foresight 
and wisdom. But as science increases in range and in detail, 
expert advice and decision as a basis for legislation become 
more necessary. It is by no means unreasonable to look 
forward to a time when the scientific or advisory department 
of the ofovernment will rank co-ordinate with its executive, 
legislative and judicial departments. But before the National 
academy can undertake these duties it must consist, not of 
the most eminent, but of the most efficient men of science 
of the United States. In addition to its function as a scien- 
tific adviser of the government, the academy holds meetings 
for the reading of scientific papers, publishes reports and 
memoirs and administers certain funds for the promotion of 
research and the awarding of medals. A stated meeting is 
held annually at Washington in April, and migratory scien- 
tific sessions are held in the autumn. Reports are issued 
annually and the memoirs are now in their eighth volume. 
The academy administers the Bache, Watson, Draper, Smith, 
Gibbs and Gould funds, yielding in all an annual income of 
about $6,000 for the encouragement of scientific research. 
The membership of the academy was originally limited to 
fifty, but this limitation was removed in 1870, and at present 
five members may be elected annually. There are now 
eighty-six members distributed among the different sciences 
as follows : Mathematics and mechanics, 3 ; astronomy, 9 ; 
meteorology, 1 ; physics, including engineering, 19 ; miner- 
alogy, 2; chemistry, 14; geology, 10; paleontology, 2; 
zoology, 13; botany, 3; statistics, 1; anthropology, 3; 
physiology and pathology, 6. The academy is thus larger 
than the Paris academy (40 members), but smaller than the 
Royal society (fifteen annual elections). Fifty foreign asso- 
ciates may be elected ; there are at present twenty-five. The 
present officers of the academy are : Wolcott Gibbs, presi- 
dent ; Asaph Hall, vice-president ; A. Agassiz, foreign secre- 
tary ; Ira Remsen, home secretary, and John S. Billings, 



869] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 5 

treasurer. The past presidents have been A. D. Bache, 
1863-1867; Joseph Henry, 1867-1878; Wm. B. Rogers, 
1879-1882 ; O. C. Marsh, 1883-1895. 

The American association for the advancement of science 
held its first meeting in 1848, being the continuation of the 
Association of American geologists and naturalists founded 
in 1840. The objects of the association are stated in its 
constitution to be " by periodical and migratory meetings, 
to promote intercourse between those who are cultivating 
science in different parts of America, to give a stronger and 
more general impulse and more systematic direction to 
scientific research, and to procure for the labors of scientific 
men increased facilities and wider usefulness." The associa- 
tion thus occupies the same field as the British association 
for the advancement of science (established in 1831), L' As- 
sociation francaise pour i'avancement des sciences (estab- 
lished in 1864), Die Versammlurg deutscher Naturforscher 
und Aerzte (established in 1828), and similar societies in 
Switzerland, Russia and other countries. All these associa- 
tions have performed a useful service in bringing men of 
science together and in attracting the attention of the gen- 
eral public to scientific work. With the increasing special- 
ization of science, the establishment of special societies and 
journals, and the growth of university centers, the meetings 
have perhaps become relatively less important than formerly. 
But the division into sections for the different sciences has 
in part met the needs of modern specialization, and there is 
at present a movement to arrange for the meetings of special 
societies in affiliation with the association. 

The American association is composed of members and 
fellows. All interested in science are eligible to member- 
ship, while the fellows are elected from such of the members 
as are engaged in advancing science. There are at present 
949 members and 776 fellows and in addition two patrons, 
one corresponding member and one honorary member. The 
attendance at the meetings, which are held for a week, usu- 
ally in August, varies considerably with the place and other 



6 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [870 

circumstances, the average being about 400. The funds, 
the income of which is used to promote scientific investiga- 
tion, are small, only about $7,000. The sections into which 
the association is divided are as follows : A. Mathematics 
and astronomy. B. Physics. C. Chemistry. D. Mechan- 
ical science and engineering. E. Geology and geography. 

F. Zoology.. G. Botany. H. Anthropology. I. Social 
and economic' science. The executive officer of the associ- 
ation is the permanent secretary, of whom there have been 
but four, Spencer F. Baird, 1851—1854; Joseph Lovering, 
1 854-1 873 ; F. W. Putnam, 1 873-1 898, and L. O. Howard, 
since 1898. The president is elected annually, and as this 
is regarded as one of the chief honors that can be conferred 
upon American men of science the list may be given : Wm. 
B. Rogers, W. C. Redfield, Joseph Henry, A. D. Bache, 
Louis Agassiz, Benjamin Peirce, James D. Dana, John 
Torrey, James Hall, Alexis Caswell, J. W. Bailey, Jeffries 
Wyman, Stephen Alexander, Isaac Lea, F. A. P. Barnard, 
J. S. Newberry, B. A. Gould, J. W. Foster, T. Sterry Hunt, 
Wm. Chauvenet, Asa Gray, J. Lawrence Smith, Joseph 
Lovering, J. L. Le Conte, J. E. Hilgard, William B. Rogers, 
Simon Newcomb, O. C. Marsh, G. F. Barker, Lewis H. 
Morgan, G. J. Brush, J. W. Dawson, C. A. Young, J. P. 
Lesley, H. A. Newton, Edward S. Morse, S. P. Langley, J. 
W. Powell, T. C. Mendenhall, G. Lincoln Goodale, Albert 
B. Prescott, Joseph Le Conte, William Harkness, Daniel 

G. Brinton, E. W. Morley, Edward D. Cope, Wolcott 
Gibbs, F. W. Putnam, Edward Orton, G. K. Gilbert, R. S. 
Woodward. 

The American philosophical society, " held in Philadelphia, 
for promoting useful knowledge," was organized in 1743 
through the efforts of Franklin, who was its first secretary, 
and later until his death its president. It was situated in 
Philadelphia, but was intended to represent all "the British 
plantations," and this national character has to a certain 
extent been maintained, the membership extending over 
the country. The intended scope of the society, strictly 



871] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS J 

utilitarian in accordance with Franklin's whole career and 
the general tendencies of the time, is thus defined in the 
original " proposal " : 

"That the subject of the correspondence be all new-discovered plants, herbs, 
trees, roots, their virtues, uses, etc.; methods of propagating them, and making 
such as are useful but particular to some plantations more general; improvement 
of vegetable juices, or ciders, wines, etc.; new methods of curing or preventing 
disease; all new-discovered fossils in different countries, as mines, minerals, and 
quarries; new and useful improvements in any branch of mathematics; new dis- 
coveries in chemistry, such as improvements in distillation, brewing, and assay- 
ing of ores; new mechanical inventions for saving labor, as mills and carriages, 
and for raising and conveying of water, draining of meadows, etc.; all new arts, 
trades and manufactures that may be proposed or thought of; surveys, maps, and 
charts of particular parts of the seacoasts or inland countries; course and junction 
of rivers and great roads, situation of lakes and mountains, nature of the soil, 
and productions; new methods of improving the breed of useful animals; intro- 
ducing other sorts from foreign countries; new improvements in planting, garden- 
ing, and clearing land, and all philosophical experiments that let light into the 
nature of things, tend to increase the power of man over matter, and multiply 
the conveniences or pleasures of life." 

The publication of transactions began in 1799 an< ^ of 
proceedings in 1838. 24 volumes of the former and 38 of 
the latter have been issued. 

The American academy of arts and sciences, due largely 
to the efforts of Adams, was organized in Boston in 1 780. 
Its object is said to be : 

" To promote and encourage the knowledge of the antiquities of America and 
of the natural history of the country, and to determine the uses to which the 
various natural productions of the country may be applied; to promote and 
encourage medical discoveries, mathematical disquisitions, philosophical inquiries 
and experiments; astronomical, meteorological and geographical observations, 
and improvements in agriculture, arts, manufactures and commerce, and, in fine, 
to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, 
dignity and happiness of a free, independent and virtuous people." 

As the names indicate, the Philosophical society followed 
the example set in Great Britain, while the American acad- 
emy was influenced by French models, but their original 
intention and subsequent history have, in many respects, 
been parallel. The academy publishes memoirs in quarto, of 
which 16 volumes have been issued, and proceedings in 
octavo, now consisting of 33 volumes. Its library contains 
25,000 volumes. 



8 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [872 

Societies and academies similar to the Philosophical soci- 
ety of Philadelphia and the Academy of arts and sciences of 
Boston are to be found in many of the larger cities of the 
United States. They have been established during the 
present century, many of them recently, and in their scope 
and influence are chiefly local or confined to a single state. 
These societies cover the field of the natural and exact 
sciences or of the natural sciences only, while special socie- 
ties for different sciences have been founded in many cities. 
National societies have also been established for most of 
the sciences, and these are at the present time the most 
active of the scientific societies of the United States. 

The New York academy of sciences, organized in 1817 as 
the Lyceum of natural history in the city of New York, is 
divided into four sections, each of which holds monthly 
meetings. These sections are : Astronomy and physics ; 
geology and mineralogy ; biology; anthropology, psychology 
and philology. The academy also holds general meetings 
and gives an annual reception and exhibition of scientific 
progress. It publishes annals in octavo and memoirs in 
quarto, and has a library numbering over 18,000 titles. In 
New York there is also a scientific alliance, including the 
academy and the following local societies : The Torrey 
botanical club, the New York microscopical society, the 
Linnaean society of New York, the New York mineral ogical 
club, the American mathematical society, the New York 
section of the American chemical society, and the New York 
entomological society. Efforts are now being made for the 
erection of a central building for the societies composing the 
Scientific alliance. 

Washington has recently become the chief scientific center 
of America, the government institutions and departments 
offering numerous and important positions for men of sci- 
ence. The Philosophical society was organized in 1871. 
This and the other societies of the city subsequently formed 
a joint alliance, which was transformed into the Washing- 
ton academy of sciences in 1898. The societies united by 



873] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 9 

the academy are : The Anthropological society of Washing- 
ton, the Biological society of Washington, the Entomologi- 
cal society of Washington, the Geological society of Wash- 
ington, the National geographic society, the Medical society 
of the District of Columbia, and the Philosophical society of 
Washington. The academy and most of the separate socie- 
ties publish proceedings. 

In Philadelphia there are, in addition to the Philosophi- 
cal society, several important institutions. The Academy of 
natural sciences, organized in 1812, possesses large endow- 
ments, a fine museum and a good library (50,000 volumes). 
Meetings of its different sections are held weekly, and the 
proceedings are now in their — volume. The Franklin 
institute was organized in 1824 for the promotion of the 
mechanic arts. Its Journal, published continuously since 
1826, is now in its 147th volume. The institute has done 
much toward promoting industrial exhibitions, the develop- 
ment of the patent system of the United States, the laws on 
weights and measures, etc. It has a large library, and con- 
ducts classes and lectures. The Wagner free institute of 
science, organized in 1855, supports a museum and library, 
gives free lectures and instruction and publishes transactions. 

The Boston society of natural history, founded in 1830, 
conducts a museum and a library, and publishes memoirs 
and proceedings. The Boston scientific society holds meet- 
ings partly popular in character. The Lowell lectures, 
endowed by Mr. John Lowell with $250,000, are an import- 
ant foundation that may be mentioned in this connection. 

Other cities of the Atlantic states possess academies, 
organized on the general lines of those already described. 
The Connecticut academy of arts and sciences at New 
Haven, founded in 1 799 on the model of the Boston academy, 
is the oldest of these. The Maryland academy of sciences 
at Baltimore dates from 18 19. Local academies, often with 
a museum and scientific library, or scientific societies, usually 
of more recent development than the academies, are to be 
found in many cities, including Salem, Worcester, Gloucester 



IO SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [§74 

and Williamstown, Mass. ; Portland and Augusta, Me. ; 
Hanover and Keene, N. H. ; Brattleboro, Vt. ; Providence, 
R. I. ; Hartford, Meriden, New Britain, Middletown and 
Bristol, Conn. ; Albany, Buffalo, Rochester, Binghamton 
and Poughkeepsie, N. Y. ; Reading and Media, Pa., and 
Wilmington, Del. 

The conditions in the southern states before the civil war 
and in the years following were not favorable to the develop- 
ment of scientific institutions, but in recent years there has 
been much industrial progress, and educational and scientific 
institutions are increasing in number and in strength. An 
academy was established at Richmond, Va., in 1788, but 
scarcely survived its organization. There is an academy of 
sciences in New Orleans, La., and local societies at St. 
Augustine, Fla., at University, Ala., and at Chapel Hill, N. C. 

The central states of the upper Mississippi valley main- 
tain a population of high average intelligence, which is 
borne witness to by a great abundance of educational and 
scientific institutions. In several of the states — Ohio, 
Indiana, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, 
Colorado — there are academies that hold winter meetings, 
with programs covering the different sciences. There are 
also academies in many cities. The Chicago academy of 
sciences maintains a museum and a library, publishes trans- 
actions and a bulletin and holds sectional meetings for the 
different sciences. There is a society of natural history at 
Cincinnati, Ohio, a scientific association at Detroit, Mich., 
and an academy of sciences at St. Louis, Mo. There are 
similar societies in other cities including Brookville and 
Terre Haute, Ind. ; Elgin, Peoria and Princeton, 111. ; 
Davenport and Muscatine, la. ; St. Paul, Minn., and Topeka, 
Kans. On the Pacific coast the California academy of 
sciences in San Francisco was organized in 1 853. It possesses 
a museum and a scientific library and publishes proceedings, 
occasional papers, and memoirs. There are local scientific 
societies at Santiago and Santa Barbara, Cal., and at 
Tacoma, Wash., and an Alaskan society of natural history 



875] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS II 

and ethnology has been founded at Sitka. California now 
possesses two of the important universities of the United 
States, and a rapid growth of scientific interest may be 
expected on the Pacific coast. 

The societies and academies thus briefly reviewed suffer 
from the specialization which the growth of modern science 
requires. This has indeed been met in the larger centers by 
a subdivision into sections, but in many cases the societies 
are concerned only with natural history and often in an 
amateur and somewhat superficial manner. The differentia- 
tion in science which has interfered with societies covering 
a wide field has, however, been favorable to the establish- 
ment of local and national societies devoted to a single 
science, while professional and technical societies with defi- 
nite interests to promote have in recent years grown greatly 
in number and in influence. 

Of these societies the National educational association 
should be mentioned first. Its present name was assumed 
in 1870, but it was established as the National teachers' 
association in 1857, being then the outgrowth of the Amer- 
ican institute of instruction, organized in 1830, and other 
societies. 

The objects of the association, according to the preamble 
of its constitution, are " to elevate the character and advance 
the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote 
the cause of popular education in the United States." The 
association has been extremely successful in attaining these 
ends. The annual meetings have been held in different 
states and in Canada, and the attendance at recent meetings 
tends to be as large as 10,000 members. The finances have 
been so administered that a large permanent endowment 
has been secured, and the annual volumes of the Proceedings 
contain papers and discussions of great educational interest 
and value. Until 1870 topics were discussed before the 
whole association as a body, but subsequently special depart- 
ments have been organized, including school superintend- 
ence, normal schools, kindergarten instruction, elementary 



12 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [876 

education, secondary education, higher education, industrial 
education, art education, music education, and a national 
council of education. The council of education, consisting 
of sixty members elected from the association, has been the 
author of many important documents and reports. 

There are in nearly every state and in many counties asso- 
ciations of teachers devoted to the improvement of the 
schools and the professional interest of the members. Meet- 
ings are usually held once a year, and are largely attended. 
There are also numerous local societies, which perform 
important scientific, professional and social functions. It 
cannot be expected that the general level of the papers and 
discussions before these societies should be much above the 
average of those who attend the sessions. But teaching is 
gradually becoming a profession co-ordinate with medicine, 
law and theology, and the numerous educational societies 
are contributing toward this end. 

The physicians of the United States have numerous socie- 
ties, which in part perform the functions of trades unions, 
for the profession, and in part contribute to the advance- 
ment of medical science and practice. The American medi- 
cal association holds an annual migratory meeting, and pub- 
lishes an important monthly journal. The Association of 
American physicians and the American academy of medicine 
are also national associations covering the whole field of 
medicine. There are further national societies for different 
departments — neurology, ophthalmology, otology, gynaecol- 
ogy, dermatology, pediatry, climatology, etc. Then there 
are societies for different sections of the country, and nearly^ 
every state of the union has a special medical society hold- 
ing an annual meeting. There are also numerous local 
societies which meet in sections and at frequent intervals. 
The Academy of medicine in New York city, and the Col- 
lege of physicians of Philadelphia, for example, own fine 
buildings and administer large libraries. 

In addition to an American bar association there are sev- 
eral state and local societies of lawyers. These sometimes 



877] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 1 3 

maintain a library, but their objects are strictly professional, 
so that they can scarcely be regarded as scientific societies 
even in the widest interpretation of the term. This holds 
also for the congresses and assemblies of different religious 
denominations. They are chiefly occupied with executive 
work and matters of discipline and but rarely discuss sub- 
jects that contribute to the advancement or diffusion of 
knowledge. 

On the other hand the societies of technical science, 
while to a certain extent concerned with the professional 
interests of their members, are chiefly devoted to research. 
The societies are large in membership and in influence, rep- 
resenting one of the most important scientific developments 
of the present time and of the United States. 

The American chemical society was the outgrowth of a 
meeting held in 1874 to celebrate the centennial of the dis- 
covery of oxygen. The society was organized in 1876, and 
now holds two general meetings annually, one during the 
Christmas holidays and one in the summer in connection 
with the American association. It maintains a monthly 
journal, and has recently established in New York city a 
club house in which its library is deposited. Local sections 
of the society, holding frequent meetings throughout the 
year, have been established in New York, Washington, 
Chicago, Rhode Island, Cincinnati, the Lehigh Valley, New 
Orleans, Nebraska, North Carolina and Columbus. 

The American society of civil engineers is the oldest of 
the societies of applied science, having been organized and 
incorporated in 1852. It has headquarters in New York 
city and publishes monthly Transactions. The American 
institute of mining engineers was organized in 1871, the 
American society of mechanical engineers in 1880, and the 
American institute of electrical engineers in 1884. Each of 
these societies has a large membership, publishes transac- 
tions, and exercises an important influence on the develop- 
ment of applied science. In addition to these national 
societies there are in the United States numerous other 



14 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [878 

technological associations. The Tekniker Verein of Wash- 
ington is the headquarters of the National association of 
German-American technologists with nine branches. We 
have an Engineering association of the south, a Technical 
society of the Pacific coast, a Western society of engineers, 
and many local societies. 

All the leading sciences now have national organizations. 
The American mathematical society, established as the New 
York mathematical society in 1 888, publishes a monthly Bulle- 
tin and Quarterly transactions, holds regular meetings in 
New York and in Chicago, and a migrating- meeting- in the 
summer. A conference of astronomers and astrophysicists 
was held on the occasion of the dedication of the Yerkes 
observatory in 1897, and has since been made an annual 
meeting. A physical society is now in course of organi- 
zation. An American metrological society was established 
in 1873 and has exerted much influence toward the adop- 
tion of the metric system and the definition of units of 
measure. The American chemical society has already been 
described. 

The Geological society of America was organized in 1888. 
It holds two annual meetings and publishes a Bulletin. 
The American geographical society of New York and the 
National geographic society of Washington, though from 
one point of view local, are national in their influence. 
Each publishes a journal, and does much to arouse popular 
interest in geographical exploration. The New York 
society has a new building in course of erection. 

The American society of naturalists, organized in 1883, 
largely with a view to the discussion of educational ques- 
tions, holds winter meetings during the Christmas holidays, 
which serve as a center for several societies devoted to the 
natural sciences. These are the Association of American 
anatomists, the Society for plant morphology and physi- 
ology, the American morphological society, the American 
physiological society, the American psychological associa- 
tion, the American folklore society, and section H, anthro- 



879] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 1 5 

pology, of the American association for the advancement 
of science. Some two hundred papers are annually pre- 
sented before these affiliated societies representing a high 
level of scientific research. The American ornithologists' 
union, organized in 1883, always has a valuable program for 
its annual meetings, and publishes a quarterly journal — The 
Atik. The American microscopical society (1878) and the 
American entomological society (1859) complete the list of 
national scientific societies, but there are in addition to these 
a larore number more local in character. The Astronomical 
society of the Pacific, organized in 1889, issues a bi-monthly 
Publication. There are in San Francisco two geographical 
societies and Philadelphia has an important geographical 
society. Local clubs, especially of botany, ornithology and 
microscopy are widely scattered over the country. They are 
often somewhat amateur in character, but useful in many ways. 

In history and economics there are several national socie- 
ties of importance. The American historical association, 
organized in 1884, issues reports and papers. Its principal 
office is at Washington, but it holds migratory meetings. 
The American economical association (1885), and the 
American academy of political and social science (1889), 
are both active associations issuing important publications. 
There are further to be mentioned the American statistical 
association and the American social science association. 
The Massachusetts historical society, organized in 1791 and 
incorporated in 1 794, is one of the oldest historical societies 
in the world. The New York historical society was organ- 
ized in 1804, and the Historical society of Pennsylvania in 
1824. Historical societies, chiefly for the collection of mate- 
rial relating to a single state, county or locality, are very 
numerous. There are also many genealogical, memorial 
and patriotic societies which scarcely fall within the limits 
of this review. 

The Archaeological institute of America has sent out 
various expeditions and published the results. The Ameri- 
can antiquarian society, organized in 181 2 in Worcester, 



1 6 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [880 

Mass., has had a long and useful career. There is an 
American numismatic and archaeological society and several 
local archaeological and antiquarian societies. 

In philology the American philological association (1869), 
the American oriental society (1842), the American dialect 
society (1889), the American folklore society (1888), the 
Modern language association of America (1883), and the 
Spelling reform association (1876), are the most important 
societies. In this connection may also be mentioned the 
American library association, although its objects are largely 
professional. We have an American Dante society, and 
numerous local Shakespeare clubs and literary societies. 

In the fine arts there are important associations, such as 
the National academy of design, in New York, and the 
Pennsylvania academy of the fine arts in Philadelphia, which 
hold annual exhibitions. A National league of mineral 
painters was organized in 1892. 

JOURNALS 

The dispersion of American students over a great area 
and the lack of a single center of culture, such as foreign 
nations possess in London, Paris and Berlin, gives especial 
importance to journals as a means of. intercomrrfunication. 
The differentiation of science in recent years has lead to the 
rapid multiplication of special journals, but at the same time 
increases the need of journals that will keep the sciences in 
touch with each other. 

The American journal of science was the earliest of our 
scientific journals, having been established at Yale univer- 
sity by the elder Silliman in 1818. The Journal of the 
Franklin institute began as the American mechanic ,s maga- 
zine in 1825 ; other technical journals were established and 
various scientific journals came and went, but the American 
journal of science for fifty years sufficed for the publication 
of the scientific work of the country. The American 
naturalist was founded by Professors Packard, Morse, 
Hyatt and Putnam in 1867. The Popular science monthly 



88 1] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS I J 

was begun in 1872. Dr. A. Graham Bell and the late Gar- 
diner G. Hubbard established Science, a. weekly journal, in 
1883. Numerous journals devoted to special sciences have 
recently been founded, largely under the auspices of univer- 
sities, Johns Hopkins and Chicago accomplishing the most 
in this direction. 

A representative educational journal was lacking until the 
establishment of the Educational review by Professor 
Nicholas Murray Butler in 1891. We have some four hun- 
dred medical journals, only a few of which surpass medio- 
crity. Among literary journals the Atlantic monthly has 
had the most honorable history, while the Nation, including 
politics in its scope, has been an influential weekly journal. 
The North American review and The Forum do not equal 
the journals of Great Britain and France devoted to litera- 
ture and public affairs. On the other hand, the monthly 
illustrated journals have been extremely successful and have 
contributed much to the popularization of literature, art and 
science. 

The more important of the scientific and learned journals 
of the United States (proceedings of societies and technical 
and trade journals being omitted), are as follows : 

General science 

American journal of science (1818). E. S. Dana. New Haven, 
monthly. 

Science (1883). J. McKeen Cattell. New York, weekly. 

Appletons' popular science monthly (1872). W. J. Youmans. New 
York, monthly. 

Scientific American (1846). New York, weekly. 

Scientific American supplement (1876). New York, weekly. 

Mathematics 

American journal of mathematics (1878). S. Newcomb. Baltimore 
quarterly. 

Bulletin of the American mathematical society (1893). Thomas S. 
Fiske, F. N. Cole, Alexander Ziwet, Frank Morley, E. O. Lovett. New 
York, monthly. 

Annals of mathematics (1884). Ormond Stone, H. S. White, W. E. 
Byerly, H. F. Osgood, Maxime Bocher. Cambridge. 



l8 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [882 



Astrono7tiy 

Astronomical journal (1849). Seth C. Chandler. Cambridge. 

Astrophysical journal (1895). George E. Hale and James E. Keeler. 
Chicago, monthly. 

Popular astronomy (1893). Wm. W. Payne. Northfield, Minn., 
monthly. 

Physics 

Physical review (1893). E. L. Nichols, Ernest Merritt, Frederick 
Bedell. New York, monthly. 

Terrestrial magnetism and atmospheric electricity (1895). L. A. 
Bauer. Baltimore, quarterly. 

Chemistrji 

American chemical journal (1879). Ira Remsen. Baltimore, monthly. 

Journal of the American chemical society (1887). Edward Hart. 
Easton, Pa., monthly. 

Journal of physical chemistry (1896). W. D. Bancroft, J. E. Trevor. 
Ithaca, N. Y., nine numbers. 

Geology and geography 

American geologist (1888). N. H. Winchell. Minneapolis, monthly. 

Journal of geology (1893). T. C. Chamberlin. Chicago, semi- 
quarterly. 

National geographic magazine (1888). John Hyde. Washington, 
monthly. 

Bulletin of the American geographical society (1892). Librarian. 
New York, five numbers. 

Natural science 

American naturalist (1867). Boston, monthly. 

Biological bulletin (1897). C. O. Whitman. Boston, irregular. 

Zoology 
Journal of morphology (1887). C. O. Whitman. Boston, irregular. 
The Auk (1876). J. A. Allen. New York, quarterly. 

Botany 

Bulletin of the Torrey botanical club (1870). L. M. Underwood. 
New York, monthly. 

Botanical gazette (1876). John M. Coulter, Charles R. Barnes, J. C. 
Arthur. Chicago, monthly. 

Physiology and pathology 

American journal of physiology (1898). Wm. T. Porter. Boston, 
monthly. 



883] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 1 9 

Journal of comparative neurology (1890). C. L. and C. J. Herrick, 
Granville, O., quarterly. 

Journal of experimental medicine (1895). W. H. Welch. New York, 
bi-monthly. 

American journal of insanity (1843). Henry M. Hurd. Baltimore, 
quarterly. 

Anthropology 

The anthropologist (1888). F. W. Hodge. New York, quarterly. 

Journal of the American folklore society (1888). W. W. Newell. 
Boston, quarterly. 

Psychology 

American journal of psychology (1887). G. Stanley Hall. Worces- 
ter, quarterly. 

Psychological review (1894). J. McKeen Cattell, J. Mark Baldwin. 
New York, bi-monthly. 

Education 

Educational review (1891). Nicholas Murray Butler. New York, 
ten numbers. 

Pedagogical seminary (1892). G. Stanley Hall. Worcester, quarterly. 

The School review (1893). Charles H. Thurber. Chicago, ten 
numbers. 

Philosophy 

The Philosophical review (1891). J. G. Schurman, J. E. Creighton, 
James Seth. New York, bi-monthly. 

The Monist (1890). Paul Cams. Chicago, quarterly. 

The International journal of ethics (1890). Philadelphia, quarterly, 

History and archeology 

The American historical review (1895). John Franklin Jameson. 
New York. 

The American journal of archaeology (1885). John H. Wright. 
New York, bi-monthly. 

Political economy and sociology 

Political science quarterly (1885). The Faculty of political science 
of Columbia university. Boston, quarterly. 

Journal of political economy (1892). J. Lawrence Laughlin. 
Chicago, quarterly. 

Quarterly journal of economics (1886). F. W. Taussig. Boston, 
quarterly. 

American journal of sociology (1894). Albion W. Small. Chicago, 
bi-monthly. 



20 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [884 

Philology 

American journal of philology (1879). B. L. Gildersleeve. Balti- 
more, quarterly. 

Modern language notes (1886). A. M. Elliott. Baltimore, eight 
numbers. 

MUSEUMS AND OTHER SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS 

The Smithsonian institution at Washington is unique both 
in its history and in its objects. James Smithson, an 
Englishman, who died at Genoa in 1820, left a will contain- 
ing the clause, " In the case of the death of my said nephew 
without leaving a child * * * I then bequeath the 
whole of my property * * * to the United States of 
America, to found at Washington, under the name of the 
Smithsonian institution, an establishment for the increase 
and diffusion of knowledge among men." In 1838 the 
United States government received somewhat more than 
$500,000 in accordance with the terms of this will. The 
character of the institution that should be established with 
the bequest was for eight years the subject of discussion in 
congress. The final result exactly fulfilled the intention of 
Smithson ; an institution was founded for " the increase and 
diffusion of knowledge," which has exercised an important 
influence on the development of science in America. 

The board of regents of the institution has wisely left the 
administration to the secretary, who appoints all officers and 
is responsible for expenditures. They have been particu- 
larly fortunate in the secretaries they have selected, Joseph 
Henry, 1846-1878; Spencer Fullerton Baird, 1878-1887, 
and Samuel Pierpont Langley since 1887. The scope of 
the institution was outlined by the first secretary, and its 
policy was shaped by him during a long administration. 
Henry believed that the Smithsonian institution should not 
continue to do anything that could be done equally well by 
other agencies, and it was largely through this wise policy 
and under the guidance of the institution that the govern- 
ment of the United States has undertaken to develop the 



885] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 21 

resources of the country and advance science to a greater 
degree than any other nation. On these objects the sum of 
over $8,000,000 is spent annually, and over 5,000 officers are 
employed. 

The library of the Smithsonian institution was early trans- 
ferred to the library of congress, and was the most important 
step towards making a great national library. The museum, 
though still administered by the institution, is now sup- 
ported by the government. The meteorological observa- 
tions, reported with the aid of the electric telegraph, to 
which Henry's researches had so largely contributed, were 
transferred to a separate bureau, now under the depart- 
ment of agriculture. The geological survey and the coast 
and geodetic survey, the beginnings of which were chiefly 
due to President Jefferson, were aided by the institution. 
They have now become well established as separate depart- 
ments, while the bureau of American ethnology has been 
placed under the administration of the institution. The 
work on the fisheries, begun by Secretary Baird, has devel- 
oped into a separate commission. Adams strenuously 
urged the application of the income from Smithson's bequest 
to the establishment of a national observatory, and the naval 
observatory founded at the time may perhaps be regarded 
as an indirect result of this bequest, while an astrophysi- 
cal observatory has been made under Secretary Langley a 
part of the institution. When the National zoological park 
was established in 1889 it was placed under the direction of 
the institution. 

The primary objects of the institution have been largely 
carried out by its publications, which include annual reports, 
contributions to knowledge and miscellaneous collections, in 
addition to the publications of the National museum and 
the Bureau of American ethnology. The publications now 
number 250 volumes, and by exchange the library, amount- 
ing to some 400,000 volumes and pamphlets, has been 
chiefly collected. The system for exchange of publications 
now corresponds with some 25,000 libraries and individuals, 



22 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [886 

and acts as a medium of exchange for the government and 
other institutions as well as for the publications of the 
institution. 

The building of the institution was erected from the 
income of the bequest, and further savings from the income 
amount to $100,000. By a gift of $200,000 from Thomas 
G. Hodgkin in 1891 and smaller bequests, the funds of the 
institution now amount to nearly one million dollars. These 
are deposited with the government which guarantees an 
income of 6 per cent. The Hodgkin's fund is, in part, for 
investigations of. the atmosphere, and has contributed to 
research in different directions. 

The United States national museum, as has been stated, is 
at present under the administration of the Smithsonian 
institution, but is supported by an annual government grant 
of somewhat over $200,000. The museum began with 
Smithson's cabinet of minerals and various miscellaneous 
collections housed in the patent office, and has grown by 
collections made under different government bureaus and 
by gifts. It is inadequately exhibited in a building that 
cost only $250,000, and, while containing much of value, is 
by no means equal to the national museums of Europe. 
Under the administration of G. Brown Goode, assistant sec- 
retary of the Smithsonian institution, the organization was 
greatly improved. At present it contains three main depart- 
ments, anthropology, biology and geology. 

The American museum of natural history, incorporated in 
1869, has been provided by the city of New York with a 
fine building which is being continually enlarged, and about 
$100,000 annually is appropriated for maintenance. The 
museum is administered by a board of trustees who are 
responsible for the increase of the collections. About 
$75,000 is spent yearly for expeditions and collections. 
The museum includes a department of public instruction 
which provides frequent and largely attended lectures. 

The Brooklyn institute of arts and sciences, first organized 
in 1823, in addition to an extensive provision for lectures 



887] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 23 

and popular instruction, has a museum, for which a new 
building was recently erected. 

The Field Columbian % museum of Chicago was opened in 
1894. It was established through the gifts of Mr. Marshall 
Field and other citizens of Chicago after the exposition of 
1893, from which it received its building and some of its 
collections. The museum has enjoyed a rapid growth, its 
various departments of natural history and technology are 
well established, and it has begun several series of publica- 
tions contributing to different departments of science. 

There is a State museum at Albany, N. Y., but the muse- 
ums at Washington, New York and Chicago are the only 
important independent institutions. There are, however, 
several museums conducted by societies and universities. 
Of the former the museums of the Academy of natural sci- 
ences of Philadelphia, of the Boston society of natural his- 
tory and of the San Francisco academy of sciences have 
already been mentioned. Harvard university possesses the 
most extensive academic museums, including the Museum 
of comparative zoology, founded by Agassiz, and the Pea- 
body museum of archaeology and ethnology. Yale univer- 
sity has in its Peabody museum one of the most important 
collections of paleontology in the world. The University 
of Pennsylvania has good archaeological and other collec- 
tions. The recently-established commercial museums of 
Philadelphia represent a departure new to America, while 
the Army medical museum at Washington is an important 
institution, liberally supported by the government. 

The United States possesses several of the greatest 
astronomical observatories of the world. The three most 
important are associated with universities, but are used 
exclusively for research, not for instruction. These are the 
Harvard, Lick and Yerkes observatories. The Harvard 
observatory, founded in 1843, is especially engaged in pho- 
tography and astrophysical research. It has a branch near 
Arequipa, Peru, at an elevation of 8,000 feet, and is affiliated 
with the Blue Hill meteorological observatory. Professor 



24 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [888 

E. C. Pickering is the director, and forty assistants take 
part in the work of the observatory. The Lick observatory, 
established in 1875 by James Lick on Mount Hamilton, 
California, is a department of the University of California. 
Its great telescope (36 inches), at an elevation of 4,449 feet, 
has led to many important discoveries. Professor James E. 
Keeler is the present director. The Yerkes observatory of 
the University of Chicago, situated at Williams Bay, Wis., 
was opened in 1897. It has the largest refracting telescope 
{40 inches) so far made, and, under the direction of Profes- 
sor George E. Hale, promises important work. The United 
States naval observatory at Washington, established in 1845, 
and removed to its present fine building in 1893, has charge 
of the Nautical almanac and the time service, and has car- 
ried out research in various directions. There are special 
observatories at Albany and Geneva, N. Y., and elsewhere, 
and nearly all the larger universities and many of the 
small colleges possess observatories. Among the more 
active of these are those at Princeton, Allegheny, Madison 
and Philadelphia. 

There is no evident reason why there should not be in the 
United States great physical and chemical laboratories cor- 
responding to the astronomical observatories, independently 
endowed, affiliated with universities or under the govern- 
ment, but the time for these institutions appears to have not 
yet come. The United States, however, must follow the 
example set by Germany and less adequately by Great Brit- 
ain and France, and the increasing manufactures and com- 
merce of the country will probably lead to a great develop- 
ment of research in pure and applied physics and chemistry 
during the twentieth century. It should, however, be men- 
tioned that there are under the national government labo- 
ratories and divisions engaged in physical and chemical 
research, in addition to several private laboratories and the 
well-equipped laboratories of the universities. 

The great unexplored regions of the country and the 
importance of its mining interests led early to the establish- 



889] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 25 

ment of geological and topographical surveys under the 
government. The national survey has an extremely efficient 
organization, and is allowed an annual appropriation of over 
$800,000. It co-operates with the surveys established in 
many of the states, which are also liberally supported. 

A botanical garden was begun in Philadelphia by John 
Bartram in 1728, and is still maintained somewhat as origi- 
nally planned. A second garden was established in New 
York city at the beginning of the century by David Hosack, 
of Columbia university. It became at one time the prop- 
erty of the state, but was not continued. Nearly a hundred 
years later a great botanical garden has been established 
in New York city in affiliation with Columbia university. 
The city has set aside in Bronx park, 250 acres of land — 
about equal to the area of the Royal botanic gardens at 
Kew — and liberal sums for construction and equipment 
have been provided from public funds and by private gifts. 
The buildings are now being constructed and the grounds 
laid out under the supervision of the director, Dr. N. L. Brit- 
ton. The Missouri botanical garden was established at St. 
Louis in 1889, through a large bequest from Henry Shaw. 
It possesses over 600 acres, only part of which is required by 
the garden, while the rest gives an ample endowment. Dr. 
William Trelease is the director. The garden, which is 
affiliated with Washington university, issues annual Reports 
and special Contributions. In addition to a botanical garden 
at Buffalo, established in 1897, several universities possess 
botanical gardens, of which by far the most important are 
the Botanic garden and Arnold arboretum of Harvard uni- 
versity. There are well-arranged gardens, especially for 
teaching purposes, at the University of Pennsylvania, at the 
University of California, at Smith college and at the Michi- 
gan agricultural college. Lastly the botanic gardens and 
the gardens of the U. S. department of agriculture at Wash- 
ington may be mentioned. A vast amount of important 
scientific and economic work in botany, forestry and agri- 
culture is carried out under the auspices of the department, 



26 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS [89O 

and plans are being made for the establishment of great 
botanical gardens at Washington. 

The Zoological society of Philadelphia began the con- 
struction of a zoological garden in Fairmount park in 1872 ; 
the collection of animals has been the best in the United 
States, and scientific research has not been neglected. In 
1874 a flourishing zoological garden was established in Cin- 
cinnati, and San Francisco, Pittsburg and other cities have 
recently secured similar foundations. But the most import- 
ant advance in this direction has been the recent establish- 
ment of great zoological parks in Washington and in New 
York city. The National zoological park was established 
by act of congress in 1889, was provided with about 166 
acres of land and placed under the direction of the Smith- 
sonian institution. The collections are not very extensive, 
but the large area of the park allows the animals to live 
under conditions more nearly natural than is usual in 
zoological gardens. The park is under the scientific direc- 
tion of Dr. Frank Baker. A menagerie has been main- 
tained in Central park, New York city, since i860, but one 
among the notable scientific advances of the city in recent 
years has been the establishment of a zoological society and 
the setting aside by the city in 1897 of 261 acres for a 
zoological park. It is in Bronx park, near the botanical 
gardens, and is being developed with resources almost 
unequalled, under the direction of Mr. W. T. Hornaday, 
with Professor H. F. Osborn of Columbia university as 
chairman of the executive committee. 

Biological laboratories, beginning with Louis Agassiz's 
school at Penikese have enjoyed an important development 
in the United States. These are maintained during the 
summer, usually in affiliation with a university, and like the 
university combine research with instruction. The Marine 
biological laboratory at Woods Holl, Mass., was incorpo- 
rated in 1888, and under the direction of Dr. C. O. Whitman 
has grown continually in size and importance. In the 
laboratory and in the station of the fish commission at 



891] SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS 2*J 

Woods Holl about 100 investigators are engaged each sum- 
mer, a larger number of students of biology, probably, than 
will be found elsewhere in the world. Courses of instruc- 
tion are also given. There are well-organized marine 
laboratories at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, and on the 
Bay of Monterey, California. The former is administered 
by the Brooklyn institute of arts and sciences and is under 
the direction of Dr. Charles B. Davenport. The latter is 
part of Stanford university and is directed by members of 
its faculty. There are at least three important freshwater 
biological stations conducted, respectively, by the University 
of Indiana, the University of Illinois and the Ohio state 
university. Numerous special laboratories have also been 
established, including stations in Bermuda and the Bahamas. 
The establishment of a national board of health has often 
been recommended, but has not as yet been carried into 
effect. There are, however, numerous state and local boards 
which carry on important statistical and experimental inves- 
tigations. We have as yet no well-endowed institutes of 
pathology or bacteriology, but special laboratories are being 
founded in connection with municipalities, hospitals and 
universities. A pathological laboratory has been established 
for New York state, and it may be expected that the near 
future will witness a great increase in institutes of experi- 
mental and preventative medicine. 

There is no previous publication covering the ground of this monograph and 
in its preparation I have been especially indebted to the officers of societies and 
institutions who have supplied the information needed. The most useful publi- 
cations of a general character have been: " Preliminary list of American learned 
and educational societies," in the report of the commissioner of education for 
1893-94; " Catalogue of scientific and technical periodicals," by Dr. H. Carrington 
Bolton, published by the Smithsonian institution; and "Minerva, Jahrbuch der 
gelehrten Welt," published at Strasburg. 



18 

EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 



BY 

BOOKER T. WASHINGTON 

Principal of the Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Alabama 



EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 



I INTRODUCTION 

I could make no more fitting introduction to this mono- 
graph — dealing with a race which has grown from twenty- 
native Africans imported into the country as chattel slaves 
in 1619, to fully 10,000,000 of free men, entitled under the 
federal constitution to all the rights, privileges and immu- 
nities of citizens of the United States, in 1899 — than to 
reproduce here in part the eloquent remarks of President 
William McKinley, made at Chicago, October 9, 1899, show- 
ing in the fewest possible words the national growth in popu- 
lation, in territory and in material wealth, a growth which 
has no parallel in the various history of the human race, 
only comprehending, as it does, a little more than a century 
of national life. President McKinley said : 

" On the reverse side of the great seal of the United 
States, authorized by congress, June 20, 1782, and adopted 
as the seal of the United States of America after its forma- 
tion under the Federal constitution, is the pyramid, signify- 
ing strength and duration. 

" The eye over it and the motto allude to the many signal 
interpositions of Providence in favor of the American cause. 
The date underneath, 1776, is that of the declaration of 
independence, and the words under it signify the beginning 
of a new American era which commences from that date. 
It is impossible to trace our history since, without feeling 
that the Providence which was with us in the beginning, has 
continued to the nation His gracious interposition. When, 
unhappily, we have been engaged in war He has given us 
the victory. 

" Fortunate, indeed, that it can be said we have had no 
clash of arms which has ended in defeat, and no responsi- 
bility resulting from war is tainted with dishonor. In peace 
we have been signally blessed, and our progress has gone 



4 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [896 

on unchecked and even increasing in the intervening years. 
In boundless wealth of soil and mine and forest nature has 
favored us, while all races of men gf every nationality and 
climate have contributed their good blood to make the 
nation what it is. From 3,929,214 in 1790 our population 
has grown to upward of 62,000,000 in 1890, and our esti- 
mated population to-day made by the governors of the states 
is 77,803,241. 

" We have gone from thirteen states to forty-five. We 
have annexed every variety of territory, from the coral reefs 
and cocoanut groves of Key West to the icy regions of 
Northern Alaska — territory skirting the Atlantic, the Gulf 
of Mexico, the Pacific and the Arctic and the islands of the 
Pacific and Caribbean sea — and we have extended still fur- 
ther our jurisdiction to the faraway islands in the Pacific. 
Our territory is more than four times larger than it was 
when the treaty of peace was signed in 1 783. Our indus- 
trial growth has been even more phenomenal than that of 
population or territory. Our wealth, estimated in 1790 
at $462,000,000, has advanced to $65,000,000,000. 

"Education has not been, overlooked. The mental and 
moral equipment of the youth upon whom will in the future 
rest the responsibilities of government have had the unceas- 
ing care of the state and the nation. We expended in 
1897-98 in public education, open to all, $202,115,548; for 
secondary education, $23,474,683 ; and for higher education 
for the same period $30,307,902. The number of pupils 
enrolled in public schools in 1896-97 was 14,652,492, or 
more than 20 per cent of our population. Is this not a pil- 
lar of strength to the republic ? 

" Our national credit, often tried, has been ever upheld. 
It has no superior and no stain. The United States has 
never repudiated a national obligation either to its creditors 
or to humanity. It will not now begin to do either. It 
never struck a blow except for civilization, and has never 
struck its colors. Has the pyramid lost any of its strength ? 
Has the republic lost any of its virility? Has the self- 



897] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 5 

governing principle been weakened ? Is there any present 
menace to our stability and duration ? 

" These questions bring but one answer. The republic is 
sturdier and stronger than ever before. Government by the 
people has been advanced. Freedom under the flag is more 
universal than when the Union was formed. Our steps have 
been forward, not backward. From Plymouth Rock to the 
Philippines the grand triumphant march of human liberty 
has never paused. Fraternity and union are deeply imbed- 
ded in the hearts of the American people. For half a cen- 
tury before the civil war disunion was the fear of men of all 
sections. That word has gone out of the American vocabu- 
lary. It is spoken now only as an historical memory. North, 
south, east and west were never so welded together, and 
while they may differ about internal policies they are all 
for the Union and the maintenance of the integrity of the 
flag." 

II DEVELOPMENT OF POPULAR EDUCATION 

As 'the early efforts to educate the Negroes of the sixteen 
southern states, after the war of the rebellion, in 1865, — 
they were declared no longer to be slaves, but human beings 
with souls to be saved and intellects to be cultivated, to the 
end that they might be the better prepared to discharge the 
serious obligations of manhood and citizenship, — are inti- 
mately connected with the development of the common 
school system of New England, it will be necessary here to 
describe in as brief a manner as possible the growth of pop- 
ular education in those states. If this principle of popular 
education had not been so firmly rooted in the heart and 
conscience of the people of the New England states by the 
Pilgrim fathers, the history of education of the Negroes 
would have been distinctly different and, perhaps, not possi- 
ble at all. The spirit which actuated these sturdy pioneers 
from the old world, who have blazed the way for American 
civil and religious liberty and the development of a system 
of popular education which has come to permeate the entire 
republic — forty-five mighty states, each sovereign in all 



6 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [898 

matters of its internal policy — was prophesied by Bishop 
Berkeley, in the lines that follow, which have endeared 
their author's memory to all lovers of education and liberty 
in America : 

The Muse, disgusted at an age and clime 

Barren of every glorious theme, 
In distant lands now waits a better time 

Producing subjects worthy fame. 

In happy climes, where from the genial sun 

And virgin earth such scenes ensue, 
The force of art by Nature seems outdone, 

And fancied beauties by the true; 

In happy climes, the seat of innocence, 

Where Nature guides and virtue rules, 
When men shall not impose for truth and sense 

The pedantry of courts and schools — 

There shall be sung another golden age, 

The rise of empire and of arts, 
The good and great inspiring epic rage, 

The wisest heads and noblest hearts. 



Westward the course of Empire takes its way; 

The first four acts already past, 
A fifth shall close the drama with the day. 

Time's noblest offspring is the last. 

Our country is now divided into four distinct groups of 
states — the New England, the middle, the southern and 
western states — but it can of truth be said that all of them 
have drawn their theories of education, of theology and 
statesmanship, from the ten states in the middle and New 
England group, especially from the latter. The sixteen 
states in the southern group have not profited so much from 
this source as the nineteen states in the central and western 
group, but they have been influenced in a very marked way 
since the war of the rebellion, and are being more and more 
influenced now, by the work of New England men and 
women engaged in the active work of education among the 
Negroes of the southern states. 

The development of the common-school principle kept 
pace with that of the population in New England from the 



899] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO J 

earliest settlement of the colonies, through the period of the 
revolutionary war, and for some time after the colonies had 
achieved their independence of Great Britain and estab- 
lished the Federal Union. During this period many acade- 
mies and colleges, notably Harvard and Yale, were founded, 
to meet the growing demand for higher and more thorough 
education of the people. But from 18 10 to 1830 there was 
a notable decline in the character, extent and efficiency of 
the public school system in New England. Massachusetts 
and Connecticut had always been foremost in the mainte- 
nance of the system. As far back as 1647 a Massachusetts 
statute " compelled every township of 50 families to estab- 
lish a public school for all children, and every town of 100 
families to set up a grammar school, where youth might be 
fitted for Harvard college." This was the first law ever 
passed by which a self-governing community was authorized 
to offer the elements of knowledge to all children and 
youth. In 1683 every town of 500 families was required to 
sustain two grammar and two writing (or elementary) 
schools. On this broad foundation the original people's 
common school of the colony of Massachusetts Bay stood 
during the one hundred and thirty-eight years of colonial 
life, until the organization of the commonwealth of Massa- 
chusetts, in 1780. 

" The support of the common school through all the 
grades, including the university at Cambridge, was incorpo- 
rated in the constitution of 1780. By a constitutional 
amendment in 1855 it was ordered that no public money 
should be used for the support of the schools of any religious 
sect." 

There was continuous development of the public school 
system in New England in this direction up to 1834, when 
the general school fund of Massachusetts was established. 

Dr. A. D. Mayo, M. A., LL. D., among the most reliable 
and popular authorities on educational subjects in the United 
States, from whom I have quoted in the preceding para- 
graphs, says further : 



8 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9OO 

14 It is plain from this brief record that the American com- 
mon school was as practically organized in all essential 
respects in 1837 as to-day, when the state assumed addi- 
tional responsibility by establishing the first board of edu- 
cation, of which Horace Mann became the first secretary. 
This fact disposes of the statement, somewhat industriously 
propagated, that Horace Mann virtually created the present 
common school system of the country by his administration 
of twelve years as secretary of the Massachusetts board of 
education, from 183710 1849. There was, doubtless, ample 
need that Mann and his illustrious group of co-workers 
should accomplish the reformation of the public schools of 
that day. But the foundation had been laid, and there was 
no call for the destruction of anything ; only for the return 
to the original habit of town supervision, additional legal 
authorization of all that then existed, and especially the 
waking of the people to the call of the new time for the 
more vital and generous support of their own system of 
public education, reorganized according to the improved 
methods of a progressive age. In nothing was the educa- 
tional statesmanship of Horace Mann more evident than in 
his immediate grasp of the solution, his estimate of the 
points of attack, and his commanding influence over the fore- 
most public men and wise manipulation of the legislature 
of the commonwealth during his entire administration." 

The honors which belong to Horace Mann, as head of 
the educational system of Massachusetts, in awakening 
among the people renewed interest in their common 
schools, and in securing such legislation as was necessary to 
place the system upon an effective and assured foundation, 
were shared by some of the best and ablest men in the com- 
monwealth. Their combined enthusiasm and labors aroused 
popular interest in the cause of public education throughout 
the New England and the middle states, which gradually 
spread to the splendid states of the western group. 

What Horace Mann accomplished in the public school 
system of Massachusetts Henry Barnard accomplished in 



90l] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 9 

perfecting the systems of Connecticut and Rhode Island, 
both of which he was instrumental in reorganizing and per- 
fecting. The great republic has produced no two men 
whose life work has wrought more for national education, 
and, therefore, for national strength, than that of Horace 
Mann and Henry Barnard. 

But, strangely enough, little provision was made in this 
great and far-reaching revival in these free states, from 1830 
to i860, for public school education for the children of those 
who were termed in those days " free people of color," 
although the anti-slavery contest, which was to end in the 
war of the rebellion, and its sequence of inestimable bene- 
fits to all the people, the bondsman and the free man, was 
in its height during this educational revival which was to 
give new life and energy to the republic. The Negro's social 
and political status in the free states was of the most unsat- 
isfactory sort. In the matter of educational and religious 
instruction he had, in a large measure, to shift for himself, 
and in many localities, when he did this, the hoodlum element 
of the white population molested and terrorized Tiim at its 
pleasure, in some instances wrecking and destroying the 
modest schools he or his friends had provided for his bene- 
fit. But what he did for himself and what his friends did 
for him in the matter of education during the trying years 
preceding the war of the rebellion, will be more extensively 
related under the next heading of this monograph. What 
relation the labors of Horace Mann and Henry Barnard sus- 
tained to the inauguration of public education in the sixteen 
southern states after the war will be seen when we come to 
treat of that phase of the subject. 

Ill EDUCATION OF NEGROES BEFORE i860 

It was the general policy of the sixteen slave-holding 
states of the south to prohibit by fine, imprisonment and 
whipping the giving of instruction to blacks, mulattoes or 
other descendants of African parentage, and this prohibition 
was extended in most of the slave states to " free persons of 
color " as well as to slaves. 



IO EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9O2 

But it has been the general policy of the slave system in 
all ages to keep the slaves in ignorance as the safest way to 
perpetuate itself. In this respect the American slave sys- 
tem followed the beaten path of history, and thus furnished 
the strongest argument for its own undoing. The ignorance 
of the slave is always the best safeguard of the system of 
slavery, but no such theory could long prevail in a democ- 
racy like ours. There were able and distinguished men 
among the slaveholders themselves who rebelled against the 
system and the theories by which it sought to perpetuate 
itself. Such southern men as Thomas Jefferson, Henry 
Clay, Cassius M. Clay, and hundreds of others, never became 
reconciled to the system of slavery and the degradation of 
the slave. 

The general character of the laws enacted on this subject 
by the slave states can be inferred from the following law, 
passed by the state of Georgia in 1829 : 

" If any slave, Negro, or free person of color, or any white 
person shall teach any slave, Negro or free person of color 
to read or- write either written or printed characters, the said 
free person of color or slave shall be punished by fine and 
whipping, at the discretion of the court ; and if a white per- 
son so offend, he, she or they shall be punished with a fine 
not exceeding $500 and imprisonment in the common jail, 
at the discretion of the court." 

There were no laws in the slave code more rigidly 
enforced than those prohibiting the giving or receiving 
instruction by the slaves or "free persons of color." And 
yet in nearly all the large cities of the southern states — 
notably in Charleston, Savannah and New Orleans — there 
were what were styled " clandestine schools," where such 
instruction was given. Those who maintained them and 
those who patronized them were constantly watched and 
often apprehended and " beaten with many stripes," but the 
good work went on in some sort until i860, when the war 
that was to be " the beginning of the end " of the whole sys- 
tem of slavery, put a stop to all such effort for the time being. 



9O3] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO II 

There is no more heroic chapter in history than that 
which deals with the persistence with which the slaves and 
" free persons of color " in the slave states sought and 
secured a measure of intellectual and religious instruction ; 
for they were prohibited from preaching or receiving relig- 
ious instruction except by written permit and when at least 
five " white men of good reputation " were present at such 
gatherings. But there has never been a time in the history 
of mankind when repressive laws, however rigidly enforced, 
could shut out the light of knowledge or prevent communion 
with the Supreme Ruler of the universe by such as were 
determined to share these noblest of human enjoyments. 
True, only a few, a very few, of the blacks and " free people 
of color " were able to secure any appreciable mental 
instruction ; but the fact that so many of them sought it 
diligently in defiance of fines and penalties is worthy of 
notice and goes far towards explaining the extraordinary 
manner in which those people crowded into every school 
that was opened to them after the war of the rebellion had 
swept away the slave system and placed all the children of the 
republic upon equality under the Federal constitution. Nor 
was this yearning for mental instruction spasmodic ; thirty- 
four years after the war all the school houses, of whatever sort, 
opened for these people are as crowded with anxious pupils as 
were the modest log school houses planted by New England 
men and women while the soldiers of the disbanded armies of 
the north and south were turning their faces homeward. A 
race so imbued with a love of knowledge, displayed in 
slavery and become the marvel of mankind in freedom, must 
have reserved for it some honorable place in our national 
life which God has not made plain to our understanding. 
In His own good time He will make plain His plans and 
purposes with regard to this people who were allowed to 
serve an apprenticeship of 250 years of slavery in a demo- 
cratic republic. 

In the free states of the north very little more provision 
was made, as late as 1830, by the state for the education of 



12 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [904 

the Negro population than by the slave states. There was 
no prohibition by the state against such instruction, but 
there was a very pronounced popular sentiment against it, 
when prosecuted by benevolent corporations and individuals. 
In 1833 the Connecticut legislature enacted the following 
black law, for the purpose of suppressing a "school for 
colored misses" which Miss Prudence Crandall had been 
forced to open in self-defense, at Canterbury : 

" Whereas, attempts have been made to establish literary 
institutions in this state for the instruction of colored per- 
sons beloneine to other states and countries, which would 
tend to the great increase of the colored population of the 
state, and therefore to the injury of the people ; therefore, 

" Be it enacted, etc., that no person shall set up or estab- 
lish in this state any school, academy, or other literary insti- 
tution for the instruction or education of colored persons, 
who are not inhabitants of this state, or harbor or board, 
for the purpose of attending or being taught or instructed 
in any such school, academy or literary institution, any col- 
ored person who is not an inhabitant of any town in this 
state, without the consent in writing, first obtained, of a 
majority of the civil authority, and also the selectmen of the 
town, in which such school, academy or institution is situ- 
ated, etc. 

" And each and every person who shall knowingly do any 
act forbidden as aforesaid, or shall be aiding or assisting 
therein, shall for the first offense forfeit and pay to the 
treasurer of this state a fine of $100, and for the second 
offense $200, and so double for every offense of which he or 
she shall be convicted ; and all informing officers are required 
to make due presentment of all breaches of this act." 

The cause of this law was the acceptance by Miss Cran- 
dall of a young colored girl into her select school for young 
ladies. The parents of the white students insisted upon the 
dismissal of Miss Harris, the bone of contention, but Miss 
Crandall refused to do so, when the white students were 
withdrawn. Miss Crandall then announced that she would 



905] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 1 3 

open her school for "young ladies and little misses of color." 
The people of Canterbury protested against this course, and 
persecuted legally and otherwise Miss Crandall and her 20 
pupils. When they found that they could not intimidate 
the brave woman the legislature was appealed to, and the law 
I have quoted was enacted. Under it Miss Crandall was 
arrested and placed in the common jail. The following day 
she was bailed out by Rev. Samuel J. May and others. The 
case was tried three times in the inferior courts, and was 
argued on appeal before the court of errors, July 22, 1834. 
The court reserved its decision and has not yet rendered it. 
Several attempts were made to burn Miss Crandall's house, 
and finally, September 9, 1834, about 12 o'clock at night, 
" her house was assaulted by a number of persons with 
heavy clubs and iron bars, and windows were dashed to 
pieces. 1 The school work was abandoned after this upon 
the advice of Rev. Mr. May and other friends. The obnox- 
ious law was repealed in 1838. 

All this sounds rather odd when it is remembered that the 
'citizens of no state in the republic have contributed as many 
of their sons and daughters to the educational work among 
the Negroes of the south since the war, with the possible 
exception of Massachusetts, as Connecticut, and that two of 
her citizens, John F. Slater and Daniel Hand, contributed 
each the princely sum of one million dollars for the educa- 
tion of the Negroes of the southern states. Surely this all 
indicates one of the most remarkable revolutions in the pub- 
lic opinion of a state of which we have any record. 

Schools established for the education of Negro youth were 
assaulted and wrecked in other free states, but the good work 
steadily progressed. Private schools sprang up in all the mid- 
dle and New England states, Pennsylvania, New York and 
Massachusetts leading in the work, their white citizens con- 
tributing largely to their support. There were many of 
these schools, some of them of splendid character, in Bos- 
ton, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, Washington and 

1 Williams' History of the Negro race, vol. IV, p. 156. 



14 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9°6 

Cincinnati. They were gradually absorbed into the public 
school system, and none of them now exist in an independ- 
ent character, except the Institute for colored youth at Phila- 
delphia, Lincoln university, in Chester county, and Avery 
institute at Allegheny City, all in Pennsylvania. 

In 1837 Richard Humphreys left $10,000 by will, with 
which the Institute for colored youth was started, thirty 
members of the Society of Friends forming themselves into 
an association for the purpose of carrying out the wishes 
and plans of Mr. Humphreys. A remarkable feature of the 
constitution adopted by the trustees, in view of the present 
consideration of the subject by those concerned in Negro 
education, is the following preamble : 

" We believe that the most successful method of elevating 
the moral and intellectual character of the descendants of 
Africa, as well as of improving their social condition, is to 
extend to them the benefits of a good education, and to 
instruct them in the knowledge of some useful trade or busi- 
ness, whereby they may be enabled to obtain a comfortable 
livelihood by their own industry ; and through these means 
to prepare them for fulfilling the various duties of domestic 
and social life with reputation and fidelity, as good citizens 
and freemen." 

The measure of progress which has been made in public 
opinion and in the educational status of the Negro race in 
the middle and New England states can easily be estimated 
by the fact that as recently as 1830 no Negro could matricu- 
late in any of the colleges and other schools of this splendid 
group of states, and that now not one of them is closed 
against a black person, except Girard college at Philadel- 
phia, whose founder made a perpetual discrimination against 
people of African descent in devising his benefaction ; that 
Negro children stand on the same footing with white chil- 
dren in all public school benefits ; that the separate school 
system has broken down entirely in the New England states 
and is gradually breaking down in the middle states, New 
Jersey and Pennsylvania being the only states in the latter 



907] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO I 5 

group which still cling to the principle ; and that in many 
of the public schools of both groups of states Negro teach- 
ers are employed and stand upon the same footing as 
white teachers. Indeed, Miss Maria L. Baldwin, an accom- 
plished black woman, is principal of the Agassiz school, at 
Cambridge, Mass., and in the large corps of teachers 
under her, not one of them, I believe, is a member of her 
own race. 

All this is a very long stride from the condition of the 
public mind in the middle and New England states when 
Negro children were not allowed to attend any public school 
or college and when a reputable white woman was perse- 
cuted, jailed and her property destroyed, in 1834, for accept- 
ing a young colored woman into her select school. This 
remarkable change in public sentiment argues well for the 
future of the Negro race and for the republic, which for 
more than a century has agonized over this race problem, 
and is still anxious about it in the sixteen southern states, 
where a large majority of the Negroes reside and will, in all 
probability, continue to reside for all time to come. 

IV PUBLIC SCHOOL EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH AFTER THE WAR 

Dr. A. D. Mayo, M. A., LL.D., one of the best authori- 
ties on educational matters in the United States, says that 
" it is still a favorite theory of a class of the representatives 
of the higher university and college education to proclaim 
the invariable legitimate descent of the secondary and even 
elementary schooling of the people always and everywhere 
from this fountain head," the southern states, and that, " in 
one sense, this assertion is ' founded on fact.' " But, although 
most of the southern states were committed to the theory 
of public education, the system of slavery stood in the way 
of the development of the theory. Popular education and 
slavery, like oil and water, will not mix. The educational 
energy of the south expanded rather along academic and 
collegiate than common school lines. The slave-holding 
aristocracy drew the social line against the poor whites as 



1 6 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [908 

well as the slave blacks, and while dooming the latter to 
mental darkness by stringent laws, rigidly enforced, the same 
result was accomplished in the case of the former by the 
steady development of the old English theory of academy 
education, chartered for the most part by the state but sup- 
ported almost wholly by their patrons, and therefore inacces- 
sible to the children of the poor whites. It was due to this 
fact that so very large a percentage of the southern white 
population figured in the first census after the war of the 
rebellion as illiterate and so figure to a large extent even 
to-day, twenty-nine years after the beneficent operation of 
the public school system in all of the states of the south. 

If the south, because of the existence of the slave system 
more than anything else, drifted away from the theory of 
public school education, prior to i860, it has nobly rectified 
its mistake since 1870. Upon this point Dr. Mayo says, 
speaking of Virginia, which has always set the pace for her 
sister states of the south — and especially in the matter of 
education, under the leadership of Dr. W. H. Ruffner (from 
1870 to 1882), who has been appropriately styled the Horace 
Mann of the south : 

" But the condition of the educational destitution in which 
the state found itself in 1865, in the hour of its dire extrem- 
ity, was the logical result of the narrow English policy it 
has pursued in this as in other directions ; and, in 1870, the 
cry went up, from the sea sands to the most distant recesses ■ 
of the western mountains, for the establishment of the 
American people's common school. 

" In nothing has the really superior class of Virginia more 
notably declared its soundness, persistence, and capacity to 
hold fast to a great idea than in the way in which it stood 
by the educational ideas of Jefferson through the-one hun- 
dred turbulent years from the outbreak of the war of the. 
revolution to the inauguration of the people's common 
school in 1870." 

As it was with Virginia, so it was with the other southern 
states. A revival was begun in public or common school 



909] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO I 7 

education, in 1870, which is still in progress, such as swept 
over New England and the middle states from 1830 to i860. 
Broken in fortune and bowed with defeat in a great civil 
war, the south pulled itself together as a giant rouses from 
slumber and shakes himself and began to lay the basis of a 
new career and a new prosperity in a condition of freedom 
of all the people and in the widest diffusion of education 
among the citizens through the medium of the common 
schools. Perhaps no people in history ever showed a more 
superb public spirit and self-sacrifice under trying circum- 
stances than the people of the south have displayed in the 
gradual building up of their public school system upon the 
ruins of the aristocratic academy system. The work had to 
be done from the ground up, from the organization of the 
working force to the building of the school houses and the 
marshalling of the young hosts. The work has required 
in the aggregate, perhaps, the raising by taxation of 
$514,922,268, $100,000,000 having been expended in main- 
taining the separate schools for the Negro race. This must 
be regarded as a marvelous showing when the impoverished 
condition in which the war left the south in 1865 is consid- 
ered. But it is a safe, if a time-honored saying, that "where 
there is a will there is a way." The southern people found 
a way because they had a will to do it ; and it is not too 
much to claim that the industrial prosperity which the south 
is now enjoying is intimately connected with the effort and 
money expended in popular education since 1870. 

The statistical tables will show more eloquently than could 
be done by words the growth of the public school system in 
the southern states since 1870. These tables are furnished 
at the conclusion of the monograph, together with other 
tables showing the growth in other directions in secondary, 
academic, collegiate and industrial education. 

It is interesting to note that the total enrollment of the 
sixteen southern states and the District of Columbia for the 
year 1896-97 was 5,398,076, the number of Negro children 
being 1,460,084; the number of white children 3,937,992. 



1 8 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9IO 

The estimated number of children in the south from 5 to 18 
years of age was 8,625,770, of which 2,816,340 or 32.65 per 
cent were children of the Negro race, and 5,809,430 or 67.35 
per cent were white children. The number of Negro children 
enrolled was 51.84 per cent of the Negro population and 
67.79 °f the white population. When the relative social and 
material condition of the former is contrasted with that of 
the latter, it must be admitted that the children of the 
former slaves are treading closely upon the heels of the 
children of the former master class in the pursuit of knowl- 
edge as furnished in the public school system. 

During the year 1896-97 it is estimated that $31,144,801 
was expended in public school education in the sixteen 
southern states and the District of Columbia, of which, it is 
estimated, $6,575,000 was expended upon the Negro schools. 

Since 1870 it is estimated that $514,922,268 have been 
expended in the maintenance of the public school system of 
the southern states, and that at least $100,000,000 have been 
expended for the maintenance of the separate public schools 
for Negroes. The total expenditure for each year and the 
aggregate for the twenty-seven years, as well as the common 
school enrollment of white and colored children for each 
year since 1876 are shown in table 2 at the end of the 
monograph. 

The significance of the facts contained in the two fore- 
going paragraphs will be appreciated by Europeans as well 
as Americans. The fact that 2,816,340 children of former 
slaves were in regular attendance in the public schools of the 
late slave-holding states of the south for the year 1896-97, 
and that $6,575,000 was expended for their maintenance, 
gathered entirely from public taxation and funds for educa- 
tional purposes controlled by the states, should be regarded 
as the strongest arguments that could be presented to 
Americans or to foreigners to prove that the race problem 
in the United States is in satisfactory process of solution. 
That there is grave doubt at home and abroad upon this 
subject I freely acknowledge ; but judging entirely from 



91 i] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO T9 

such facts as are here recited, and from observation in the 
black belt covering a period of eighteen years, I am free to 
say I have no doubts whatever as to the ultimate outcome. 
The people of the southern states, the old slave-holding class, 
have not only accepted in good faith the educational burden 
placed upon them, in the addition of 8,000,000 of people to 
their citizenship, but they have discharged that burden in a 
way that must command the admiration of the world. 
That my own people are discharging their part of the obli- 
gation is shown in the statistics of school attendance I have 
given, and in the further fact that it is estimated they have 
amassed since their emancipation $300,000,000 of taxable 
property. While this may seem small as a taxable value as 
compared to the aggregate of taxable values in the southern 
states, it is large, indeed, when the poverty of the Negro 
race in 1865, with all the advantages and disadvantages of 
slave education and tradition to contend with, are consid- 
ered. When a race starts empty-handed in the serious busi- 
ness of life, what it inclines to and amasses in a given period 
is valuable almost wholly as a criterion upon which to base 
a reasonable deduction as to its ultimate future. 

In all matters affecting my race and its future in the 
United States, I indulge an optimism which I endeavor to 
keep within the bounds of reasonable hopefulness. I have 
this faith because of the facts in the situation, because I 
have faith in the possibilities of my race and in the humanity 
and self-interest of my white fellow-citizens, not only of the 
south, but of the north and the west as well, and because 
as a historical fact social revolutions seldom if ever go back- 
wards. The Negro race is compelled to go forward in the 
social scale because it is surrounded by forces which will not 
permit it to go backwards without crushing the life out of 
it, as they crushed the life out of the unassimilable aborigi- 
nal Indian races of North America. In this matter of sta- 
tistics I have presented, it is clearly to be seen that the 
Negro race, in its desire for American education, possesses 
the prime element of assimilation into the warp and woof of 



20 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [912 

American life, and if its desire for the Christian religion be 
added we have the three prime elements of homogenous 
citizenship as defined by Prof. Aldrini, viz. : Habitat, lan- 
guage and religion. 

It seems well to me to say this much, adduced from the 
statistics of common school education in the late slave states 
of the sixteen southern states and the District of Columbia, 
where the bulk of the Negro people reside, as a logical con- 
clusion in a problematical situation, concerning which many 
wise men are disposed to indulge a pessimism which con- 
fuses them as well as those who have to deal immediately 
with the perplexing condition of affairs. I submit that the 
common school statistics of the southern states leave no 
room for doubt as to the ultimate well-being of the Negroes 
residing in those states. 

V GROUND WORK EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH 

In the preceding chapter the extraordinary development 
of the public school system of the sixteen southern states 
and the District of Columbia has been hastily recorded 
from 1870 to 1896-97. It is a record worthy of the proud 
people who made it, — people who have from the foundation 
of the republic been resourceful, courageous, self-reliant ; 
rising always equal to any emergency presented in their new 
and trying circumstances, surrounded on every side, as they 
were, by a vast undeveloped territory, and by a hostile 
Indian population, and fatally handicapped by a system of 
African slavery, which proved a mill stone about the neck of 
the people until it was finally abolished, amid the smoke and 
flame and death of a hundred battles, in 1865. There are 
none so niggardly as to deny to the southern people the full 
measure of credit which they deserve for the splendid spirit 
with which they put aside their prejudices of more than two 
centuries against popular common school education on the 
one hand, and their equally prescriptive prejudice against 
the education of the Negro race under any circumstances on 
the other. Few if any people in the various history of man- 



913] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 21 

kind have so completely overcome two such prejudices. On 
this point Dr. Mayo says : 

" Almost one hundred years ago young Thomas Jefferson 
drew up a scheme for the education of the people of Vir- 
ginia, which, had it been adopted, would have changed the 
history of that and of every southern state and the nation. 
He proposed to emancipate the slaves and fit them, by indus- 
trial training, for freedom ; to establish a free school for 
every white child in every district of the colony ; to support 
an academy for boys within a day's horseback ride of every 
man in the Old Dominion, and to crown all with a univer- 
sity, unsectarian in religion, elective in its curriculum, teach- 
ing everything necessary for a gentleman to know. This 
plan received the indorsement of many of the most eminent 
men of the day, and exalts the fame of Jefferson as an edu- 
cator even higher than his reputation as a statesman." 

All that Jefferson dreamed and outlined for the people of 
Virginia and of the south has been more than accomplished 
for both races in Virginia and in the south. The possibili- 
ties of a common school, collegiate and industrial education 
have been placed in easy reach of all the people, and the 
people are justifying the splendid faith of the Sage of Mon- 
ticello by the earnestness with which they are taking advan- 
tage of the opportunities provided for them by the states 
and a munificent Christian philanthropy — a philanthropy 
which has given fully $40,000,000 of money and thousands 
of devoted men and women teachers to illuminate the men- 
tal darkness generated by the system of slavery. Surely no 
better monument than this philanthropy could be erected to 
perpetuate the memory of Horace Mann and Henry Bar- 
nard, in relighting the fires of popular education in the mid- 
dle and New England states, for without their labors and 
sacrifices in this cause that philanthropy would not have 
been possible. Truly, 

"God moves in a mysterious way 
His wonders to perform ; 
He plants his footsteps in the sea 
And rides upon the storm." 



22 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9H 

But the public school system of the southern states had to 
have other and more substantial foundation than was offered 
at the close of the war of the rebellion, in 1865, by the 
academy and college system which had been fostered and 
developed as best adapted to a social condition whose cor- 
ner stone was the slave system. Without this foundation, 
firmly and wisely laid in the fateful years from 1865 to 1870, 
by the initiative of the Federal government, magnificently 
sustained by the philanthropy and missionary consecration 
of the people of the New England and middle states, the 
results which we have secured in the public school sys- 
tem of the south from 1870 to the present time would not 
have been possible. All the facts in the situation sustain 
this view. 

It is creditable to the people of the New England and 
middle states that they, who had been engaged for four 
years in a Titanic warfare with their brethren of the south- 
ern states, should enter the southern states in the person of 
their sons and daughters, and with a voluntary gift of 
$40,000,000, or more, to plant common schools and acad- 
emies and colleges, in the devastation wrought by the civil 
war, upon the sites where the slave auction block had stood 
for 250 years, thereby lifting the glorious torch of knowl- 
edge in the dense mental darkness with which the slave sys- 
tem had sought to hedge its power ; nor is it less creditable 
that the southern people accepted this assistance and builded 
upon it a public school system which promises to equal that 
in any of the other sections of the republic. 

In anticipation of the condition of affairs that would arise 
when hostilities should cease, as early as the spring of 1865, 
before the war was over, an act was passed by congress pro- 
viding for the relief of the destitute of the south. The act 
was entitled " an act to establish a bureau for the relief of 
freedmen and refugees." May 20, 1865, Major-General O. 
O. Howard was appointed commissioner of the Freedmen's 
bureau. General Howard, — who founded the institution 
which bears his name at Washington and gave it a princely 



915] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 23 

endowment, 1 — "gave," says the historian Williams, "great 
attention to the subject of education ; and after planting 
schools for the freedmen throughout a greater portion of 
the south, in 1870, five years after the work was begun, he 
made a report. It was full of interest. In five years there 
were 4239 schools established, 9,307 teachers employed, and 
247,333 pupils instructed. In 1868 the average attendance 
was 89,396, but in 1870 it was 91,398, or 79 3-4 per cent of 
the total number enrolled. The emancipated people sus- 
tained 1324 schools themselves, and owned 592 school 
buildings. The Freedmen's bureau furnished 654 buildings 
for school purposes." 

In 1879, according to the same authority, "there were 74 
high and normal schools, with 8,147 students, and 61 inter- 
mediate schools, with 1,750 students in attendance. In 
doing this great work, — for buildings, repairs, teachers, etc., 
— $1,002,896.07 was expended. Of this sum the freedmen 
raised $200,000. This was conclusive proof that emancipa- 
tion was no mistake." 

Mr. Williams says further (p. 393) that it appears from 
the reports of the Freedmen's bureau that the earliest school 
for freedom was opened by the American missionary associ- 
ation, at Fortress Monroe, Va., September, 1861, and before 
the close of the war Hampton and Norfolk were leading 
points where educational operations were conducted ; but 
after the cessation of hostilities teachers were sent from the 
northern states and schools for freedmen were opened in all 
parts of the south. During the five years of its operations 
the bureau made a total expenditure of $6,513,955.55. No 
money was ever more wisely or beneficently expended. 
While a goodly portion of it was expended in food and 
clothing, and the like, for the destitute freedmen, by far the 
most of it went into school houses and into the salaries of 
school teachers, and finally became the basis if not the 
inspiration of the public school system of the southern 
states ; it certainly did become the inspiration and the 

1 History of the Negro race, p. 385. 



24 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [916 

foundation of the 178 schools for secondary and higher edu- 
cation which exist to-day independently of the public school 
system or of state control, although many of them are 
recipients of state assistance. 

While the Federal government was planting these schools 
among the freedmen, the people of the middle and New 
England states were sending thousands of dollars into the 
south and sending an army of devoted men and women to 
back up and carry forward the educational work among the 
freed people. In the extent of it, it was and it continues 
to be the most striking example of Christian brotherhood 
and benevolence in the annals of mankind. Through the 
agency of the Federal government and northern philanthropy, 
schools for the freed people were planted everywhere, and 
grew and prospered, and continue to grow and prosper, as 
such schools never have done before. 

Writing on this subject in the Southern workman (Janu- 
ary, 1898), the organ of the Hampton institute, T. Thomas 
Fortune said : 

"It is true that the public and private interest which 
aroused the north especially, to the importance of lifting 
into the glorious sunlight of knowledge the great mass of 
Afro-Americans who had so long stumbled and fallen and 
grovelled in the darkness of ignorance and superstition 
and immorality, with which the institution of slavery was 
compelled to hedge itself about in order to insure existence, 
has no parallel in the history of mankind. We seek in vain 
for philanthropy so instant and generous and continuous, 
and for missionary spirit so noble and capable and self- 
sacrificing, as that which answered the Macedonian cry that 
came out of the log cabins of the south, 

" 'When the war drums throbbed no longer, and the battle flags were furled, 
In the parliament of man, the federation of the world.' " 

" And what a herculean task was theirs ! The New Eng- 
land men and women who went into the waste places of the 
south, following closely upon the heels of the warlike host 
that stacked their arms at Appomattox court house, formed 



917] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 25 

an army as heroic as ever went forth under the standard of 
the cross to 'redeem the human mind from error.' No 
wealth could have purchased the service and the sacrifice 
they undertook for God and humanity, and no memorial of 
affection or granite shaft can ever adequately commemorate 
their works. There are some services and sacrifices which it 
is impossible to reward. These evangels went into a hostile 
country, armed with Puritan faith and New England culture, 
and by singleness of purpose and gentleness of character 
disarmed the prejudice of the whites and won the respect 
and confidence of the suspicious blacks, who had been edu- 
cated in the school of slavery to distrust all Greeks, even 
those bearing gifts. But in the progress of time all this 
was changed, and prejudice and suspicion were transformed 
into respect and confidence. 

" What have been the results ? After thirty years of 
effort there are 25,615 Afro-American teachers in the 
schools of the south, where there was hardly one when the 
work began ; some 4,000 men have been prepared, in part or 
in whole, for the work of the Christian ministry, and a com- 
plete revolution has been effected in the mental and moral 
character of Afro-American preachers, a service which no 
one can estimate who is not intimately informed of the tre- 
mendous influence which these preachers exercise every- 
where over the masses of their race ; the professions of law 
and medicine have been so far supplied that one or more 
representatives are to be found in every large community of 
the south, as well as in the north and west, graduates for the 
most part of the schools of the south ; and all over the 
south I have found men engaged in trade occupations whose 
intellects and characters were shaped for the battle of life 
by the New England pioneers who took up the work where 
their soldier brothers laid it down at the close of the war. 
But the influence of these teachers upon the character, the 
home life, of the thousands who are neither teaching, preach- 
ing nor engaged in professional or commercial pursuits, but 
are devoted to the making of domestic comfort and happi- 



26 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9 1 8 

ness for their husbands and children, in properly training 
the future citizens of the republic, was one of the most 
necessary and far-reaching that was exercised, and the one 
which to-day holds out the promise for the best results in 
the years to come." 

It was these New England men and women who labored 
all over the south from 1865 to 1870 who made possible the 
splendid public school results so eloquently depicted in the 
statistical tables given at the end of this monograph. Their 
labors did not end in the field of primary education in 1870 ; 
they remained at their posts until they had prepared the 
25,000 Negroes necessary to take their places. " When shall 
their glory fade ? " And even unto to-day hundreds of them 
are laboring in some one of the 169 schools of secondary 
and higher education maintained for the freed people. 

VI BEQUESTS FOR SOUTHERN EDUCATION 

In the inauguration and development of the educational 
work in the southern states and the District of Columbia 
there have been other potential agencies than those already 
enumerated. It has been shown that the Federal govern- 
ment, operating through the Freedmen's bureau, of which 
Major-General O. O. Howard was commissioner, between 
1865 and 1870 established 4,239 schools, employing 9,307 
teachers, with an enrollment of 247,333 pupils, at a total 
expense of $1,002,896.07, of which the freedmen themselves 
raised $200,000 ; that the American missionary association, 
founded in 1846, was among the first agencies to enter the 
southern educational work, as it has since been the most 
active and effective ; and that the southern states, from 
1870, when they assumed control of the common school sys- 
em, to 1896-97, spent in primary education, $514,922,268, of 
which at least $100,000,000 was devoted to the free educa- 
tion of the slaves. These enormous expenditures (see table 
2) were largely supplemented by private benevolence, esti- 
mated at a total of $40,000,000, much of which went into 
primary school buildings and education, the buildings in 



919] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 2j 

most instances having been gradually relinquished to the 
states. 

As the American missionary association was among the 
first to enter the southern school work, it is proper to give 
it a conspicuous place in this monograph. The extent of its 
operations in the southern field can be inferred from the 
fifty-third annual report of the executive committee (Sep- 
tember 30, 1899). From this report it appears that the 
association has in the southern educational work of second- 
ary and higher education 5 chartered institutions, 45 nor- 
mal and graded schools, 26 common schools, being 76 
schools, with 414 instructors and 1 2,428 pupils. The receipts 
for the current work for the year (1898-99) were 
$297,681.98 ; expenditures, $296,810.84. The total receipts 
for all purposes for the year were $370,963.44, of which 
$71,960.50 is credited to income from the Daniel Hand 
fund. The work of this association has been inestimable. 

At the annual meeting of the American missionary asso- 
ciation, at Providence, R. I., October 23-25, 1888, it was 
announced that Mr. Daniel Hand, of Guilford, Connecticut, 
had given the association $1,000,894.25, in trust, to be 
known as the " Daniel Hand educational fund for colored 
people," the income of which shall be used for the purpose 
of educating needy and indigent colored people of African 
descent, residing, or who may hereafter reside, in the recent 
slave states of the United States." In addition to this 
princely gift Mr. Hand provided that his residuary estate, 
amounting to the sum of $500,000, should be devoted to 
the same purpose, to be disbursed through the association. 
Mr. Hand made his wealth in the south, where he settled in 
Augusta, Ga., in 18 18, and he, therefore, had an intimate 
knowledge of the educational needs of the emancipated peo- 
ple. He was a man of devout nature. 

But the fund which had the most influence upon the devel- 
opment of the primary and secondary education of the south- 
ern states was that of $2,000,000 established by George 
Peabody, of Danvers, Mass. (the first gift of $1,000,000 



28 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9 2 ° 

being made February 7, 1867, the second $1,000,000 being 
added July 1, 1869). In addition, $1,100,000 in bonds, 
indorsed by Mississippi, and $384,000 Florida bonds were 
given to the trustees appointed to administer the trust, but 
these bonds were ultimately repudiated by Mississippi and 
Florida, although both of them were beneficiaries of the 
trust,— Mississippi by $86,878 and Florida by $67,375, fro™ 
1868 to 1897. The general purposes of the trust, as Mr. 
Peabody stated it, in his letter to the sixteen trustees desig- 
nated by him, were that " the income thereof should be 
applied in your discretion for the promotion and encourage- 
ment of intellectual, moral or industrial education of the 
young of the more destitute portions of the southern and 
southwestern states of our union ; my purpose being that 
the benefits intended shall be distributed among the entire 
population, without other distinction than their needs and 
the opportunities of usefulness to them." 

Mr. Peabody laid the foundation of his immense fortune 
in Georgetown, D. C, and Baltimore, from 181 2 to 1837. 
In the latter year he permanently settled in London, Eng- 
land, and began business there, where his benefactions 
equalled those he made in the United States, of which 
the trust fund for educational purposes was the most consid- 
erable, but by no means the only one. Mr. Peabody started 
life as a poor boy, but he had a natural genius for making 
money, and, what is far rarer, as the poor of London and our 
southern states can testify, a natural genius for so devoting 
his wealth to public uses as to accomplish the most good. 

The trustees of the Peabody fund, of which the Hon. 
Robert C. Winthrop was chairman, were particularly for- 
tunate in securing as the first general agent Dr. B. Sears, 
then president of Brown university. In 1848 Dr. Sears had 
succeeded Horace Mann as secretary of the Massachusetts 
board of education and as its executive agent, and served in 
that capacity until 1855, when he was called to the presi- 
dency of his alma mater. He was still president of Brown 
university when called to the work of the Peabody fund, 



92 i] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 29 

April 9, 1867. He had been grounded in the common 
school theories of Horace Mann and Henry Barnard and in 
the work of higher education as president of a great uni- 
versity. He was eminently fitted, therefore, to do much 
towards shaping the public school system of the southern 
states. 

Dr. J. L. M. Curry, the present able general agent of the 
fund, says of Dr. Sears (who died July 6, 1880), in his " His- 
tory of the Peabody fund " (page 67) : 

" The highest commendation of his work is to be found 
in the persuasive, potential influence he exerted in behalf 
of popular education. School superintendents bore their 
strong and cheerful testimony to his rare insight into the 
educational needs of the south, and to his influence in stim- 
ulating to proper and wise action." 

Dr. Curry succeeded Dr. Sears February 2, 1881, and 
with the exception of three years, when he was minister 
plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary to Spain, he has 
been the working force in shaping the policy of the fund to 
the present time. Dr. Curry, — himself a southern man, — 
learned, eloquent, an indefatigable worker, and passionately 
devoted to the highest educational ideas and to the cause of 
southern education, as the representative of fhe Peabody 
fund and the Slater fund, has done equally as much as Dr. 
Ruffner and Dr. Sears in shaping the southern educational 
movement. In speaking of the general effects of the fund, 
Dr. Curry says (History of the Peabody education fund, 

P- 2 5): 

" The fund has been a most potent agency in creating and 

preserving a bond of peace and unity and fraternity between 
the north and the south. It instituted an era of good feel- 
ing ; for the gift, as Mr. Winthrop said, ' was the earliest 
manifestation of a spirit of reconciliation toward those from 
whom we had been so unhappily alienated and against whom 
we of the north had been so recently arrayed in arms.' No 
instrumentality has been so effective in the south in promot- 
ing concord, in restoring fellowship, in cultivating a broad 



30 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [922 

and generous patriotism, and apart from its direct connec- 
tion with schools, it has been an unspeakable blessing in 
cementing the bonds of a lately dissevered union." 

From 1868 to 1897 the income of the fund amounted to 
$2,478,527.13, of which $248,562.25 was expended in main- 
taining the Normal college for whites at Nashville, Tenn., 
and $398,690.88 for scholarships at the same college. The 
remainder was expended in rendering aid to the needy- 
public schools of the south and in stimulating normal and 
industrial education for both races. 

March 4, 1882, Mr. John Fox Slater, of Norwich, Conn., 
created a trust fund of $1,000,000, stating that the "gen- 
eral object which I desire to have exclusively pursued is the 
uplifting of the lately emancipated population of the southern 
states and their posterity by conferring on them the bless- 
ings of Christian education." He declared in the same rela- 
tion : " The disabilities formerly suffered by these people 
and their singular patience and fidelity in the great crisis of 
the nation, establish a just claim on the sympathy and good 
will of humane and patriotic men. I cannot but feel the 
compassion that is due in view of their prevailing ignorance 
which exists by no fault of theirs." 

" But it is not only for their own sakes," Mr. Slater said 
further, " but also for the safety of our common country, in 
which they have been invested with equal political rights, 
and I am desirous to aid in providing them with the means 
of such education as shall tend to make them good men and 
good citizens — education in which the instruction of the 
mind in the common branches of secular learning shall be 
associated with training in just notions of duty toward God 
and man in the light of the Holy Scriptures." 

The fund is administered by a trustee board, and like the 
Peabody fund, composed of some of the most distinguished 
citizens of the republic. The Slater fund is used almost 
exclusively at the present time in promoting industrial edu- 
cation at a number of the largest institutions for colored 
people. 



923] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 3 I 

These princely donations by three private citizens, aggre- 
gating a fund of $4,000,000, have been supplemented by 
millions of dollars more from private citizens which have 
gone to the building up of the educational waste places of 
the south, to which all of the great church denominations 
have contributed, and still contribute, more or less as organ- 
ized bodies. As the outgrowth of all the benefactions and 
effort since 1865 there are now, according to Dr. Mayo, 169 
schools of secondary and higher education in the southern 
states maintained for the Negro people. They are fed con- 
stantly by the common schools, and all the agencies work- 
ing together are fast reducing the ignorance bequeathed as 
a terrible legacy by the slave system to the southern states. 
We shall search history in vain for a parallel to the munifi- 
cence, the Christian charity and the personal sacrifice which 
the people of the great republic have contributed since 1865 
to the education of the lately enslaved people of the Negro 
race. 

VII PRESENT EDUCATIONAL STATUS 

It was natural and to have been expected, after the New 
England men and women who had graduated out of the 
white heat of the high educational enthusiasm created by 
Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, Dr. Sears, and others, from 
1830 to i860, had laid the foundation of the primary edu- 
cation among the emancipated people of the southern states, 
that they would then turn their attention to the secondary 
and higher education of the same people. That is what 
they did. As fast as they prepared young men and women 
to take their places as school teachers (and at the present 
time there are more than 25,000 such teaching in the public 
schools of the south), these New England men and women 
retired from the field as public school teachers. They were 
actuated almost wholly by Christian missionary spirit. They 
heard the loud " Macedonian cry " and responded to it with 
a devotion and self-sacrifice which will always remain one 
of the most luminous and striking pages in missionary 
effort. 



32 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9 2 4 

But there was another and a splendid work for them to 
do in laying the foundation of the secondary and higher 
education as the necessary supplement of the primary 
educational work. At the present time there are 169 such 
schools in the sixteen southern states and the District of 
Columbia. Some of them are magnificent seats of learning ; 
such, for example, as Howard university, at Washington ; 
Atlanta university, at Atlanta ; Fisk university, at Nash- 
ville ; Wiley university, at Marshall, Texas, and the like, so 
that the southern state which has no such school of higher 
learning is poor indeed. And these schools were founded, 
for the most part, and are maintained in the main by north- 
ern philanthropy — a philanthropy of which George Pea- 
body, John F. Slater and Daniel Hand are the most striking 
examples. The money value and the income of these 
schools is set forth in table 8 of the appendix ; while the 
character, teachers and students are set forth in tables 3 to 7 
inclusive. The fact that the income of these 169 schools in 
1896-97 was $1,045,278, that $540,097 of it was derived 
from unclassified sources, that the several states and munic- 
ipalities contributed $271,839, and that the students paid in 
tuition fees $141,262, shows that all the best forces of the 
republic — the state, the Christian philanthropist and the 
grateful beneficiary — are all working harmoniously together 
to prepare the children of the former slaves for the proper 
and high duties of citizenship. The public school system, — ■ 
with 1,460,084 pupils enrolled of Negroes, in 1896-97, as 
against an enrollment of only 571,506 in 1876-77, — is a fix- 
ture and serves as a constant feeder of the 169 schools of 
higher learning. Thus the whole system, it will be seen, of 
primary, secondary and higher education, is in harmonious 
relationship and must grow stronger and stronger every 
year. 

It should not be overlooked, however, that besides the 
splendid advantages offered the Negroes by these 169 schools 
of higher learning, all of the colleges and universities of the 
northern and western states are accessible to Negro students 



925] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 33 

who prefer them, color distinctions not being recognized or 
tolerated in the management of these schools. The white 
colleges and universities of the southern states, like the 
public school system, are conducted rigidly upon lines of 
race separation. 

It was a natural development of the educational effort in 
the southern states that when the schools of secondary and 
higher education had become fixed facts that a desire should 
have grown up for other institutions whose principal object 
should be the industrial education of such of the Negroes 
as desire that sort of education. Of late years industrial 
schools have sprung up all over the southern states, and 
they are growing constantly in favor with the masses, 
because of their economic condition and the growing 
demand for skilled workmen in all avenues of industry. 
In the early days of the educational work of the southern 
states little stress was laid upon the industrial training of 
the people. Mental and moral and religious training was 
considered the all-important thing. Perhaps it was, — to a 
people who had dwelt in mental, moral and religious dark- 
ness from 1620 to 1865. They needed the great light of 
mental, moral and religious truths as a firm and sure foun- 
dation upon which was to be built a structure of technical 
education, out of which should naturally grow the industrial 
and commercial rehabilitation of the people, without which 
there can be no character, no strength, no prosperity in an 
individual or a race. This principle was recognized by the 
30 members of the Society of Friends, who established the 
Institute for colored youth at Philadelphia, in 1837, to which 
reference has already been made. 

The good Friends were very much in advance of their 
time, and a great many good people of both races have not 
caught up with their idea as yet. However, there has been a 
very great and satisfactory awakening all over the republic 
during the past decade, among all races of the population, 
as to the vital importance of technical education. The fact 
that 13,581 Negro students were receiving industrial training 



34 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [926 

in schools of the south, in 1896-97 (see table 7), speaks vol- 
umes, as compared to the 2,108 who were receiving collegiate 
education (see table 3), and the 2,410 who were receiving 
classical instruction (see table 4), and the 1,311 who were 
taking the professional course (see table 6) in the same 
year ; making a total of 5,829 taking the higher education, 
or 7,752 fewer than were taking the industrial course. 
Indeed, the growth of the industrial theory of education 
among Ne'groes in the past decade has not only been 
phenomenal but it is by all odds the most encouraging fact 
in a situation not without its discouraging features. 

It is a rare compliment to one of the wisest and best of 
the New England men who engaged in the southern educa- 
tional work that his theory of industrial training has taken 
such a firm root in a rich soil. This good and wise man 
was General Samuel Chapman Armstrong. While other 
men and women were devoting themselves to the necessary 
work of founding schools of secondary and higher educa- 
tion for the freed people, General Armstrong, in 1868, busied 
himself in founding and developing the Hampton normal 
and agricultural institute at Hampton, Va., which, says the 
historian of the work, " beginning in 1868 with two teachers 
and 15 students in the old barracks left by the civil war, the 
Hampton school has grown, until at the beginning of the 
present year (1899) there were on the grounds 1,000 stu- 
dents. Of these 135 are Indians, representing ten states 
and territories. Of the 80 officers, teachers and assistants, 
about one-half are in the industrial departments. Instead 
of the old barracks there are now fifty-five buildings." 

The Hampton normal and agricultural institute is with- 
out doubt at the present time the center of all that is best, 
wisest and most permanent in the educational development 
of the black man in the south. It is by far the largest and 
most important seat of learning in the country for the 
development of the Negro. It has a large property now 
valued at over half a million of dollars, and has in constant 
operation all the industries by which the colored people find 



927] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 35 

it necessary to make a living. Under the wise supervision 
of Dr. H. B. Frissell, the successor of General Armstrong, 
this institution is constantly growing, broadening and deep- 
ening its influence among the people. The work of the 
Hampton institute has not only resulted in turning the atten- 
tion of the Negro population to the importance of industrial 
education, but has had a marked influence in shaping the 
education of the white south in the same direction. 

It was the constant aim of General Armstrong to educate 
the head, the heart and the hand of the student, to make 
strong school teachers and skilled mechanics and agricul- 
turalists, and his aims have been amply justified by results. 
General Armstrong was born of missionary parents in 
Hawaii. He was educated in this country. He was a 
soldier in the war for the preservation of the union and com- 
manded a regiment of black soldiers. His was a pious and 
lovable nature which delighted to do the Master's work by 
reaching out the hand of assistance to the lowest and most 
needy of the Master's children. 

Out of the Hampton institute has grown the Tuskegee 
normal and industrial institute, located at Tuskegee, Ala., 
in the black belt of the south. The Tuskegee institute has 
grown from a log cabin to an institution possessing 42 build- 
ings with 2,300 acres of land, 88 instructors and about a 
thousand students. It gives instruction in about twenty-six 
different industries, in addition to giving training in aca- 
demic and religious branches. A large number of graduates 
of Tuskegee are turned out every year and are at work in 
various portions of the south as teachers in class rooms, 
instructors in agricultural, mechanical and domestic pursuits. 
Quite a number of these graduates and students cultivate 
their own farms or man their own industrial establishments. 
The property owned by the Tuskegee normal and industrial 
institute is valued at $300,000, and the buildings have been 
very largely built by the labor of the students themselves. 
One rather unique feature of the Tuskegee normal and 
industrial institute is that the institution is wholly officered 



36 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [928 

by members of the Negro race. Aside from Hampton, Tus- 
kegee is one of the largest and most important centers of 
education in the south, especially in the direction of indus- 
trial development. 

The work of the Hampton institute and Tuskegee is not 
only proving itself valuable in showing the rank and file of 
the colored people how to lift themselves up, but it is equally 
important in winning the friendship and co-operation of the 
southern white people. The influence of the young men 
and women turned out from these two institutions, as well as 
from other institutions, is gradually softening the prejudice 
against the education of the Negro, and in many striking 
instances bringing about the active co-operation and help 
of the southern white man in the direction of elevating the 
Negro. 

There have been many other schools than the Tuskegee 
institute founded on the Hampton idea, and the number is 
increasing every year. Nearly all the southern states are 
now maintaining industrial schools not only for the blacks 
but for the whites as well, for the education that is good 
and necessary for the black is equally so for the white boy. 

From the facts and conclusions set forth, hastily withal, 
in this monograph it will readily be seen that from the edu- 
cational point of view the Negro race has, since 1865, taken 
full advantage of its splendid opportunities, and that the 
present affords splendid promise that the future, which so 
many dread, will, in the providence of God, take care of 
itself. 



9 2 9 ] 



EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 



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EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 



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TABLE 2 — Sixteen former slave states and the District of 

Columbia 



1870-71 
1871-72 
1872-73 
1873-74 
1874-75 
1875-76 
1876-77 
1877-78 
1878 79 
1879-80 
1880-81 , 
1881-82 . 
1S82-83 
1883-84 , 
1884-85 . 
1885-86 . 
1886-87 • 
1887-88 . 
1888-89. 
1889-90 . 
1890-91 . 
1891-92 . 
18Q2-93 . 
1893-94 . 
1894-95 . 
1895-06 . 
1896-97 . 



YEAR 



COMMON SCHOOL ENROLLMENT 



White 



Total. 



1 827 139 

2 034 946 
2 OI3 684 
2 215 674 
2 234 877 
2 249 263 
2 370 IIO 
2 546 448 
2 676 9II 

2 773 145 

2 975 773 

3 no 606 
3 197 830 
3 402 420 
3 570 624 
3 607 549 
3 697 899 
3 835 593 
3 845 414 
3 861 300 

3 937 99 2 



Colored 



571,506 

675 I50 

685 942 

784 709 

802 374 

802 982 

817 240 

I 002 313 

I 030 463 

I O48 659 

I H8 556 

I I40 405 

I 213 O92 

I 296 959 

1 329 549 
1 354 3i6 
1 367 515 
1 424 995 
1 441 282 
1 429 713 
1 460 084 



Expenditures 
(both races) 



$10 385 464 
II 623 238 
II 176 048 

11 823 775 
13 02I 514 

12 033 865 

11 23I 073 

12 O93 09I 
12 174 I4I 

12 678 685 

13 656 814 

15 241 740 

16 363 471 

17 884 558 

19 253 874 

20 208 II3 

20 821 969 

21 8lO 158 

23 171 878 

24 880 I07 

26 690 310 

27 69I 488 

28 535 738 

29 223 546 

29 372 990 

30 729 819 

31 144 801 

$514 922 268 



930 



EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 



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19 

EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 



BY 
WILLIAM N. HAILMANN 

Head of the Department of History and Philosophy of Education 
Cleveland Normal Training School, Cleveland, Ohio 



EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 



INTRODUCTION 

The first successful attempts to colonize America on the 
part of the Anglo-Saxons were made during the first quarter 
of the seventeenth century. Immediately the struggle set 
in between brutal greed and a certain irrepressible spirit of 
fair play on the part of the intruding race in their intercourse 
with the Indians. Greed saw in the Indian a hateful obstacle 
in the way of its advance in the acquisition of territory. 
Fair play, aided by a nascent spirit of broad Christianity 
and genuine philanthropy, emphasized in the Indian his 
essential humanity and labored to lead him, for the sake of 
his own salvation, to a recognition of the fatherhood of God 
and to lift him into a condition that would render him 
worthy of being received as a full equal into the brother- 
hood of man. This struggle is still going on with shifting 
success. Yet, on the whole, humanity and fair play are 
steadily gaining. 

The intellectual and spiritual upheavals of the sixteenth 
century, which had culminated in Bacon and Luther, had 
directed thought to education as the chief reliance in the 
liberation of the race from the trammels of superstition, and 
in leading him out of the worship of physical prowess to the 
recognition of his duty to God and man. Naturally, there- 
fore, those who sought the conversion and uplifting of the 
Indian directed their attention primarily to efforts for his 
education. The very charters, granted to the colonizing 
companies, breathed the hope that their work might bring 
about " the enlargement of God's kingdom among the heathen 
people." 

The present system of Indian education, under the direc- 
tion of the government of the United States, is in no way 
the outcome of a deliberate and carefully-conceived plan on 
the part of Washington officials. It is descended directly 



4 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [94<> 

from the first attempts in Indian education on the part of 
Virginia, and more particularly on the part of New England. 
Here its seeds were planted. From these it derives certain 
inherent, vital principles, rooted in a broad Christianity and 
a fervent philanthropy which have enabled it to withstand 
blights of partisanship, of greed and rapacity on the part of 
spoilsmen, of incompetence on the part of teachers, of race 
prejudice on the part of settlers and other unfavorable con- 
ditions of environment and policy. 

JOHN ELIOT 

A remarkable pioneer work, and of a typical character, 
was done by Rev. John Eliot in Massachusetts. Mr. Eliot: 
was actuated by motives of broadest Christianity and pur- 
est philanthropy. His simple measures were chosen with 
consummate wisdom. In the first place he familiarized 
himself with the language, disposition and character of his 
Indians. Then, by according them the same, he secured 
their confidence and respect and stimulated in their hearts 
reverence and a sincere desire for the industry and thrift, 
the godliness and purity of life, of which New England 
communities afforded the example. Those who would follow 
him he gathered in towns, where he taught them the liberties 
and responsibilities of township government and the devices 
and institutions of civilized life, among which the church 
and the school naturally occupied places of honor. A num- 
ber of "choice Indian youths" he induced to attend English 
schools that they might prepare themselves for missionary 
work as teachers and catechists among their own people. 

He was warmly supported in his work by " the corpora- 
tion for the propagation of the Gospel in foreign parts," by 
the general court of Massachusetts and, particularly, by Mr. 
Daniel Gookins, the official superintendent of the Indians 
in Massachusetts. Mr. Eliot began his work in 1646. In 
1674 there were fourteen towns of " praying Indians" whose 
schools and churches, in the majority of instances, were 
administered by educated natives. At the same time, an 



94 1] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 5 

Indian college had been founded at Cambridge. Yet, in 
due time, this success was swept away by the fears and 
prejudices which developed under the baneful influences of 
the Indian wars. Similar successful work under the direc- 
tion of Revs. John Cotton and Richard Bourne in Plymouth 
colony shared the same fate. 

SERGEANT AND WHEELOCK 

Other memorable efforts in the eighteenth century were 
robbed of their fruits by similar causes, intensified by a num- 
ber of disorganizing factors incident to the revolutionary 
period. Prominent among these is the work of Rev. John 
Sergeant at Stockbridge in Massachusetts and that of Rev. 
Eleazer Wheelock in Connecticut and New Hampshire. 

The work of Mr. Sergeant, which involved the establish- 
ment of day schools, of a boarding school and an experi- 
mental " outing system," was almost ideal in conception, 
but ended with the deportation of his Indians to the west. 
Dr. Wheelock's labors led to the establishment of an effective 
training school and, indirectly, to the creation of Dartmouth 
college " for the education and instruction of youths of the 
Indian tribes in this land in reading, writing, and all parts 
of learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for 
civilizing and christianizing the children of pagans, as well 
as in all liberal arts and sciences, and also of English youths 
and any others." Only the last purpose was destined for 
achievement. 

PERSISTENCE OF SPIRIT OF WORK 

It is interesting to note that, in spite of practically total 
external failure, the spirit and even much of the form of 
these early enterprises persisted. Their impress is observ- 
able to-day in almost every prominent feature of the Indian 
school organization of the United States. 

Among these I would point out the establishment of day 
schools in or near Indian villages or settlements and their 
organization as a means for the domestic and industrial 
uplifting of Indian family and village life, as well as for the 



6 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [942 

instruction of children ;. the establishment of industrial 
boarding schools in territory occupied by Indians, with their 
opportunities for introducing among the young a taste for 
the amenities and refinements, as well as for the duties and 
responsibilities of civilization ; the establishment in civilized 
English-speaking communities of advanced training schools 
for the fuller equipment of "choice Indian youths" for full 
citizenship in white communities or for missionary work in 
the ideals, institutions, and arts of civilization among their 
own people ; the universal stress in all schools upon instruc- 
tion of boys in the arts of husbandry and certain trades and 
of girls in the domestic arts ; the " outing system " which 
places partially educated Indian girls and boys as paid help- 
ers in suitable English-speaking families and affords them 
instruction in the ordinary public schools; the importance 
attached to religious and ethical training. 

SHORTCOMINGS 

On the other hand, it is to be deplored that a number of 
valuable features of the early schools have been abandoned 
and even supplanted by opposite tendencies. Among the 
latter are to be reckoned the unintelligent warfare waged 
against the Indian idiom; the introduction of certain brutali- 
ties of military discipline under the influence of soldiers 
who for a time controlled Indian schools ; an equally unin- 
telligent effort on the part of some schools to wean Indian 
youth from Indian association by throwing contempt upon 
the Indian and by stimulating a feeling akin to hatred of 
Indian family ties ; and a variety of measures and devices 
inspired by a policy of compulsion and repression, rather 
than by a spirit of development and benevolent helpfulness. 

Serious harm came to the government schools from time 
to time from the fact that until 1893 patronage and partisan- 
ship entered as a weighty, perhaps the weightiest, factor in 
the appointment of officers and employees. Thanks to the 
constant vigilance of the Indian rights association, the 
Mohonk conference and a number of other societies earn- 



943] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 7 

estly interested in the welfare of the Indians, these evils are 
steadily yielding. They have been greatly reduced since 
1893 by the application of civil service rules to school 
employees, and it is hoped that in these matters every new 
dawn will bring a better day. 

PERIOD OF INACTION 

Before entering upon a descriptive account of the Indian 
school work of the present day, it is desirable to indicate in 
a few words the successive steps that have led to their 
organization. 

After the revolution, congress and the country as a whole 
were so much absorbed with the duties of self-establishment 
that little heed was paid to Indian education. A number of 
minor appropriations are recorded on the basis of treaties 
with a few tribes, and at a few points missionary zeal con- 
tinued a fitful activity. During the first quarter of the nine- 
teenth century, however, a great religious revival again 
directed general attention to Indian education as a Christian 
and national duty. 

RESUMPTION OF WORK 

Missionary bodies took up the work with renewed zeal. 
Congress responded in 1819 with an appropriation of $10,000 
in addition to certain treaty obligations. In 1820 the presi- 
dent was authorized to apply this sum annually in aid of 
societies and individuals engaged in the education of Indians. 
In 1823 the sum of $80,000 was expended in 21 schools 
maintained by missionary bodies; $12,000 of this amount 
had been contributed by the government. 

In 1825 the number of such schools had risen to 38, the 
entire expenditure for these to $202,000, of which the gov- 
ernment, directly and indirectly, had contributed $25,000. 
In 1848 there were reported in operation 16 manual training 
schools, 87 boarding schools and other schools. 

These schools continued to increase in number and 
efficiency up to 1873. They were under the control of mis- 
sionary bodies with such scanty aid from the government as 



8 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [944 

the small appropriations afforded. Only a few small day 
schools had been established by the government directly 
under treaty provisions. 

GOVERNMENTAL ZEAL 

After this time, however, the government entered upon 
an era of almost feverish activity in the establishment of 
strictly government schools ; first, day schools, then board- 
ing schools and industrial training schools. Congress kept 
pace with this 'zeal in the liberality of its appropriations. 

In 1877 it appropriated for schools, outside of treaty pro- 
visions, $20,000, in 1880 $75,000, in 1885 $992,800, in 1890 
$1,364,568, in 1895 $2,060,695, in 1899 $2,638,390. During 
this period the average attendance rose in similar ratio from 
3,598 in 1877 to 19,648 in 1898. 

The increased appropriations by congress for the educa- 
tion of Indians naturally stimulated a desire on the part of 
the government to control the expenditures directly and in 
detail. Possibly this desire was much enhanced by the fact 
that such expenditure opened to the party in power a rich 
field for patronage. 

At the same time it was discovered that the constitution, 
by implication at least, forbade the appropriation of public 
funds for denominational purposes. Concurrent conclusions, 
unfavorable to government support of missionary schools, 
were further strengthened by the fact that the Roman Catho- 
lic church had gradually outstripped the Protestant mission- 
ary bodies and was absorbing the lion's share of government 
support. 

DECAY OF MISSIONARY EFFORT 

During the first half of the century the Protestant mis- 
sionary organizations had had well nigh a monopoly of gov- 
ernment support ; but, later on, the Roman Catholics had 
wrested from them the preponderance. In 1889 the Catho- 
lic church drew from the appropriations for this purpose 
$347,672, as against $128,518 drawn by Protestant bodies. 
In 1892 these amounts had risen to $394,756 for the Catho- 



945] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 9 

lies and $160,874 for the Protestants. In 1893 the Metho- 
dist Episcopal church withdrew from participation in govern- 
ment aid without, however, abandoning its schools. In 1895 
this example was followed by the Presbyterians and Congre- 
gationalists, in 1896 by the Friends, and in 1897 by the 
remaining Protestant denominations. This left only the 
Catholics in the field with an appropriation of $198,228. 

This process was aided by congress which, in 1894, had 
declared its policy of gradually abandoning all support of 
denominational schools. This policy has since been followed, 
so that in 1899 the appropriation was reduced to $116,862. 

PRESENT ORGANIZATION 

In their present organization the Indian schools under 
government control are designated as day schools, as reser- 
vation boarding schools, non-reservation boarding schools, 
and as industrial and normal training schools. 

Day schools — Day schools are located in Indian villages 
or near Indian camps or settlements. They are, as a rule, 
in charge of a male teacher and his wife, who acts as house- 
keeper, or — more particularly in the pueblos of New Mexico 
and in the Indian villages of Southern California — of a lady 
teacher and an Indian housekeeper. The children spend 
from five to eight hours during five days of the week under 
the care of these employees and return to their homes in the 
evening. At noon they are furnished a substantial luncheon, 
except in the pueblos of New Mexico and in the villages of 
Southern California, where they generally return to their 
homes during the noon recess. 

The instruction is of the simplest character. The children 
are taught to speak, read and write the English language 
within narrow limits, to cipher, to draw and to sing. In 
addition they get some rudimentary notions of geography, 
of natural history and of United States history. The 
methods are borrowed largely from the kindergarten and 
from object teaching. 

Much stress is laid upon habits of cleanliness and order, 



IO EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [94^ 

mutual kindliness and prompt obedience. The boys receive 
some instruction in the use of tools, in gardening and, in 
some instances, in the care of cows. The girls are taught 
sewing, cooking and other arts of housekeeping. 

While day schools, as a rule, accomplish comparatively 
little in conventional school-room work, they achieve much 
in bringing to the Indians among whom they are located, 
the message and desire of better ways of living. The 
school as such serves as a concrete illustration of a civilized 
Christian home which the Indians learn to respect and in an 
appreciable degree to emulate. Where the teacher and 
housekeeper, at the same time, possess the inclination and 
the skill to attract to themselves the older Indians, to secure 
their confidence and to instruct them unobtrusively in the 
simpler arts of thrift and home-making, these schools become 
invaluable factors in the uplifting of the race. Moreover, 
they reconcile the Indian with the idea of sending his chil- 
dren to school, and render him more willing in due time to 
intrust them to the care of boarding schools, as well as more 
ready to appreciate and to accept the lessons of civilization 
that radiate from these centers of education. 

According to the report of the commissioner of Indian 
affairs the government operated in 1898 142 day schools. 
The most successful of these are located in Wisconsin (16), 
in North Dakota (11), and in South Dakota (54) ; the least 
successful, probably, among the pueblos of New Mexico 
(14). This comparative lack of success, however, is not to 
be attributed to the teachers who are devoted and capable. 
It is due rather to the fact that these Indians live in a state 
of half-civilization which they owe to their Mexican and 
Spanish antecedents. This condition fully satisfies their 
ideals, and, consequently, they do not care to exchange it 
for the ways of their teachers. 

The life of the day-school teacher is one of extreme isola- 
tion from the amenities and refinements of civilization. It 
argues on their part a degree of self-denial and devotion 
which even with persons of only ordinary goodness is sure to 



947] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN I I 

emphasize the best traits and impulses of the soul. It is 
not rare, therefore, to find among them sanctified men and 
women whose very presence is an inspiration. I have no 
doubt that to this is due much of their benign influence 
upon the Indians among whom their lot is cast. It is an 
observation much to the credit of human nature that only 
rarely a teacher is found of a character so corrupt as to take 
advantage of the people and the children intrusted to his care. 

The day schools are kept open for ten months. The 
salaries paid vary from $600 to $800 for the teacher and 
from $300 to $480 for the housekeeper, according to location. 

Reservation boarding schools — These schools are located 
within the territory reserved for some tribe of Indians. 
They are in charge of a superintendent, assisted by a matron 
and such teachers, industrial and domestic helpers as the 
capacity and character of the school may require. In addi- 
tion to the required number of school teachers, the school 
is provided with a cook, a seamstress, and a laundress whose 
office it is not only to supervise their respective departments, 
but also to instruct the girls in these arts. Similarly, there 
is for the instruction of the boys a farmer, an industrial 
teacher, and, at larger schools, a tailor, a shoe and harness 
maker, a carpenter and a blacksmith. An experiment to 
provide for more methodical instruction in the use of tools 
by expert manual training teachers failed because the Indian 
office would not afford a salary for this position, sufficient 
to attract competent men. 

In 1894 the experiment of connecting kindergartens with 
these schools was tried. The experiment proved eminently 
successful. The children entered into the work and the 
games with zest and intelligence. Their traditional shyness 
and reticence yielded naturally and readily to their objective 
interest in the exercises. They acquired the English idiom 
with much ease and learned to express their ideas freely and 
with eagerness. At the present time, there are forty kinder- 
gartens connected with boarding schools. Moreover, the 
use of kindergarten methods and of kindergarten material 



12 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [94S 

has entered the primary classes in practically all these schools 
and in many of the day schools with similar good results. 

The children spend from one and a-half to two hours 
each half-day with the kindergarten. Other children, in the 
majority of these schools, spend half a day — forenoon or 
afternoon — in the school room and the other half-day in 
domestic or industrial work of a character suited to their 
age. In a number of schools, however, which are lacking 
in facilities or in skill and good will on the part of the 
respective employees, the smaller children are detained in the 
school room during the entire day, much to their physical, 
intellectual and moral deterioration. 

Indeed, experience has proved that half-day instruction 
which at first was forced upon the schools as an expedient, 
is one which every consideration of wisdom and prudence 
would commend. The sedentary life of the more or less 
crowded school room becomes irksome to these children 
accustomed to an active outdoor life ; the interests of the 
school room are foreign to their heredities and traditions. 
The industrial features of the work, on the other hand, 
appeal more or less forcibly to their habits and tastes and 
stimulate practical interests which the parents can appreci- 
ate and which induce them to look with favor upon the 
school and to aid it in its work. The school room itself 
finds in these interests material for practice and discussion 
directly welcome to the pupil ; it can thus more readily 
overcome aversion and secure an appreciative and sympa- 
thetic attitude on the part of the pupils. It adds to the 
work of the schools in a large measure all the advantages 
of mental stimulation which manual training yields. It is, 
consequently, not astonishing that the children in schools 
in which the half-day practice has not been adopted make 
less rapid progress, are backward in physical and intellectual 
development, and morally less earnest and responsible than 
the children of half-day schools. 

The aim of the school, in so far as instruction is con- 
cerned, is to give to the pupils ability to read and write 



949] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 1 3 

English within the limits of ordinary primary school work, 
practical control of arithmetic for the needs of ordinary 
daily life, clear rudimentary notions of geography and 
United States history, drawing and singing, a knowledge of 
the laws of hygienic living, garden work, the cultivation of 
fruits and vegetables, and familiarity with the simpler require- 
ments of agricultural and domestic industries suited to the 
locality. Moreover, in a few of the larger schools, the 
larger boys have much opportunity to acquire skill in car- 
pentry, blacksmithing, tailoring and shoemaking. 

It has already been indicated that these institutions are to 
the children not only school, but also home and community. 
The institution gives them shelter, food and clothing ; it 
accustoms them to habits of cleanliness and decency ; it cul- 
tivates their aesthetic tastes ; it labors to secure right moral 
attitude and, at least in its Sunday school, seeks to impart 
the plainer truths of Christianity and to stimulate the 
religious life of the children. 

In these last efforts, it is true, the schools are much handi- 
capped by denominational jealousies which are ever ready to 
suspect proselyting, and which have forced the government 
into an attitude of indifference and inactivity in all matters 
that affect religion. In a number of reservations, however, 
missionary establishments, which are impartially encouraged 
by the government, supplement the work of the schools to 
a certain extent in matters of religion. 

The superintendent of the reservation boarding school is 
subject in his work to the control of the Indian agent, who, 
as representative of the government, administers the affairs 
of the reservation. To this agent he makes requisition for 
whatever the school may need ; through him he makes his 
reports and requests to the Indian office at Washington and 
receives replies and directions ; through him he makes his 
recommendations, if any, for the appointment or dismissal 
of employees ; from him he and his subordinates receive 
their pay. 

Inasmuch as these agents are selected on partisan 



14 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [950 

grounds, usually at the suggestion of local politicians and 
as a reward for partisan service, this arrangement is fraught 
with much danger to the true interests of these schools. 
Until 1893 — when superintendents, matrons and teachers 
were placed under civil service protection — all employees 
at these schools were at the mercy of the Indian agents, dis- 
missals for partisan or patronage reasons were the order of 
the day, scandals of every description were frequent, and the 
schools accomplished good only when the agent happened to 
be a good man. After 1893 there came some improvement. 
Yet with reference to employees in the domestic and indus- 
trial service and in minor positions the same evils continued 
practically unabated. With reference to these the superin- 
tendents and even the Indian office were powerless, and fre- 
quently good superintendents were forced out of the service 
by combinations against them among the appointees of the 
agent or through the aid and influence of unscrupulous par- 
tisan inspectors or supervisors. 

In 1896, at last, all employees of the school service were 
placed under civil service protection, and since that time 
there has been marked improvement in the conditions and 
work of these schools. 

Nevertheless, from the very inertia of things — moral as 
well as material — the superintendents of these schools are 
frequently ignored, recommendations are made by agents 
without even the knowledge of the superintendents and 
honored by Washington officials. In a number of agencies, 
where the agent has practically no duties save those con- 
nected with the school service, this relation is peculiarly 
oppressive and acts generally as a hindrance in the develop- 
ment of the school. 

As a remedy for these evils, friends of the Indians and of 
good government have repeatedly proposed the relief of 
these superintendents from the control of agents and the 
abolishment of unnecessary agencies, but the propositions 
have as repeatedly been " turned down " by spoilsmen in 
control at Washington. 



95 1] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 1 5 

On the other hand, there has been decided gain in the 
equipment, in the sanitary condition, in the general charac- 
ter of employees, and in the conduct of these schools. 
Employees are learning to look to efficiency as their chief 
reliance for continuance in office and for promotion, rather 
than to the favor of some patron. The consequent increase 
in self-respect on their part has operated as a barrier to a 
number of abuses which thereby became simply impossible, 
and have secured a spirit of genuine devotion to the work 
of the school on the part of the employees. „ 

At the same time the Indian office has been relieved of 
attention to office-seekers and their patrons, which had occu- 
pied so much of the time of officials. It has, consequently, 
been enabled to pay increased attention to the schools them- 
selves, to their equipment, their sanitary condition, their 
management. The new schools, erected within the last few 
years, are models in their way, and most of the older schools 
have in all these matters been greatly improved. 

According to the report of the commissioner of Indian 
affairs there were in operation in the year 1898 seventy-five 
of these schools with a capacity of 8,825, an enrollment of 
8,877, and an average attendance of 7,532 pupils. There 
were employed in their conduct 1,247 persons, including 
Indian cadets and apprentice assistants who are paid at the 
rate of $60 per year. The cost of these schools to the gov- 
ernment was $1,149,155.90. 

The life of the employees is comparatively pleasant and 
affords many social amenities. In many instances, towns 
inhabited by white people are within easy access. Where 
this is not the case there is, as a rule, a sufficient number of 
employees at the school to preclude the isolation and loneli- 
ness of day-school life. Usually a pleasant room is set aside 
and neatly furnished as an employees' sitting room. The 
employees are furnished quarters at the schools, but provide 
for their food. For this purpose they are organized in a 
common mess. Their expenses for board rarely reach $12 
per month, and more frequently fall below $10. 



l6 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [952 

They are employed for the year ; but are granted thirty 
days leave of absence, and on occasion thirty days of sick 
leave without deduction of pay. Instruction continues 
through forty weeks ; but in many instances a portion of the 
children are kept at the school throughout the year. 

Superintendents are paid from $900 to $1,200; matrons 
from $500 to $720, according to the size of the school. 
Teachers receive from $450 to $720, according to experi- 
ence ; farmers and other industrial employees from $600 to 
$800 ; heads of domestic industries $400 to $600 ; their 
assistants $300 to $500; Indian apprentice assistants from 
$60 to $240. Promotion is based usually on experience and 
merit. 

Non-reservation boarding schools — Of these there are at 
present twenty-five. Seven of them are distinguished as 
industrial training schools and three others as industrial and 
normal trainino- schools. 

The remaining fifteen, in their original scope of work, dif- 
fered little from the reservation boarding schools. Differ- 
ences in organization, however, as well as differences in 
environment, have exercised a salutary influence upon them, 
and have lifted them in aims and attainments far above the 
latter. 

In the first place the superintendents of these schools are 
bonded and directly responsible to the Indian office. There 
is between them and the authorities at Washington no inter- 
vening Indian agency with its demoralizing possibilities. 
Their authority in the management of the schools is complete. 
The consequent sense of responsibility and self-respect in 
the head of the school finds its reflection in the attitude of 
his subordinates, as well as in the attitude of the pupils. 
Undivided loyalty on the part of the employees does away 
largely with factional hindrances. Efficiency and devotion 
to duty have a vastly greater share in appointments, in 
tenure and in promotion. 

The beneficial influence of this better condition of affairs 
is further enhanced in the majority of instances by the 



953] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN I 7 

environment of these schools. They are, as a rule, located 
at a distance from the Indian country and in the vicinity of 
civilized American towns which afford the schools — teachers 
and pupils — the stimulus of constant contact with the 
ideals and amenities of civilized life. The work thereby 
gains in every respect — in scope, in depth, in intensity, in 
vitality, in permanence of influence upon the pupils. 

The pupils at these schools are on an average more 
advanced in years than those at reservation schools. Fre- 
quently, they have had some previous training in day schools 
or reservation boarding schools. They are, because far 
away from their Indian homes, more constant and more 
regular in attendance ; and, for the same reason and because 
of their vicinity to English-speaking communities, they gain 
a better control of the English idiom. 

Their class-room work is, therefore, more thorough and 
more extended, and reaches far into the advanced grammar 
school courses of study, laying special stress upon language 
practice, arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, nature 
study, drawing, and civil government. 

Their facilities for training pupils in the domestic and 
industrial arts are much greater than in reservation schools ; 
and the effectiveness of their instruction in these arts is 
much enhanced by the fact that pupils have frequent oppor- 
tunities to observe the practical applicability and value of 
these arts in the environment of the schools. 

The superintendents are paid from $1,200 to $1,500 per 
annum. Other employees are paid on the same scale as in 
reservation schools. 

The most noted and successful of these schools are located 
at Flandreau in South Dakota, Pipestone in Minnesota, 
Mount Pleasant in Michigan, Fort Mojave in Arizona, 
Carson in Nevada, Perris in California, Tomah in Wiscon- 
sin, Wittenberg in Wisconsin, Fort Lewis in Colorado, and 
Pierre in South Dakota. 

Industrial training schools — These schools are located at 
Carlisle in Pennsylvania, Chemawa near Salem in Oregon, 



l8 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [954 

Chilocco in Oklahoma, Genoa in Nebraska, Albuquerque 
in New Mexico, Lawrence in Kansas (the Haskell institute), 
Grand Junction in Colorado, Santa Fe in New Mexico, 
Phoenix in Arizona, Fort, Shaw in Montana. 

In the essential features of their organization tnese schools 
are similar to the schools just described. In the scope of 
their work, however, in equipment and in cultural facilities 
they excel, as a rule, in a high degree. 

With a view of training teachers systematically and in 
greater number for the work of teaching, the government in 
1894 added to three of these schools normal departments. 
This was done at Carlisle, at the Haskell institute and at 
Santa Fe, and these schools were henceforth distinguished 
as industrial and normal training schools. The experiment 
proved fairly successful with Carlisle where, indeed, similar 
work had been previously done, and, more especially, with 
the Haskell institute. The school at Santa Fe during the 
first years accomplished little in this direction, but of late 
has begun to gain success under a gifted superintendent. 

Haskell institute — The following sketch of the work of 
Haskell institute will afford an idea of the scope of these 
schools, as well as of the possibilities of Indian education 
under government control : 

Haskell institute is located near the city of Lawrence, in 
the state of Kansas. The school was opened in 1884. It 
has now a capacity of 550 pupils. The main buildings are 
substantial stone structures. The dormitories, school build- 
ing and some other buildings, are heated by steam, lighted 
by electricity, provided with hot and cold water, and sup- 
plied with modern sanitary conveniences. The entire plant 
consists of about thirty buildings and has its own water 
works. A farm of 650 acres is attached to the institution. 

The institution is under the direction of a superintendent, 
aided by an, assistant superintendent, who acts also as phy- 
sician, and by three clerks. In their daily movements the 
pupils are under the supervision of a disciplinarian — 
exclusively for the boys — and a corps of six matrons and 



955] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 19 

housekeepers. The academic department of the school is 
administered by a principal teacher, assisted by fifteen 
teachers, suitably assigned to the kindergarten, the model 
school, the normal department, the commercial department, 
and the department of music — vocal and instrumental. 

In addition there are the departments of manual training 
and of domestic science, and a printing office, each under 
competent leadership. 

In the girls' industrial department, sewing, cooking, laun- 
dering, and other features of housekeeping, are taught and 
practiced in supplying the needs of the institution in these 
matters. 

Similarly, in the boys' industrial department, farming, 
gardening and dairying, carpentering, blacksmithing, masonry 
and plastering, steamfitting and engineering, wheelwright- 
ing, painting, harnessmaking, tailoring, shoemaking and 
baking are taught and practiced. 

In a well-equipped hospital the physician and two nurses 
take care of the sick. 

In a number of departments, graduates and other advanced 
pupils are employed as assistants at salaries ranging from 
$60 to $120 per annum. In 1898 there were 18 of these. 

Much attention is paid throughout the institution to 
music, vocal and instrumental. In addition to general sing- 
ing exercises, the school has organized special choruses, glee 
clubs, a string orchestra, and an orchestra of mixed instru- 
ments, all of which render music very creditably. 

For purposes of study and for the stimulation of self- 
culture, the institution is provided with a carefully-selected 
reference library, as well as with magazines and other peri- 
odicals placed at the disposal of pupils in a comfortable and 
well-lighted reading room. 

Religious nurture is provided in a Sunday school on 
Sunday forenoon ; in a short, undenominational religious 
service on Sunday afternoon, and in certain devotional 
exercises connected with the daily movements of the school. 
Moreover, pupils who may wish to do so are given oppor- 



20 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [95^ 

tunity to attend religious service in the city on Sunday 
morning in the churches with which they may be affiliated. 
Pupils enrolled in the Young Men's Christian association 
and in the Young Women's Christian association hold their 
meetings at the school on Sunday evenings. They welcome 
all non-members who may wish to attend. 

The model school is arranged in eight grades and is planned 
for eight years of work. In scope and content it compares 
satisfactorily with the ordinary public school courses for 
elementary schools, and is fully abreast with the times in 
matter and method. 

The model course is followed by a preparatory course, 
intended for pupils who may desire to enter the normal or 
commercial course. It embraces a general review of 
arithmetic, the first rudiments of algebra, the systematic 
study of English grammar, the reading of literary master- 
pieces, composition work, English history, zoology, botany 
and music. 

The normal course, planned for two years, deals with the 
rudiments of algebra and geometry, with elementary physics, 
general history, rhetoric, American and English literature, 
and — on the professional side — with psychology, history 
of pedagogy, pedagogics, discussion of methods, and practice 
teaching under the direction of a critic teacher. 

The commercial course, planned also for two years, affords 
instruction and practice in stenography, typewriting, com- 
mercial arithmetic, commercial law, parliamentary rules, 
bookkeeping, business correspondence, banking, penman- 
ship and business practice. 

Graduates of the normal department are offered the oppor- 
tunity to devote one additional year to preparation for 
kindergarten work under the direction of the kindergartner 
of the institution, and in connection with a well-equipped 
kindergarten, where they are permitted to observe the work 
and occasionally to assist in it. 

Members of the three special departments are exempt 
from industrial training ; they devote their entire time to 



957] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 21 

class-room work. All others give one-half of the day to 
class-room work and the other half to manual and industrial 
training. In both of these they acquire a commendable 
degree of skill and efficiency. 

The fact that the Kansas state university is located at 
Lawrence exerts a stimulating influence upon the institution. 
The professors of the university take an active personal 
interest in its welfare and favor it from time to time with 
courses of lectures adapted to the needs of the pupils. As 
a result the desire grows in their hearts to secure for them- 
selves university training after graduation from Haskell. 
At present there are two graduates of the institution in the 
law school of the university. 

Quite a number of acceptable teachers have gone forth 
from the normal department of the institution in the years 
of 1896, '97 and '98, and have found employment in Indian 
schools. With very few exceptions, these have shown a 
commendable degree of judgment, devotion, progressiveness 
and continuity in their work, repelling by their conduct the 
pessimistic allegation made by detractors of the Indian 
character, that they would prove capricious and unreliable. 

Of the 25 normal graduates put out by the institution in 
the three years, 14 are now acting as teachers, one as princi- 
pal teacher, one as disciplinarian, one as lumber inspector, 
two as clerks, one as farmer and dairyman, one as assistant 
matron. One has entered the training school for kinder- 
gartners, one the high school in a western city, and one the 
law school of the university. 

Carlisle — The organization of the Indian school at Carlisle, 
in the state of Pennsylvania, is, in its main features, similar 
to that of Haskell institute. It differs, however, in many 
details of management, because of the strong personal 
characteristics of its superintendent. 

The school has a capacity of 800 pupils. This, however, 
may be nearly doubled with the aid of the excellent " out- 
ing system," which is a distinctive feature of the institution. 

By this system the Carlisle school requires its students to 



22 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [958 

spend one or more years of their school life away from the 
school in carefully selected white families, under the super- 
vision of the school. For their services in these families 
they receive current wages, but are required to attend public 
schools for four or more months during tjie winter. Thus 
they gain direct, personal experience in self-support by hon- 
est work and an insight into the responsibilities and ameni- 
ties of civilized family and institutional life in its best and 
most attractive forms, while at the same time they are rea- 
sonably protected against the demoralizing factors of white 
civilization which are so much in the way of success in the 
outlying districts near the Indian country. 

The growth of this system has been quite remarkable and 
emphasizes its value. It began tentatively with a few pupils 
in 1880. In 1898 the superintendent reported that "an 
average of 250 remained out during the winter attending 
the public schools, and 600 were out during the vacation." 
" Each pupil," he continues, " earned wages according to 
ability, the boys' earnings aggregating $13,541.30, of which 
they saved $5,208.61, and the girls' earnings aggregating 
$8,184.20, of which they saved $3,098.50." 

Other distinctive features of this school are found in its 
excellent department of music, its art school, and, more par- 
ticularly, in its systematic attention to physical training. 
The school has a well-equipped gymnasium in which both 
girls and boys receive instruction and training. The foot- 
ball team of Carlisle has a national reputation for clean and 
vigorous play ; it receives and meets with credit challenges 
from the best colleges of the land. 

Contract schools — In addition to maintaining these 
strictly government schools, the Indian office pays $108 per 
pupil to 25 Catholic mission boarding schools for the educa- 
tion of 1,098 children ; $30 per pupil for 21 children in two 
Catholic day schools, and $167 per pupil for 200 pupils in 
Lincoln institute at Philadelphia, and for 120 pupils in 
Hampton institute, located at Hampton, in the state of 
Virginia, ."".... 



959] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 23 

Of these, Hampton institute deserves special mention. 
It was originally established with the help of northern phil- 
anthropists for the industrial and normal training of negroes 
in 1868. Its support to-day is derived from small endow- 
ment funds, liberal annual contributions from the north, and 
$10,000 annually paid to it in its capacity as an agricultural 
school by the state of Virginia. 

In 1878 seventeen young Indians were brought to it from 
Florida, where they had for three years been kept as pris- 
oners of war. From this was developed the present Indian 
department of the institution, superior in equipment and in 
the spirit that controls its work. Here, too, originated the 
outing system which, subsequently, grew into an educational 
factor of vast importance at Carlisle. 

The distinctive feature of this school, however, is its 
broad missionary spirit. Bound to no particular denomina- 
tion, yet respecting all and respected by all, it is deeply 
religious in spirit and work, and labors to inculcate its own 
missionary zeal in the hearts of its students. 

In its young Indian students it stimulates a keen sense of 
responsible manhood and womanhood. It teaches them to 
experience and to appreciate the advantages of the intelli- 
gent Christian civilization of which it furnishes them the 
example. It stimulates and nurtures in them a deep sym- 
pathy with their own people in their sufferings and needs, 
and a fervent desire to bring to these in due time the bless- 
ings of which they themselves have become participants. 

There are still a number of independent schools that 
receive no support whatever from the government. Some 
of these do much good so that it would be a gratifying task 
to give a detailed account of their organization and work. 
Nothing, however, could be gained by this for the presenta- 
tion of the subject in its general bearings. On the whole 
they are similarly organized, with the exception that they 
pay more direct and persistent attention to religious train- 
ing, inasmuch as they are affiliated with particular religious 
denominations. 



24 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [960 

Supervision — The direction and supervision of the Indian 
schools rests with the Indian office which, in its turn, is under 
the direction and supervision of the secretary of the interior. 
In the Indian office the details of the work are intrusted to 
the education division, now probably the most important 
division under its control. The education division consists 
of a chief clerk, with a corps of subordinate clerks, stenogra- 
phers and copyists. To this division all reports are made ; 
by it all directions and orders are drafted and issued. 

The education division is aided in its work by the super- 
intendent of Indian schools and by five supervisors, assigned 
in their work to five districts respectively. These officials 
constitute a branch of the Indian school service which occu- 
pies a very uncertain position, which can be designated 
neither as subordinate nor as co-ordinate, and which in its 
effectiveness depends wholly on the force of character of 
the incumbents and the good will of the commissioner. 
They have duties, but no rights ; and even their efforts to 
perform these duties may be rendered practically nugatory by 
the ill-will of the education division or of the commissioner. 

A similarly anomalous relation exists between the com- 
missioner and the secretary of the interior with regard to 
all matters which the latter may wish to control directly. 
For this purpose the secretary has established under his 
direct control an Indian division, independent of the Indian 
office, and to which all orders and directions which the 
secretary may designate must be referred by the Indian 
office for approval. The power of this Indian division is 
further reinforced by a corps of inspectors in the field 
appointed on partisan grounds and responsible to him alone. 

Here too, therefore, the effectiveness of the commissioner 
in his work depends wholly upon the good will of the secre- 
tary of the interior, who may reduce the commissioner to 
practical non-existence in so far as the judgment and the 
conscience of the latter are concerned. 

It is true that technically the superintendent of Indian 
schools may appeal from the commissioner to the secretary 



961] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 25 

of the interior, and the commissioner from the decision of 
the secretary to the president of the United States. In 
view, however, of the hopelessly autocratic relation that 
runs through the chain, that is practically out of the ques- 
tion, as it would tend to increase ill-will. 

Under these conditions the fact that Indian education has 
prospered reflects credit upon all concerned. It argues, on 
the part of the subordinates, a commendable degree of force 
of character and on the part of superiors an equally com- 
mendable degree of moderation and sense of justice. 

CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK 

There can be no doubt that an education which incul- 
cates the tastes and establishes the ideals of current civili- 
zation constitutes the proper first step in the work of intro- 
ducing the Indians into American citizenship. It is equally 
evident that the cultivation of these tastes and ideals is well 
nigh impossible under the conditions and influences of tribal 
life on Indian reservations. 

The mere recital of a few of the leading differences 
between the two civilizations will sufficiently emphasize 
these difficulties. The Indian civilization looks upon the 
tribe or family as the unit ; with us it is the individual. 
With the Indian he is richest who gives most ; with us it is 
he who keeps most. The Indian claims hospitality as a right 
until the means of his host are exhausted ; and this hospital- 
ity is freely granted. To the Indian, land is as free as the 
water he drinks ; proprietorship continues only so long as 
the land is tilled or otherwise in use. The Indian prizes 
the worthless pony, whilom his companion and friend in the 
lost occupations of the chase and war. The cow is to him 
only a poor substitute for the buffalo ; he knows nothing of 
her value as a giver of milk and a breeder of cattle. Woman 
in Indian civilization is a producer and possesses in full 
Indian life an economic value and independence to which in 
our civilization she is largely a stranger. His religious 
rights and ceremonies afford the Indian, in addition to a 



26 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [962 

certain degree of spiritual elevation, opportunities for 
intense social enjoyment for which he looks in vain in the 
new civilization. Add to this that the wants of the Indian 
are few and easily gratified by simple forms of homely skill 
in which the industries and other acquirements of the Indian 
school find little application ; that chiefs and medicine-men 
in the very nature of things look with distrust and disdain 
upon a civilization which robs them of power and influence ; 
that time-honored tradition imposes upon the young Indian 
silence and obedience, — and you have an array of adverse 
conditions which is appalling. 

Against these odds the Indian schools are pitted. The 
government, it is true, made an effort to come to their aid 
in a well-intentioned allotment scheme. In this, a certain 
amount of land was allotted to each member of a tribe for 
purposes of agriculture or stock-raising. The allotment was 
to be held by the respective" allotees inalienably for a period 
of twenty-five years, and it carried with it under certain con- 
ditions rights of citizenship. 

In most instances, however, this well-meant measure 
developed into a new obstacle to the work of the schools. 
The Indians are gregarious ; they live in bands and villages. 
The isolation of farm life is distasteful to them. They 
prefer, therefore, to lease their lands to white farmers and 
to enjoy the meagre income from this source and from cer- 
tain government annuities in tribal bands and villages as 
heretofore. 

Nevertheless the schools are steadily gaining ground even 
against this added difficulty, partly through their direct 
influence in day schools and reservation boarding schools, 
partly through the medium of " returned students " from the 
more advanced non-reservation schools. 

Honor and grateful admiration is due the young heroes 
and heroines who annually go forth from the Indian schools 
pitting their lives against adamantine walls of tradition and 
superstition, wresting victory for themselves and their unwill- 
ing people from conditions which seem all but hopeless. It 



963] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 2j 

is not to be wondered that of these soldiers of a new dispen- 
sation some fall by the wayside or succumb in the unequal 
struggle ; but the misfortune, rather than dishonor, of these 
should not render us blind to the steady valor of the young 
men and women who are steadily pushing ahead, gaining 
new ground inch by inch, until even now the observer who 
looks beneath the surface sees victory assured. So great, 
indeed, has been the gain already achieved that in many 
instances where twenty years ago Indian savagery ruled 
supreme, it would be difficult now to find any of its features 
as enumerated above clearly manifest. The busy farmer, 
the thrifty housewife, the skillful artisan, the careful trades- 
man are no longer rare ; on a number of reservations they 
are beginning to be respected as marks of superiority to 
which all should aspire. The Indian schools can point with 
satisfaction to fervent missionaries, devoted teachers, phy- 
sicians, lawyers, field matrons, nurses and trained workers 
in other fields who owe the impulse to their career, and 
much of their equipment to the work and influence of these 
schools. 

In response to the outcry against the efficiency of Indian 
education on the part of superficial observers and prejudiced 
detractors of the Indian, the Indian office a few years ago 
gathered statistics as to the success in life and fidelity to the 
"white man's ways" on the part of "returned students." 
As a result it was enabled to announce that fully seventy-five 
per cent of these could be rated as excellent or good ; that 
less than ten per cent were poor or bad, and the remainder 
fair or indifferent. Surely an encouraging showing. 

Schools of Indian territory — The schools of the so-called 
" five civilized tribes " of Indian territory are not included in 
the above sketch. Indian territory comprises more than 
40,000 square miles of rich, arable land, with valuable coal 
and asphalt deposits. It was set aside in 1832 for certain 
Indian tribes who formerly occupied the southern and gulf 
states. The five civilized tribes of to-day include 30,000 
Cherokees, 14,500 Choctaws, 10,000 Creeks, 6,990 Chicka- 



28 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [964 

saws and 2,000 Seminoles. In addition there are in the ter- 
ritory 18,500 freed men and 200,000 whites. 

Missionary zeal availed itself promptly of this new field for 
its efforts. Substantial boarding schools were erected, more 
particularly by the Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists. 

Much good radiated from these centers of civilization. In 
due time, however, the Indian authorities began to make 
appropriations for these schools. Ultimately, they took 
entire charge of them. Unfortunately, administrative affairs 
were largely in the hands of whites who, by intermarriage or 
bribery, had been adopted into the tribes, and there came 
£>ver the schools, as well as over all other public interests, 
the blight of extreme partisanship and nepotism which 
rapidly degraded them in character and efficiency. 

In 1898, therefore, the government at Washington found 
itself compelled to come to the rescue and to assume super- 
visory control over the affairs of all these tribes except the 
Seminoles. 

Under the act by which this was done, the conduct of the 
schools and orphan asylums in the four tribes involved was 
placed under the direction of a " superintendent of schools 
in Indian territory," appointed by the secretary of the inter- 
ior. Under him there is for each of the tribes or nations a 
" supervisor of schools," whose duty it is to inspect the edu- 
cational institutions in his district and to assist in their 
organization and conduct. The superintendent reports to 
the commissioner of Indian affairs at Washington through 
the United States inspector for the Indian territory, who is 
his immediate superior. 

The initial report of the superintendent shows that there 
are in the four tribes 24 boarding schools, with an enrollment 
of 1,758 pupils, and an average attendance of 1,480, taught 
and cared for by 234 employees at an annual expense of 
$236,824. This does not include 363 neighborhood schools, 
in which more than 10,000 children are taught at an annual 
expense of $1 13,380. In character and equipment, however, 
these schools are very poor. 



965] 



EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 



2 9 



STATISTICAL TABLES 

TABLE 1 — Number of Indian schools and average attendance 

from 1877 to jScjS 1 



877 
s 7 8 
879 
880 
881 
882 

8Sj 
8S4 
885 
886 
8S7 
888 
8S9 
800 
8gi 
892 
893 
894 
895 
896 
897 



BOARDING SCHOOLS 



Number 



49 

52 

60 

68 

71 

80 

87 

114 

"5 

117 

126 

136 

140 

146 

149 

156 

157 

157 

156 

145 



Average 
attendance 



3 077 

3 793 

4 723 

6 201 

7 260 

8 020 
8705 

9 H6 
9865 

11 425 

12 422 
13635 

14 457 

15 061 
15683 

15 026 

16 112 



DAY SCHOOLS ' 



I02 
II 9 
I07 
I09 
106 
76 



99 
no 
107 
103 
106 
no 
126 
119 
115 
125 
140 
143 
147 



Average 
attendance 



1 637 
1893 
2237 

1 942 

2 37° 
2 500 
2 715 
2 406 

2 3 6 7 
2 163 

a 745 

2 668 
2639 

3 "7 
3 579 
3650 

3 536 



Number 



159 
169 
174 

147 



200 
214 
227 
233 
239 
246 
256 
275 
275 
272 
282 
296 
388 
295 



Average 
attendance 



3 598 

4 142 
4 448 
4651 
4976 
4 7i4 
5686 
6 960 
8143 
9630 

10 520 
n 420 

11 552 

12 232 
13588 

15 167 

16 303 

17 220 

18 188 

19 262 
18676 
19 648 



1 Some of the figures in this table as printed prior to 1896 were taken from reports of the superin- 
tendent of Indian schools. As revised, they are all taken from the reports of the commissioner of 
Indian affairs. Prior to 1882 the figures include the New York schools. 

2 Indian children attending public schools are included in the average attendance, but the schools 
are not included in the number of schools. - 



3o 



EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 



[ 9 66 



TABLE 2 — Enrollment and average attendance at Indian schools, 
iSgj and 1898, showing increase in 1898; also number of schools 
in 1898 



KIND OF SCHOOL 


ENROLLMENT 


AVERAGE ATTENDANCE 


Number 


1897 


1898 


Increase 


1897 


1898 


Increase 


schools 


Government schools: 

Non-reservation boarding. 

Da}' 


5 723 

8 112 

4768 


6 175 
8887 
4 847 


452 
765 
79 


4 787 
6855 

3 234 


5 347 
7 532 
3286 




560 

677 

52 

289 


25 

75 
• 242 








18603 


19899 


1 296 


14 876 


16 165 


I 


342 






Contract schools: 


2 579 
208 

37i 


2509 
96 

394 


1 70 

£ 112 
23 


2 3 T 3 
142 

23 


2 245 

68 
326 


1 
1 


68 
74 

4 


2 29 


Dav 


3 


Boarding, specially ap- 


2 






Total 


3158 


2999 


I 159 


2 785 


2639 


I 146 


34 






Public 


303 


315 


12 


194 


183 


1 


11 


(3) 








813 


737 


I 76 


741 


662 


1 
1 


79 

""58" 


'7 








87 


54 


1 33 


80 


22 

19 671 


2 




22 964 


24 004 


1 040 


18676 


995 


295 







TABLE 3 — Annual appropriations made by the government since 
the fiscal year 1877 for the support of the Indian schools 



YEAR 


Appropri- 
ation 


Per cent 
increase 


YEAR 


Appropri- 
ation 


Per cent 
increase 




$20 000 
30 000 
60 000 

75 OOO 

75 000 

135 OOO 

487 200 

675 200 

992 800 

1 100 065 

1 211 415 

1 179 916 






$1 348 015 
1 364 568 

1 842 770 

2 291 650 
2 315 612 
2 243 497 
2 060 695 
2 056 515 
2 517 265 
2 631 771 
2 638 390 






50 
100 
25 

80 
260 
38 
47 
10 
10 
1 2.6 




1 






35 


















1 3-5 






1 8.87 






1 .2 






22.45 






4-54 






.0025 


1888 











1 Decrease. 

2 Three schools transferred to the government and contracts made for two schools which were paid 
by vouchers in previous year. 

3 Thirty-one public schools in which pupils are taught not enumerated here. 

4 These schools are conducted by religious societies, some of which receive from the government 
for the Indian children therein such rations and clothing as the children are entitled to as reservation 
Indians. 



967] 



EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 



31 



TABLE 4 — Location 



and capacity of government day schools, 
June jo, 1808 



LOCATION 



Capacity 



LOCATION 



Arizona : 

Hualapai — 

Kingman 

Hackberry 

Suppai 

Navajo — 

Little Water... 

Oreiba 

Polacco 

Second Mesa.. 
California : 

Big Pine 

Bishop 

Hat Creek 

Independence 

Manchester 

Mission, 11 schools 

Potter Valley 

Ukiah 

Upper Lake 

Michigan : 

Baraga 

Bay Mills 

Minnesota : 

Birch Cooley 

White Earth- 
Gull Lake 

Montana : 

Tongue River 

Nebraska : 
Santee — 

Ponca 

Nevada : 

Walker River 

New Mexico : 
Pueblo— 

Acoma 

Cochita 

Isleta 

Jemez 

Laguna 

Pahuate , 

Santa Clara.. .. 
San Felipe 



5o 
60 
60 

3° 
40 
40 
40 

30 
40 
30 
3° 
40 

319 
5° 
3° 
3° 

40 
50 

36 

30 

40 



New Mexico — Continued. 
Pueblo — Continued. 

San Ildef onso 

San Juan 

Santo Domingo 

Taos 

Zia 

Zuni 

North Dakota: 

Devil's Lake, Turtle Mountain, 3 

schools 

Standing Rock, 4 schools 

Fort Berthold, 4 schools 

Oklahoma : 

Kiowa 

Whirlwind 

South Dakota : 

Cheyenne River, 3 schools 

Pine Ridge, 31 schools 

Rosebud, 20 schools 

Utah: 

Shebit 

Washington : 

Col vi lie, 2 schools 

Tulalip — 

Lummi 

Swinomish 

Neah Bay — 

Neah Bay 

Quillehute 

Puyallup — 

Jamestown 

Port Gamble 

Chehalis 

Quinaielt 

Skok omish 

Wisconsin : 

Green Bay, Stockbridge 

Oneida, 5 schools 

La Pointe, 10 schools 1 

Total capacity 1. 

Total number of schools 1. 



Capacity 



140 
130 
150 



67 

10S5 
631 

30 
80 



56 
60 

3° 

25 

40 
40 
40 

So 
140 
502 



5 164 
142 



TABLE 5 — Location, capacity and date of openi7ig of government 
reservation boarding schools 



LOCATION 



Arizona: 

Colorado river 

Keams canyon 

Navajo 

Pima 

San Carlos, 

White Mountain Apache 



Capa- 
city 



80 

90 

120 

I50 

IOO 

65 



Date of opening 



Mar, — 



, 1879 
, 1887 
, l88l 
, l88l 
, 1880 
, 1894 



Remarks 



1 Including Lac Court d'Oreilles No. 3 day, which was a contract school for seven months during 
this fiscal year. 



32 



EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 
T A B L E 5 — Continued. 



[968 



LOCATION 



California: 

Fort Yuma 

Hoopa Valley , 

Round Valley , 

Idaho: 

Fort Hall 

Fort Lapwai 

Lemhi 

Indian Territory: 

Quapaw , 

Seneca, Shawnee and Wyandotte 



Kansas: 

Kickapoo. . . . 
Pottawatomie. 



Sac and Fox and Iowa. 

Minnesota: 

Leech Lake 

Pine Point 



Red Lake. . . . 
White Earth. 



Wild Rice River. 



Montana: 

Blackfeet 

Crow 

Fort Belknap 

Fort Peck 

Nebraska: 

Omaha 

Santee 

Winnebago 

Nevada: «. 

Pyramid Lake 

Western Shoshone. 
New Mexico: 

Mescalero 

North Carolina: 

Eastern Cherokee.. 



North Dakota: 
Fort Berthold '. 



Fort Totten. 



Standing Rock, agency 

Standing Rock, agricultural.. 
Standing Rock, Grand River. 
Oklahoma; 

Absentee Shawnee 

Arapaho 

Cheyenne 

Fort Sill 



Capa- 
city 



250 
200 

70 

I50 

250 

40 

90 
I30 



30 
80 



40 



50 
IOO 



50 
40 

65 



125 
160 
I IO 
200 

75 

80 

100 

120 

50 

IOO 

160 



9 o 

350 j 

120 

IOO 



75 
130 
200 
125 



Date of opening 



Apr. — , 1884 
Jan. 21, 1893 
Aug. 15, 1881 
Sept. 12, 1893 



Sept. 
Sept. 

Sept. 
June 



-, 1874 
-, 1886 
-, 1885 

-, 1872 
-, 1872 



Oct. — 



Sept. 

Nov. 
Mar. 



Nov. — 

Feb. 11 

Apr. — 

Jan. 1 



Nov. 21 



Nov. 20 

May — 
Dec. — 

Aug. — ■ 



1871 

1373 
1871 
1875 

1867 
1802 



1877 

1871 



1891 

1881 

1881 

1874 
1874 

1882 
1893 



1893 



1874 

1891 

1877 
1878 
1893 

1872 

1872 

1879 

180.1 



Suspended after July, 
1883, by burning of 
building 



Begun by Friends as 
orphan asylum in 1867 
under contract with 
tribe 



Iowa 

Sac and Fox 



Prior to this date a con- 
tract school opened in 
November, 1888 

Building burned in 
February, 1895 

Prior to this date a con- 
tract school opened in 
November, 1888 



Previously a semi- 
boarding school 



Prior to this date a con- 
tract school opened in 



At agency 

At Fort Totten 



1 Building burned March 30, \\ 



969] 



EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 
TABLE 5 — Continued. 



33 



LOCATION 



Oklahoma — Continued. 

Kaw 

'Osage 

Oteo 

T'awnee 

Ponca 

Rainy Mountain.... 

Red Moon 

-Riverside (Wichita). 

>Sac and Fox 

Seger 

Oregon: 

Grande Ronde 

Klamath 

Siletz 

Umatilla 

Warm Springs 

Yainax 

'.South Dakota: 

Cheyenne River 



-Crow Creek, Agency 

Crow Creek, Grace Mission 

-Hope (Springfield) 

Lower Brule. 

Pine Ridge 

Sisseton 

Rosebud 

Yankton 

Utah: 

Ouray 

Uintah 

Washington: 

Puyallup 

Yakima 

Wisconsin: 

Lac du Flambeau 

Menomonee 

Oneida 

Wyoming: 

Shoshone 

Total 



Capa- 
city 



60 j 

ISO 

75 

125 j 
100 

50 

75 
100 

120 - 



140 
80 
100 
160 
100 

130 



140 
50 



60 



140 
200 



Date of opening 



1869 
1874 
1874 

1875 
1865 
1878 
1883 

1893 
1898 
1871 
1868 
1872 
1893 

1874 
1874 

1873 
1883 
1897 
1882 



Apr. 1, 1893 



, 1874 

Feb. 1, 1897 



Aug. 1, 1895 



Oct. 
Dec. 



130 
200 

150 


Sept. 
Feb. 


— ,' 


1873 
1897 
1882 


80 
90 


Apr. 
Jan. 


— , 


1893 

1881 


200 

140 


June 


— , 


1871 
i860 


t6o 
160 
120 


July 
Mar. 


10, 

27, 


1895 
1876 
1893 


200 


Apr. 




1879 


8825 





Remarks 



In Kansas 

In Indian territory 

In Nebraska 
In Nebraska 
In Indian territory 



In Kansas 

In Indian territory 



At new agency. At old 
agency school for girls 
opened in 1874 under 
missionary auspices in 
government buildings 
school for boys opened 
in 1880 

Prior to this date a con- 
tract school opened in 
1888 

Prior to this date a con- 
tract school opened in 
1882 

Suspended February 8, 
1894, when building 
was burned. Reop- 
ened in new building 
February 7, 1898 



34 



EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 



[970 



TABLE 6 — Location, average attendance, capacity, etc., of non- 
reservation training schools during fiscal year ended June jo, 1898 



LOCATION OF SCHOOL 



Carlisle, Pa 

Chemawa, Oreg 

Chilocco, Okla 

Genoa, Neb 

Albuquerque, N. Mex. 
Haskell institue, Kans 
Grand Junction, Colo. 
Santa Fe, N. Mex. 
Fort Mojave, Ariz. . . . 

Carson, Nex 

Pierre, S. Dak 

Phoenix, Ariz 

Fort Lewis, Colo 

Fort Shaw, Mont 

Perris, Cal 

Flandreau, S. Dak.... 

Pipestone, Minn 

Mount Pleasant, Mich. 

Tomah, Wis 

Wittenberg, Wis. '. . . . 

Greenville, Cal. 8 

Morris, Minn. 3 

Clontarf, Minn.* 

Chamberlain, S. Dak. . 
Fort Bidwell, Cal 



Date of 
opening 



Total. 



Nov. 1, 
Feb. 25, 
Jan. 15, 
Feb. 20, 
Aug. — , 
Sept. 1, 

Oct. — ,' 
Oct. — , 
Dec. — , 
Feb. — , 
Sept. — , 
Mar. — , 
Dec. 27, 
Jan. 9, 
Mar. 7, 
Feb. — , 
Jan. 3, 
Jan. 19, 
Aug. 24, 
Sept. 25, 
Apr. 3, 
Apr. 4, 
Mar. — , 
Apr. 4, 



1879 
1880 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1886 
1890 
1S90 
1890 
1891 
1891 
1892 
1892 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1895 
1895 
1897 
1897 
1898 
1808 



Number 
of em- 
ployees 



57 
66 

4i 
84 

67 
23 
60 
38 
24 

17 
60 

44 
40 
22 
27 
19 
26 
20 

19 

6 

15 

8 
10 

5 



Rate per 
annum 



$167 
167 
167 
167 
167 
167 
167 
167 
167 
167 
167 
167 



167 
167 
167 
167 
167 



167 



Capacity 



1 80O 
4OO 
450 
350 
300 
500 
170 
200 
I50 
I50 
I50 
40O 
300 
250 
I50 
200 

90 
160 
125 
130 

50 
IOO 

80 

80 
I50 



5 885 



Enroll- 
ment 



961 
354 
331 
293 

312 

553 
171 
260 
156 
166 

173 
480 

314 

300 

180 

304 

150 

186 

146 

133 

57 

92 

42 

37 

24 



6 175 



Average 
attend- 



851 

330 
271 
277 
302 

463 

158' 

2IO 

151 
I44 
I46 
418 
285 
28o 
171 
204 
I02 
I50 
II 4 
Il6 

35 
79 
33 
36 
21 



5 347 



1 1,500 with outing system. 



2 Previously a contract school. 



97i] 



EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 



35 



TABLE 7 — Schools conducted under contract, with number of 
pupils contracted for, rate per capita, and total amount of contract 
for fiscal years ending June jo, iSpj, and June jo, 1899 



NAME AND LOCATION OF 
SCHOOL 



1S95 



Number 
allowed 



Banning, California 

Baraga, Michigan 

Blackfeet, Montana 

Bayfield, Wisconsin 

Bernalillo, New Mexico 

Colville, Washington 

Cceur d'Alene, Idaho 

Crow Creek, South Dakota 

Crow, Montana 

Devils Lake, North Dakota 

Flathead, Montana 

Fort Belknap, Montana 

Harbor Springs, Michigan 

Odanah, Wisconsin, boarding... 

Odanah, Wisconsin, day 

Lac Court d'Oreilles, Wisconsin 

day 

Osage, Okla., St. Louis 

Osage, Okla., St. Johns 

Pine Ridge, South Dakota. ...... 

Rosebud, South Dakota 

San Diego, California 

Shoshone, Wyoming 

Tongue River, Montana 

Tulalip, Washington 

White Earth, Minn., St. Benedict 
White Earth, Minn., Red Lake. , 

Pinole, California 

Hopland, day, California 

St. Turubius. California - 

Green Bay, Wisconsin 

Kate Drexel, Oregon 

Bay Mills, Michigan , 

Shoshone mission, Wyoming. . . , 

Total 

Hampton institute, Virginia 1 . . 

Lincoln institution, Philadel 

phia, Pa. 1 

Grand total 



45 
100 
30 
60 
65 
7o 
60 

85 

130 

300 

135 

95 

50 

15 

40 
50 
40 

140 
95 
95 
65 
40 

100 
90 
40 
20 
20 
30 

130 
60 
20 
20 



2 435 
120 



2 755 



Rate 



£125 
IO8 
125 
125 
125 
IOS 
108 
108 
I08 
108 
I50 
108 
I08 
I08 
30 

3D 
125 
125 
I08 
IO8 
IO8 
I08 
I08 
I08 
I08 
I08 

30 

30 
108 
I08 
I08 

30 
IOS 



167 
167 



P2 500 

4 860 

12 5OO 

3 750 

7 500 
7 020 
7 560 
6480 
9 180 
14 040 
45 000 

14 580 
10 260 

4 400 
450 

1 200 

6 250 

5 000 

15 120 

10 260 

11 875 

7 020 
4 32o 

10 800 

9 720 

4 320 

600 

600 

3 240 

14 040 

6 000 
600 

2 160 



$274 205 
20 040 

33 400 



$327 645 



Number 
allowed 



52 
19 
34 
19 

34 
34 
4i 



34 
72 
161 
49 
34 
34 



86 
61 
5i 
34 
26 
5o 
51 
27 
10 
11 
6 
45 
24 



1 119 
120 



1 439 



Rate 



08 



o3 



67 
167 



$5 616 

2 052 

3 762 

2 O52 

3 672 
3672 

4 428 

3 672 

7 776 

17388 

5 292 
3672 
3 672 



9 288 
6 588 
5 508 

3 672 
2 808 
5 400 
5 5o8 
2 916 

300 
330 
648 

4 860 
2 400 

2 160 



$119 022 
20 040 

33400 



$172 462 



1 Specially appropriated for by congress. 

9 Not including the two schools of Osage and two Pottawatomie schools at 
Sac and Fox agencies, Okla., nor one day school at La Pointe agency, which was 
converted into a government school during year. 



36 



EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 



[972 



O 

5 



.8 

8 



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to 

8 

Q 

ST 



< 



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N O in O N 
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r^ O co w» w^ 



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t)- -t N c( N in O N 
r^tooo O O i^tJ-m 



xnOOOOOOO 
f CT> coo N in O N 
00 t^co O *~» •* 1-1 



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no o 






vOOOOcomOOO 
in w ifN -<l-f^O OoO 
t^ co m n r^ro^M C7> 



c^O^OcoinQO 
toco N s 1^ co TJ- m 



r-» O OvO co in Q O O 
vninifl r^co r^ o tt 
OO ^-co nm tj-ui o 






u sa>I 



u 



d • c "1 
0-0 

■ ■-1 C .^ 4) 

Hi tJ ** ' 

u 3 M • S 






«.S 



o"£ o _ 

>» • u « >h 5 rt 

Qx) ag a, -r - 17 

W * e 2 M 



1 &, W C 

2-^ S3" c s ^ 
3i d, O W Jn S £ h-I S ^ S c/2 yj 



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20 

EDUCATION THROUGH THE AGENCY OF 
RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS 



BY 

WILLIAM H. LARRABEE 

Plainfield, New Jersey 



RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 



One of the facts that most forcibly strikes the student of 
all early efforts in education is the predominance in them 
of religious motives and influences. This predominance 
has been clearly manifest in the beginnings of the schools 
in the United States. Even where the state has been 
ostensibly the active agent in these, its work has been in 
most cases inspired by the church and the ministers, and 
they have furnished the chief instrumentalities by which it 
has been carried on. In some of the colonies where the 
church and the state were closely allied at the beginning of 
-the earliest settlement, as was the case with the Congrega- 
tionalists in New England and the Episcopalians in Virginia 
and in New York after the English occupation, a distinct 
line cannot be easily drawn between what the state did and 
what the church, but the religious element was the active one. 

It has been usual to regard concerted movements in 
behalf of education as having- begun with the higher edu- 
cation ; and in the majority of cases they originated in the 
purpose to provide suitably qualified ministers for the 
congregations. 

The oldest American college, Harvard, was founded with 
the avowed object of training young men for the ministry. 
Its first benefactor, from whom it was named, was a minister, 
and its earlier presidents were ministers. 

The presence of the religious motive was evident in the 
earlier steps taken for the foundation of William and Mary 
college. Its faculty was organized with two professorships 
of divinity ; its early chancellors were the bishops of Lon- 
don ; its first nine presidents were clergymen ; and three of 
its presidents were bishops. 

The beginning of Yale college was in the gift of books 
for a library by nine ministers, whose next step was to pro- 
cure a charter for an institution, the purpose of which was 



4 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [976 

declared to be to fit young men for public employment both 
in church and state. The religious character of the institu- 
tion, now a great university, has never been essentially 
changed. 

The College of New Jersey, now Princeton university, 
was founded under the auspices of a Presbyterian synod, 
and has been under Presbyterian control from its beginning 
in 1747. 

King's college, now Columbia university, in the city of 
New York, was at the time of its foundation greatly aided 
by a grant of land from Trinity church, and while not exclu- 
sively under the control of the members of any one branch 
of the Christian church, was strongly religious in aim and 
purpose. The original charter of King's college provided 
that among the trustees should be the rector of Trinity 
church in the city of New York, the senior minister of the 
Reformed Protestant Dutch church, the minister of the 
Ancient Lutheran church, the minister of the French church, 
and the minister of the Presbyterian congregation. 

Brown university was built up by the efforts of Baptists in 
Philadelphia and Rhode Island to found a school where mem- 
bers of their denomination might acquire a liberal education. 

Dartmouth college originated in an effort by the Rev. 
Ezra Wheelock to establish, an Indian missionary school. 

Williams college, a creation of individual beneficence, 
has been conducted as a Congregational institution from its 
beginning, and was identified with the origin of the chief 
Congregational missionary society, the American Board of 
Commissioners for Foreign Missions. 

Several religious denominations co-operated in the foun- 
dation of Union college. 

The first public school in Pennsylvania was opened by the 
Friends in 1798. 

The Seminary of the Moravians, at Bethlehem, Penn., 
founded in 1 798, is regarded as the oldest school in America 
for the education of women, and their school at Nazareth 
Hall as the first normal school. 



977] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 5 

The religious motive is likewise apparent in the earlier 
measures for the institution of elementary schools in the 
colonies, in which religious instruction is often named as 
one of the objects. 

While the line of distinction between the participation of 
the state and of the church in the earliest schools is not 
distinctly marked, the part of the state has gradually 
become better defined. Its right to provide for education 
has been recognized from the earliest periods, but the func- 
tion has had its fullest development in recent times. As 
population increased in the American colonies and a diver- 
sity of religious sects arose, the intervention of the state in 
the maintenance and control of schools was found to be 
necessary if provision accessible to all was to be made. 
Since the first land grant for school purposes by the con- 
gress of 1785, according to a report made by the commis- 
sioner of education in 1887, state aid to education has been 
an acknowledged principle in the United States. In the 
presence of many religious denominations holding diverse 
views on what they regarded as fundamental principles, 
whose equal rights were guaranteed by the constitution, it 
was found impossible to provide systematic religious instruc- 
tion without conflict with the conscientious convictions of 
some of them, and the effort was abandoned. For a time 
the plan was adopted in some of the states of distributing 
the school moneys among all the schools, public, private and 
denominational, in the district, according to the number of 
pupils they reported ; but this has been generally abandoned 
under the more complete development of the public school 
system, and the rule now prevails that public moneys shall 
be applied only to schools supported exclusively by the state. 
Religious teaching is not, however, wholly excluded from 
the public schools, but in most of the states readings from 
the Bible and the inculcation of general religious and moral 
principles are allowed. This system is accepted by most of 
the Protestants as affording a practicable modus vivendi, 
with the expectation that the secular instruction given in the 



6 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [_97& 

public schools will be supplemented by religious instruction 
elsewhere. The Roman Catholics and some Protestants 
reject it in principle. 

While elementary instruction has thus been generally 
surrendered to the state, the denominations have been less 
willing to give up their control over secondary and higher 
education, and the planting of academies and colleges has 
been carried on industriously, in endeavors to meet and 
even anticipate the wants of growing populations and of 
the new settlements in the west. The attachment of the 
churches to their schools has in many cases grown stronger 
and more pronounced, and the motives that underlie their 
support of them have been more emphatically expressed as 
the secular institutions 'have become more numerous and 
their influence has extended. Objections are often made to 
consigning the youth of Christian parents at the age when 
their characters and principles are becoming fixed, to a 
course of instruction from which religion is left out. The 
denominations do not decline to recognize the impossibility 
under the American system of including the teaching of 
religious doctrine in a state supported school, and even 
refuse, on principle, to accept government aid for work 
done in their Indian schools. But they perceive in these 
state and secular institutions and in the influence they are 
destined to wield, additional reasons for building up their 
own schools and for adhering to their own systems. 

The primary motive, the one that appears earliest in order 
in the history of the denominational schools, is to secure an 
educated ministry and qualified teachers for the church. It 
has also been found necessary to provide preparatory schools 
and academies in order to secure candidates qualified to under- 
take the studies of the colleges and theological seminaries. 
Further, the conviction is not uncommon among religious 
persons that the children of the church ought to be educated 
under denominational influence, where the principles of the 
denomination are reearded and tausfht. It is believed «$o 
be essential to the growth, consolidation, influence and per- 



979] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION J 

petuity of a denomination to maintain institutions pervaded 
with the denominational spirit. In a wider view, religious 
training is deemed to be essential, equally with intellectual 
culture, to the most perfect development of character, and 
is therefore regarded as a factor that should be made an 
organic part, and not an accidental adjunct, of education. 

THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 

The Roman Catholic church has always insisted firmly 
and uncompromisingly upon the necessity of an inseparable 
association of religious instruction with all eeneral educa- 
tion ; holding it to be a necessary means of securing fidelity 
to religious principles in youth and of promoting their proper 
development in them. As the Roman Catholic idea of edu- 
cation is defined by one of the representative writers of the 
church, 1 " Catholics hold that as ever and always the child's 
soul and his duties to God are the highest and greatest, so 
there is no place, time and method from which the teaching 
of morals and religion may be eliminated ; " that the knowl- 
edge of the relations of the creature to his Creator should 
receive at least as much attention as is given to any other 
branch ; and that, as with secular branches, the child cannot 
acquire the necessary knowledge of these subjects without 
the daily presentation of them ; and that morality cannot be 
taught separately from its basis, religion. 

In the effort to reach a realization of their ideals in the 
training of their own children and youth, the Roman Catho- 
lics of the United States, besides paying the taxes levied by 
the states for the support of the public schools, have per- 
formed the task, at the cost of great labor and expense of 
building up a complete system of schools, embracing all the 
courses from elementary to post-graduate, and covering the 
whole country, in all of which instruction is given under 
the direct superintendence of the church. 

The organization and extension of the Catholic schools 

1 Rev. P. R. McDevitt, superintendent of parish schools in Philadelphia (Catholic 
World, September, 1901). 



8 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [980 

have been a matter of gradual development, the progress of 
which has been marked during the past half century. 

The beginnings of the Catholic institutions of the higher 
learning were made towards the end of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, when colleges were founded with the original intention 
of their serving as feeders for the theological seminary. 1 
Georgetown college, D. C, was founded by Bishop Carroll 
in 1789 ; the Theological seminary in Baltimore, in 1 791 ; St. 
Mary's college, Baltimore, was chartered in 1805 > an( ^ Mount 
St. Mary's college, Emmetsburg, Md., in 1830. St. Louis uni- 
versity, Missouri, an institution established by the Jesuits, the 
history of which is continuous since 1829, was the first insti- 
tution of collegiate grade chartered west of the Mississippi 
river, and the medical school connected with it was also the 
first in that region. 

The establishing and management of the Roman Catho- 
lic colleges and universities have been to a large extent the 
work of the religious orders, a considerable number of which 
have been active and assiduous in it. Institutions estab- 
lished and maintained by the diocesan clergy and laymen 
have also acted a notable part in the educational develop- 
ment of the church, and are to-day considerable factors in it. 

Pursuing a vocation to which they have consecrated their 
whole lives, the teaching brethren and sisters of the religious 
orders have developed a high standard of scholarship in the 
branches included in their courses of study, which corre- 
spond, as a rule, with the traditional classical course, and 
constitute what has been regarded as the best preparation 
for the priesthood and for the liberal professions. Much 
interest has been manifested of late in the extension and 
perfection of the instruction given in the departments of 
scientific research, applied science and technology. 

Especial importance is attached to the religious education 
of children, and the parish school is regarded as an essential 
adjunct to the parish church. The organization of a system 

1 Mgr. Conaty, Address before the third annual Association of Catholic Teachers, 
1901* 



981] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 9 

of elementary education has been an object of great con- 
cern, and received attention in the earliest general councils 
that were held. The Provincial and Plenary councils of 
1829 and 1833 made special declarations on the subject. 
As the Roman Catholic population grew more numerous 
and large Catholic communities were formed, while the 
public schools became secular, the importance of giving 
universal application to the system of parochial schools was 
more realized. The third Plenary council, at Baltimore, in 
1884, repeated the exhortations of the councils of 1829 and 
1833, and made the establishment and maintenance of 
parochial schools in connection with every church a matter 
of positive regulation. 

The formation of a complete system of Catholic schools, 
" in articulate and harmonious co-operation," numerous 
enough and so well distributed as to accommodate the 
entire school population, and to embrace the whole series 
of schools, from the elementary parochial schools to the 
university, has been discussed in recent years, and much has 
been done towards it. It was suggested in the third Plenary 
council, which expressed a desire that such provision might 
be secured that Catholic youth seeking preparation for pro- 
fessional careers might find in the series of Catholic acade- 
mies, colleges and universities all the instruction they might 
seek. The idea of a Catholic university took shape. It 
was canonically approved in 1887 by the Pope, who urged 
that it be carried into effect immediately. Such a university 
was opened at the capital of the nation for the admission of 
students in November, 1889, and has since been in success- 
ful operation. It has faculties of theology, philosophy and 
law, and a department of technology. 

The earliest Catholic school for girls was founded at 
Georgetown, D. C, in 1799. Many others were established 
by sisterhoods in the former part of the nineteenth century, 
and they acquired a high repute ; so that previous to the 
middle of the century they were much attended by daughters 
of Protestant families. 



IO RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [982 

The summaries of the reports of the schools of this church 
for 1902 give as the numbers 7 universities, 81 seminaries, 
with 3,402 students, 163 colleges for boys, and 629 acad- 
emies for girls. Parochial schools were reported in 3,857 
parishes, having a total enrollment of upwards of 900,000 
pupils. 

THE PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH 

Efforts to found schools under Episcopalian influence 
were made early in those colonies where the leaders of the 
settlements were attached to the Church of England. 
Clergymen often undertook teaching in connection with or 
in addition to their regular ministerial work. In Virginia a 
tract of land was granted and money was collected for estab- 
lishing a college for the education of English and Indian 
youth in the English language and the Christian religion, 
and considerable sums were collected by the English bishops 
in aid of the enterprise. The colonial legislature showed 
interest in the scheme, and the agents of the company 
were urged to train up the people in religion and virtue, 
and to employ their utmost zeal in advancing all things 
appertaining to the administration of divine service accord- 
ing to the form and discipline of the Church of England. 
Particularly was it desired to educate the Indians in accord- 
ance with the faith of Christ. All preparations had been 
made for opening the school when the plan was defeated by 
the massacre of 1622. In the act of 1660 for the establish- 
ment of a college, the supply of a ministry and the promo- 
tion of piety were mentioned as being among the objects of 
the scheme. The charter for the College of William and 
Mary was obtained from the English government in 1692, 
through the agency of the Rev. James Blair, missionary and 
commissary of the bishop of London, and the design in 
founding the institution was declared to be " that the church 
in Virginia may be furnished with a seminary for ministers 
of the gospel ; that the youth may be piously educated in 
good letters and sciences, and that the Christian faith may 
be propagated among the Western Indians to the glory of 
Almighty God." 



983] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION II 

In the acts of 1710 and 171 2, providing for a free school 
in Charleston, S. C, the necessity of such a school " for the 
instruction of youth in grammar and other arts and sciences, 
and also in the principles of the Christian religion," was set 
forth in the preamble, and the bequest of sums of money 
for this object by " several well-disposed Christians " was 
mentioned. The acts prescribed that the preceptor of the 
school should be of the religion of the Church of England, 
and capable of teaching the Greek and Latin languages. 
Further provision was made for the support of schools in 
country parishes under the direction of the vestries. At the 
same time the church itself was erecting and managing 
schools in the colony. 

The bishops and clergy of the English church were aided 
in their efforts to maintain schools in this and other colonies 
by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, which 
was formed in England in 1701 to serve the spiritual wants 
of the people in the colonies of America and elsewhere. 
References to the need for schools and teachers are often 
found in its American correspondence. It established a 
school in Charleston in 171 1, and sent out missionaries, 
" not only to preach, but to encourage the setting up of 
schools for children." Trinity school in the city of New 
York was founded by it in 1 709, and is still maintained as a 
school of the Protestant Episcopal church. 

An intimation of a design entertained by the colonial 
government in 170310 provide a site for a college in the 
city of New York is given in the records of Trinity church. 
The scheme was favored by Bishop Berkeley. A charter 
was obtained for King's college in 1754. The college was 
organized in 1755, when Trinity church conveyed to the 
governors the site on which the first building stood, upon 
the sole condition that the president of the college should 
be a member of the Church of England, and that the liturgy 
of that church should be used in its daily services. The 
first president of the college was a missionary of the Society 
for the Propagation of the Gospel. 



12 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [984 

The Protestant Episcopal church in the United States 
was organized in 1785 as a logical result of the separation 
of the colonies from the mother country. Avowing its 
indebtedness to the Church of England, it embodied a 
formal declaration in the preface to its Prayer Book of an 
intention not to depart from the faith of that church in any 
essential point of discipline or worship, or further than local 
circumstances required. 

The first Protestant Episcopal theological seminary was 
opened in 1820, after the subject had been discussed for six 
years, and was constituted in 1821 the General Theological 
seminary of the church, to be under its control, with the 
distinct understanding that the action was to be no hin- 
drance to any state or diocese establishing a seminary of its 
own. The privilege has been freely exercised by the dioceses, 
and there are now sixteen theological seminaries in different 
parts of the church. Twelve collegiate and 1 16 academical 
institutions, under diocesan or local control, were reported 
to the general convention in 1901. The report of the 
United States commissioner of education for 1900-01 
gives the Episcopalians 664 teachers and 4,482 students in 
88 secondary schools. 

Among the earlier colleges established after the forma- 
tion of the general convention were Trinity college, Hart- 
ford, Conn. (1823), Hobart college, Geneva, N. Y. (1824), 
and Kenyon college, Gambier, Ohio (1825). The last, and 
the theological seminary at the same place, were pioneer 
institutions in the extension of the church westward. The 
University of the South at Sewanee, Tenn., is the fruit of 
a plan that was formed by Bishop Otey, the first bishop of 
Tennessee, to establish a large institution under the control 
of the Episcopal church, " in which religion should go hand 
in hand with every lesson of a secular character, and young 
men be prepared for the ministry." The scheme was 
revived by Bishop Polk in 1856, and the co-operation of the 
bishops of nine southern dioceses was secured to carry it 
out. The institution was broken up almost at its beginning 



985] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 1 3 



by the Civil war; but its operations were renewed in i.l 
It includes eleven departments or schools. 

The general convention in 1877 advised the clergy and 
laity to take an interest in the public schools supported by 
the state, and to supplement them with thorough Christian 
teaching elsewhere and with church schools. In 1880 it 
advised churchmen to establish parochial schools and to 
refuse to send their children to schools undertaken by other 
denominations ; and recommended the provision of a system 
of higher education for the girls' schools of the different 
parishes. 

Only 33 of the 76 dioceses in the United States reported 
concerning parochial schools to the general convention of 
1901. These dioceses returned 547 teachers and 11,180 
pupils in such schools; while 26 dioceses returned 1,073 
teachers and 10,824 pupils in industrial schools. 

THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 

The Lutheran church has been very careful for the edu- 
cation of its children and youth under religious influences. 
This is presented by President Swensson of Augustana 
college as having been one of the best and most fruitful 
among its characteristics. The devotion of its people to 
education in the church is ascribed partly to their attach- 
ment to Lutheran tradition and usage, and partly to the 
conditions under which they found themselves situated when 
they came to America. They brought the parish school as 
an established part of the system of their church in the 
fatherland. Isolated in their new home, among strangers 
speaking another language than theirs, they could do noth- 
ing else than maintain their schools as they had them. 
Such has been the course in each of the successive immigra- 
tions from Germany and Scandinavia, till the settlers became 
assimilated with the American communities ; and it has 
been observed that as this process of assimilation has gone 
on the exclusive attachment to the parish school has relaxed 
until finally the public school has been accepted instead of it 
in the older Lutheran bodies, in which the English language 



14 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [986 

is now used. In the meantime new immigrations have been 
coining in, bringing with them the original devotion to the 
parish-school system undiminished ; and the process of 
assimilation and acceptance of the public schools may still 
be witnessed going on in all its stages in the different 
Lutheran bodies in the United States. The condition of 
the schools was a subject of inquiry at the first convention 
of Lutherans in Pennsylvania, held in 1 748. In 1 749 ground 
was bought in Germantown by Henry Melchier Muhlen- 
berg for a theological seminary and an orphans' home. In 
1750 the schools were reported to be flourishing in nearly 
all the churches. In 1762 an English school was mentioned 
as being connected with one of the Swedish congregations. 
It was the duty of the clergyman to supervise these schools, 
and neglect of it led to his admonition by the convention. 
Evidences of the growth of the English language in the 
church appear in the reports of the later years of the 
eighteenth century, and preferences of parents to send their 
children to English schools are remarked. The report of a 
design of the general assembly of Pennsylvania to establish 
free schools throughout the state caused anxiety in the con- 
vention of 1796, and fear that the step would injure the 
German schools, especially in regard to the religion taught 
in them, and a petition was ordered drafted concerning it. 

In 1773 the Rev. Henry A. Muhlenberg, Sr., reported 
that a beginning had already been made for a German 
seminary in Philadelphia, where "capable subjects might 
be prepared in the necessary languages and knowledge, 
&c, and some of the most promising be received into such 
institution, further instructed and practiced in theoretical 
and practical divinity, and * * * set apart and pre- 
pared as school teachers, catechists and country teachers." 
The establishment of a Lutheran theological professorship 
in King's or Columbia college, New York, was contem- 
plated in 1784. Franklin college, Lancaster, Penn., was 
chartered in 1787 for the special benefit of the. Germans of 
the commonwealth, and was conducted under the joint con- 



987] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 1 5 

trol of the Lutheran and Reformed churches. Hartwick 
seminary, N. Y., was founded in 1797, and a training school 
for candidates for the ministry was afterwards established 
in connection with it. The general synod, the oldest of 
the Lutheran general bodies, was organized in 1820, and in 
1822 founded the Theological seminary at Gettysburg, 
Penn., and in 1832 Pennsylvania college, the oldest Luth- 
eran college. The general council was formed in 1867. 
The seminary in Philadelphia, opened in 1864, became its 
theological school, and Muhlenberg college, which was 
begun as a seminary in 1848 and became a college in 1867, 
was its college and the feeder to the Theological seminary. 
Another theological seminary was established in Chicago 
in 1 89 1, with the specific purpose of {providing the mission 
field of the middle west with an English ministry, irrespec- 
tive of synodical connection. The Augustana (Swedish) 
synod, one of the synods of this body, has labored with 
great vigor for the education of its people. A college was 
maintained by the conference in Minnesota for several years 
before the organization of the synod in i860. The theo- 
logical seminary, now established at Rock Island, 111., was 
founded at the same time with the organization of the 
synod. Three colleges have been established. 

The synodical conference, organized in 1872, is the 
largest general Lutheran body. The first school in the 
synods composing it was founded in 1839. ^ nas a ^ u ^ 
series of educational institutions, including three theological 
seminaries, six colleges and universities, and three normal 
schools, and maintains its parochial schools carefully. 

The Theological seminary of the united synod, south, 
was opened in 1833. Its first college, Roanoke college, 
founded as such by the Lutherans of Virginia in 1853, 
originated in an academy that was started in 1843. 

The growth of the Lutheran high schools has been rapid 
since 1848. During this period 17 seminaries have been 
established, 39 colleges or institutions which have become 
colleges, and 33 ladies' seminaries. 



1 6 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [988 

The Lutheran church in the United States represents 
several periods of immigration, and includes in its constitu- 
ency memberships of German, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish 
and Finnish nationalities, as well as other nationalities in 
smaller numbers. The general bodies and synods have 
been formed according to the affiliations produced by these 
conditions. The church at present consists of four general 
bodies and fifteen independent synods. Of the churches of 
foreign nationalities, some have affiliated themselves with 
the larger bodies, and others have formed themselves into 
independent synods, so that the list of these organizations 
includes German, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic and Fin- 
nish synods, many of which have established schools of their 
own, or, in some instances, send their youth to the schools 
of other Lutheran bodies. 

According to the statistical tables prepared for the 
Lutheran church almanac for 1904, the Lutherans in the 
United States have altogether 116 educational institutions, 
of which 23 are theological seminaries or departments, with 
87 professors, 1,021 students, property valued at $1,600,600, 
and endowment funds amounting to $768,464 ; 50 colleges, 
with 557 professors, 9,114 students, $3,022,716 of property, 
and $1,016,301 of endowment funds; 32 academies, with 
146 instructors, 2,906 students, $720, 100 of property, and 
$58,000 of endowment funds, and 1 1 colleges for women, 
with 117 instructors, 1,043 students, and $583,500 of prop- 
erty; giving in all 907 professors, 14,084 students, 2,679 °f 
whom had the ministry in view, $5,926,916 of property, and 
$1,842,765 of endowment funds. Five thousand two hun- 
dred and forty parochial schools are returned, with 3,350 
teachers and 234,175 pupils. 

THE CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH 

The Congregationalists have been diligent in the promo- 
tion of education of all grades and in the building up of: 
elementary and high schools, academies and colleges, from 
the beginning of settlement in New England. The history 



989] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION I J 

of the earliest schools in New England is identified with 
them. The system of public schools originated with them 
when they were the dominant factor in public administra- 
tion in the earlier period of New England history. The 
foundations of most of the older colleges in New England 
— including Harvard (which has passed under Unitarian 
influences), Yale, Dartmouth, Williams, Middlebury and 
Bowdoin colleges — were laid by them. Many of the oldest 
and best-known preparatory academies were established and 
have been maintained by them ; they were early in urging 
and promoting the better education of girls and women ; 
and they have kept pace with the westward advance of 
settlement, sending out teachers for elementary schools 
and planting colleges and academies as fast as settlers 
gathered. 

Without having formulated a specific and binding creed, 
the Congregationalists agree in holding to the Trinitarian 
school of faith ; and they have been at pains to maintain 
the orthodoxy of their schools. When Unitarian views 
were declared in the theological professorship of Harvard 
university, they established a seminary at Andover, Mass., 
in 1808, "to provide for a learned, orthodox and pious min- 
istry," and in 182 1 they founded a college at Amherst, Mass., 
where students could be prepared under their own direction 
to enter upon their studies at the seminary. A scheme to 
found a Christian settlement and a school for the extension 
of Christian influences over the Mississippi valley led to 
the establishment of Oberlin college, Ohio, in 1833. I n 
the first annual report of this institution, its objects were 
defined to be the thorough education of ministers and pious 
school teachers ; the elevation of female character, and the 
education of the common people with the higher classes in 
such a manner as suits the nature of republican institutions. 
The theological department was regarded as an organic 
part of the school and as the culmination of the course of 
study. Young women were received as students on the 
same terms as young men, and no exclusion or distinction 



1 8 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [990 

was made on the ground of color. Carrying into effect 
ideas and principles then novel Oberlin college held for a 
long time a unique place among American institutions for 
the higher education. 

Mount Holyoke seminary (founded in 1837), ultimately 
dropping the features of a manual labor school with which 
it beean, became an institution for women of the broadest 
scope, was the parent of many similar schools, introduced 
new ideas in the education of women, and was the fore- 
runner of numerous women's colleges of a new order and 
superior character. 

As the Congregationalists have no authoritative organi- 
zation larger than the individual church, their educa- 
tional work has been done by voluntary bodies, state asso- 
ciations, general societies like their national missionary and 
educational societies and boards or committees instituted 
for special objects. Many schools and colleges were founded 
in the west during the earlier part of the nineteenth cen- 
tury by Congregationalists and Presbyterians co-operating 
under a plan of union. The Congregational Education 
Society has been constituted of three societies, the oldest 
of which, founded in 1816, was intended to assist young 
men in preparing for the ministry ; the second to assist 
young colleges ; and the third to maintain schools in Utah 
and New Mexico. In 1902 it had assisted 9,000 students in 
obtaining their education; was aiding 145 students, 3 col- 
leges and 34 academies and mission schools, and held a trust 
fund of $158,156, the income of which was to be applied 
exclusively to the aid of students. 

The educational institutions under Congregational con- 
trol or influence include 8 theological seminaries and 37 
colleges listed in the Congregational year book for 1903 ; 
and, according to the report of the United States commis- 
sioner of education for 1900-01, 45 secondary schools, with 
225 instructors and 2,792 students. 

The contributions of the Congregational churches of the 
United States during the years 1900, 1901, and 1902, for 



991] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION Ig 

increase in the permanent funds of educational institutions 
for endowment, building, etc., were $8,876,369. 

THE UNITARIAN CHURCH 

The Unitarian churches emphasize the value of intellec- 
tual culture as an adjunct of religion. They have been 
zealous and efficient in promoting education in every form, 
and have contributed greatly to its advancement in the 
United States. They have given the country many excel- 
lent scholars, skilled and sagacious educational administra- 
tors, and famous teachers. Their most efficient work in educa- 
tion has been done in an advisory way and by aiding schools 
needing help rather than by establishing and maintaining 
many schools of their own. They thus co-operated with the 
Christian connection in re-establishing Antioch college in 
1882, and have assisted the African Methodist Episcopal 
church in its educational enterprises. Their work is carried 
on through the American Unitarian Association, special 
societies, and district societies. Unitarians exercise the pre- 
dominating influence in the management of Harvard uni- 
versity. Their Divinity school at Cambridge, Mass., was 
founded about 1817. Its constitution provides that every 
encouragement shall be given " to the serious, impartial, 
and unbiased investigation of Christian truth, and that no 
assent to the peculiarities of any denomination of Chris- 
tians shall be required either of instructors or students." 
The theological school at Meadville, Penn., was established 
in 1844, with a charter likewise forbidding the imposition 
of doctrinal tests. The Hackley school for boys, at Tarry- 
town, N. Y., and Prospect Hill school for girls, at Green- 
field, Mass., a school for liberal education, are. under the 
care of the American Unitarian Association. Proctor 
academy, Andover, N. H., is maintained by the Unitarian 
Education Society of New Hampshire. Two industrial 
schools in Boston are supported by the Unitarian churches, 
one of them partly from invested funds. The society for 
promoting theological education, of Bostor -eeks to enlarge 



20 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [992 

the apparatus of theological instruction, and affords assist- 
ance to meritorious students. in the Divinity school of Har- 
vard university. 

THE PRESBYTERIAN AND REFORMED CHURCHES 

The pioneer preachers of the churches of the Presbyterian 
family in the United States were nearly all likewise teachers, 
and as a rule began a school wherever they planted a church. 
In the earlier years of the nineteenth century, the settlers 
of new states often owed their first schools to the Presby- 
terian missionaries who established classes for instruction in 
their own houses. In some of these states the influence of 
Presbyterian communities and ministers was marked in the 
promotion of movements which ultimately resulted in the 
institution of general systems of public education. The 
means of securing a learned ministry engaged the attention 
of the earliest Presbyterian settlers in Pennsylvania. A 
proposition for the erection of a school of learning was 
approved by the synod of Philadelphia in 1739. A com- 
mittee was appointed to carry the design into effect ; and 
the synodal school was established in 1744. A school was 
begun at Elizabethtown, N. J., under the auspices of the 
synod of New York, and having been removed to Princeton 
in 1757, became the College of New Jersey under charters 
which had been granted in 1746 and 1748. In 1782, Dr. 
John McMillan, the first Presbyterian minister who crossed 
the Alleghany mountains, opened a school in his log house 
in Washington county, Penn., which has became famous 
in Presbyterian educational annals as the "log college." 
Shortly afterwards, Dr. Thaddeus Dods, having followed 
Dr. McMillan across the mountains, began another school 
in the same county. The school of Dr. McMillan developed 
into Jefferson college in 1802, and the school of Dr. Dods 
was chartered as Washington college four years later. The 
two institutions were united in 1855 as Washington and 
Jefferson college. The one hundredth anniversary of the 
incorporation of Jefferson college was celebrated in 1903, 



993] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 21 

with general interest in all branches of the Presbyterian 
church. 

For many years in the earlier part of the nineteenth 
century, the Presbyterians and Congregationalists co-oper- 
ated under what was called the "plan of union" in the 
extension of missionary and educational work in the new 
western states and territories. Under this joint operation 
many schools as well as churches were built up, which ulti- 
mately became Presbyterian or Congregational, according 
to the predominant denominational affiliations of their 
constituencies. 

The theological seminary at Princeton, N. J., was estab- 
lished in 1 812. Eight other theological seminaries and six 
colleges, other than the one at Princeton, were founded 
previous to 1837, when the church was divided into two 
branches, which were known as the Old and the New School 
Presbyterian churches. With the existing schools and col- 
leges divided between them the two churches developed 
their educational interests on lines similar to those already 
pursued, till 1872, when they were reunited to constitute the 
.Presbyterian church in the United States of America ; but, in 
the meantime, the synods of the southern states had become 
separated during the Civil war, and had been organized into 
an independent body, which was called the Presbyterian 
church in the United States. 

Soon after the reunion of the northern branches of the 
church steps were taken to increase the educational efficiency 
of the denomination. The general assembly for 1877 
ordered an inquiry with a view to devising some plan for the 
better endowment of the collegiate and theological institu- 
tions of" the church, and the general assembly of 1883 insti- 
tuted the Presbyterian Board of Aid for Colleges and 
Academies, to have in charge the locating, assisting and 
endowing of institutions of learning, with special reference 
to the supply of missionaries and teachers for the frontier. 
This board reported in 1901 that during the eighteen years 
of its existence it had aided 78 institutions in 29 states and 



2 2 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [994 

territories ; had assisted by the grant of loans in the forma- 
tion of 36 schools ; had helped 26 schools to free themselves 
from debt, and had collected endowment funds amounting 
to $413,754 for 13 schools, while the total sum of $2,312,909 
had been gathered, used or invested in the work. Contri- 
butions for the year of $222,000 were reported in 1902, 
when 22 colleges and academies were receiving aid, having 
property valued at $1,230,501, and 3,073 students; and, in 
1903, contributions of $185,906, and 25 institutions aided, 
with an increased attendance of students. 

Thirty-nine colleges and universities are affiliated with 
this church, of which four are women's colleges, and two are 
under joint control with the Presbyterian church in the 
United States. 

A fund called a twentieth century fund was instituted 
by the general assembly of 1899, to be collected for various 
religious and benevolent objects. Of $12,039,064 which 
had been contributed to this fund to the time of the meet- 
ing of the general assembly in 1903, $1,543,500 had been 
appropriated to the benefit of the educational institutions of 
the church. 

THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES 

The Southern Presbyterian church, officially known as 
the Presbyterian church in the United States, came out of 
the Civil war impoverished, with most of its educational 
institutions ruined. The work of restoring them was slow 
and arduous, but the enlargement and extension of the educa- 
tional privileges open to the people of the church have been 
carried on vigorously. The religious character of the edu- 
cational work of this church is one of its prominent features. 
The general assembly of 1903 urged presbyteries and con- 
gregations to bend every energy to maintain and defend 
the system of Christian education established by the found- 
ers of the Presbyterian church. To this end the support 
and patronage of the assembly would be given to those 
academies and colleges in which biblical instruction was com- 



995] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 2$ 

bined with the usual courses of study in classical, literary and 
scientific subjects. 

Ninety-two Presbyterian secondary schools (including 
both the northern and southern churches) are enumerated 
in the report of the United States commissioner of edu- 
cation for 1900-01. 

THE UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH 

The American presbytery of the Associate church secured 
a teacher for ministerial students in 1778, and opened a 
theological seminary, with a small library, in 1792. The 
synod of the Associated Reformed church established a 
school with a library in the city of New York in 1804. 
These two bodies were united in 1858 to constitute the 
United Presbyterian church, which has two theological 
seminaries and five colleges. A college for colored students 
established by it at Knoxville, Tenn., has been made the 
colored department of the University of Tennessee. 

THE REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH 

The two branches of the Reformed Presbyterian church 
in North America and the Associated Reformed synod of 
the south have each a theological school and a college- 

THE CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH 

The first synod of the Cumberland Presbyterian church, 
at the beginning- of its organization, prescribed a course of 
study and provided a library for the young preachers. The 
work of education took the form of a general enterprise in 
1825, when Cumberland synod undertook the establishment 
of a college at Princeton, Ky. This institution was opened 
in 1829, but was discontinued in 1861. Cumberland uni- 
versity, Lebanon, Tenn., founded in 1842, had at one time 
the leading law school in the south. The principal theo- 
logical seminary of the church is connected with this institu- 
tion. The Cumberland Presbyterian church now has schools 
and colleges in Pennsylvania, Illinois, Missouri, Oregon, 
Kentucky, Arkansas, the Indian Territory, Texas, Missis- 
sippi, Alabama and Tennessee. 



24 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [996 

The colored Cumberland Presbyterian church has a nor- 
mal, industrial and theological institute at Newbern, Tenn., 
and other schools. 

THE REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA 

formerly the Reformed Dutch church, is the oldest 
church with a Presbyterian form of government in the 
United States, having been the church of the original 
Dutch settlers of New Netherlands or New York. In the 
earlier schools of this colony, the West India Company 
having failed to furnish sufficient teachers as it had prom- 
ised to do, schoolmasters were supported by voluntary tax- 
ation of the people, and were obliged to pass examination 
before the classis. The parochial school connected with 
the church in New York had a long history, having been 
founded in 1633. A high school was opened in 1659. The 
English authorities did not favor the Dutch schools, and for 
some time after the colony came under their rule, ministerial 
candidates were sent to Holland for education, or taught by 
pastors at home. The foundation for a theological chair 
for the Dutch in King's college was contemplated in 1755, 
but was not carried out. Another scheme for establishing 
a distinctly Dutch institution in New Jersey, and for which 
a charter was procured in 1 766, proved unpopular because 
it was not American. Queen's college, now Rutgers college 
at New Brunswick, N. J., was chartered in 1771. The 
Reformed church co-operated with other denominations in 
the foundation of Union college, Schenectady, N. Y., which 
has furnished a considerable number of its ministers. The 
beginning of a theological seminary was made in 1784, 
when two professors were appointed. The seminary was 
permanently located in New Brunswick, N. J. Hope col- 
lege was established at Holland, Mich., in 1863, and a theo- 
logical school was associated with it in 1869 for the instruc- 
tion of Dutch settlers in that region. 



997] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 25 

THE REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES 

The interest in their schools of the early German settlers 
in Pennsylvania of the Reformed church was revived and 
stimulated by the Rev. Michael Schlatter, who came as a 
missionary from Holland in 1746. The beneficial results of 
his efforts extended beyond the bounds of his church. The 
public schools were not at first favored by these people, on 
^account of their failure to provide religious instruction, but 
they have, to a large extent, taken the place of the parochial 
schools. Franklin college at Lancaster, Penn., was chartered 
in 1787, and was directed by the Reformed and Lutheran 
churches jointly. A theological seminary, was established 
in 1825. Marshall college, which grew out of a classical 
school connected with the theological seminary, was estab- 
lished in 1835. It and Franklin college were united in 1853 
to constitute Franklin and Marshall college. Heidelberg 
college was founded by the synod of Ohio at Tiffin in 1850. 
Catawba college, North Carolina, founded in 1857, is the 
only institution of college grade in the south controlled by 
the denomination. 

THE CHRISTIAN REFORMED CHURCH 

The Christian Reformed church in North America, a 
body of Dutch nationality and language, has a theological 
school at Grand Rapids, Mich., which was founded in 1876, 
with 4 theological and 4 literary teachers, and 21 students 
in the theological and 53 in the literary department. Its 
25 parish schools had in 1902 an enrollment of 2,506 pupils. 

THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH 

The educational history of the Methodist Episcopal 
church begins with its organization in 1784, when the first 
general conference took measures for the foundation of a 
college, the objects of which were defined to be provision 
for the sons of ministers and preachers, the education and 
support of poor orphans, and the establishment of a semi- 
nary for children, where learning and religion might go 



26 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [998 

hand in hand. The college, Cokesbury college, was started 
at Abingdon, Md., at a cost of $40,000, nearly all collected 
in small sums from a denomination numbering not more 
than 18,000 members. It was opened in 1787 under condi- 
tions of promise, and had a prosperous career for about twelve 
years, when it was given up under the stress caused by hav- 
ing suffered the loss of two buildings in succession by fire. 
Other schools were begun in Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsyl- 
vania, North Carolina, Georgia and South Carolina, in 
which the bishops and leading men of the church were inter- 
ested. The first really successful and permanent school, 
which still exists, projected in 181 5 and authorized by the 
New England conference in 181 6, was opened at Newmar- 
ket, N. H., in 181 7, and removed to Wilbraham, Mass., in 
1824. Augusta college, Kentucky, was chartered in 1822, 
and was continued as a Methodist college till 1849. By a 
resolution of the general conference of 1820 the annual con- 
ferences were advised to take up the work of education. A 
seminary or school of academic grade was established by 
the Genesee annual conference in Cazenovia, N. Y., in 

1824. In this and in the next two institutions of academic 
grade, Maine Wesleyan seminary, Kent's Hill, opened in 

1825, and Genesee Wesleyan seminary, Lima, N. Y., opened 
in 1832, young men and young women were admitted on 
terms of equality. The first Methodist school of collegiate 
grade, Wesleyan university, was opened for college students 
at Middletown, Conn., in 1831. Since then the establish- 
ment and maintenance of secondary schools for both young 
men and young women, colleges and universities, in the 
Methodist churches, north and south, have been pursued 
with a vigor equal to that exhibited by any other 
denomination. 

A board of education was constituted by the general con- 
ference of the Methodist Episcopal church in 1868 to exer- 
cise a general supervision over the educational work of 
the church, and particularly to act as a general agency for 
it in aiding students and schools, and in collecting and 



999] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 2J 

diffusing - educational information. Since it began its work 
in 1873 it has aided 11,709 students with loans aggregating 
$1,161,225, and is now aiding annually about 1,850 students. 
Measures were enacted by the general conference of 1876 
intended to secure the interest of every individual church 
in denominational education. The standard of qualifica- 
tion for degrees which may be conferred by the denom- 
inational colleges is regulated by the university senate, 
which has been created by the general conference for that 
purpose. 

The Methodist Episcopal church has so far had the lead- 
ership in the foundation of the American university, which 
has been projected to be a Protestant post-graduate univer- 
sity at the capital of the nation, for which a tract of land has 
been purchased, one building has been completed, another 
is in course of construction, and funds and subscriptions of 
about $2,700,000 have been collected. 

The list of institutions connected with this church in the 
United States in 1903 comprises 13 theological institutions, 
53 colleges and universities, 52 classical seminaries, 9 insti- 
tutions exclusively for women, 4 missionary institutes and 
Bible training schools; in all, subtracting 19 institutions 
duplicated, 112 institutions, with 2,852 professors and teach- 
ers, 47,731 students, and $34,994,861 of property and endow- 
ments, exclusive of debt. 

Of $20,656,970 contributed by the membership of this 
church between 1898 and the close of 1903 as a twentieth 
century thank-offering fund to be applied to the mis- 
sionary, educational and benevolent enterprises of the 
church and the payment of church debts, $8,150,613 were 
appropriated to educational purposes. 

A biblical institute was founded in pursuance of the 
action of a convention which met in Boston, Mass., in 1839. 
It has become identified with the .Boston university school 
of theology. The Methodist Episcopal church now has 22 
theological seminaries and departments, of which 13 are 
in the United States, and 9 are connected with its missions 



28 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [lOOO 

in China, India, Japan, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Nor- 
way, Finland, Italy, and Mexico. 

THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH SOUTH 

After the division of the Methodist Episcopal church in 
1844, three colleges, among which was Randolph Macon 
college, the second of the Methodist colleges in the order 
of foundation, were awarded to the Methodist Episcopal 
church south. Several other colleges were added prior 
to 1 86 1, but were practically ruined by the Civil war. 
In beginning anew the building up of its colleges, the 
church was aided by the gifts of Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, 
of New York, in establishing Vanderbilt university on a 
liberal scale. It has re-established its schools so well and 
increased them that in 1902 it returned jy institutions, with 
11,983 students and buildings, equipments and endowments 
valued at $7,522,583. Reports made to the general con- 
ference in 1902 concerning an effort to raise a twentieth 
century thank offering fund for education of $1,500,000, 
showed that a sum closely approximating that amount had 
been obtained in cash collections. 

The general conference of 1902, assuming that the edu- 
cational policy of the church aimed at a well-organized 
system in which there should be no waste of money, resolved 
that the purpose of the church should be not so much to 
establish new secondary schools as to care for such as had 
proved themselves worthy ; that the policy of having the 
secondary institutions of each annual conference correlate 
themselves with the colleges of that conference should be 
insisted upon and enforced ; and that the conferences, in 
making their collections for education, should, so far as 
possible, concentrate those collections on the colleges and 
secondary schools of the church. 

THE COLORED METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCHES 

The subject of making provision for the education of the 
colored people engaged the attention of the Cincinnati con- 



IOOl] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 29 

ference of the Methodist Episcopal church in 1853. A plan 
of co-operation was proposed to the African Methodist 
Episcopal church, and was approved by the Methodist 
Episcopal general conference in 1856. In pursuance of this 
plan, Wilberforce university, Ohio, was opened in 1856, 
with the education of colored men to be teachers, or for 
other callings, as one of its leading objects. The institution 
was transferred to the African Methodist Episcopal church 
in 1863. There were reported to the general conference 
of this church in 1900 (the last) 20 institutions, with 165 
teachers and 5,237 students, from which 660 students had 
been graduated. Between 1884 and 1889, $1,140,013 had 
been raised in the church for education. 

The African Methodist Episcopal Zion church had in 1901 
5 denominational schools of high grade with school property 
valued at $165,000. 

Schools have been established by the Colored Methodist 
Episcopal church, in the support of which it has been aided 
by the Methodist Episcopal church, south. 

THE NON-EPISCOPAL METHODIST CHURCHES 

The Methodist Protestant church has educational institu- 
tions in Michigan, Maryland, Kansas, Ohio, Texas and Illi- 
nois, and in connection with its missions in Japan. 

The Wesleyan Methodist church in America maintains a 
school of college grade. 

The Free Methodist church has a college and six second- 
ary schools. 

AFFILIATED CHURCHES 

Of other churches agreeing generally with the Methodist 
churches in doctrine and polity, although not classifying 
themselves as Methodists, the Evangelical Association, 
organized in 1800, established its first college, the North- 
western college, in 1 861, in connection with which a divinity 
school was founded. It has also colleges and academies in 
Pennsylvania, Iowa, Oregon, and other states. The gen- 
eral conference of 1898 advised that theological depart- 
ments be associated with all the institutions. 



3<3 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [l002 

The United Evangelical church, which was separated 
from the Evangelical Association in 1891, has three colleges. 

The United Brethren church founded Otterbein univer- 
sity at Westerville, Ohio, in 1846. In 1890 the church 
suffered a division into two branches, both retaining the 
orio-inal name of the church. The larger branch has a bibli- 
cal seminary, 7 colleges and universities, and 4 academies. 
The smaller branch has educational institutions in the states 
of Washington, Oregon and Indiana. 

THE BAPTIST CHURCH 

The earliest recorded act of a Baptist in behalf of educa- 
tion in the United States was the foundation of a divinity 
professorship in Harvard college in 1721 by Thomas Hollis, 
of London, who imposed no religious test, but required that 
Baptists should not be excluded from the privileges of the 
class. Measures looking to the education of Baptist minis- 
ters were considered in the Charleston, S. C, Baptist asso- 
ciation in 1755, and in the Philadelphia association. An 
academy was opened at Hopewell, N. J., in 1756. In 1763, 
the Rev. James Manning, a graduate of the College of New 
Jersey, co-operating with the Baptist association of Phila- 
delphia, sought the aid and influence of the Baptists of 
Rhode Island for the establishment of an institution of 
learning in the interest of their denomination. They 
founded the College of Rhode Island, the charter of which 
embodied the provisions that the majority of the trustees 
should be Baptists, the others being Friends, Congrega- 
tionalists and Episcopalians, and that no religious tests 
should be admitted, while " full, free, and absolute liberty 
of conscience should be enjoyed by all the members." This 
institution has become Brown university. A general move- 
ment of Baptists in behalf of education dates from the hold- 
ing of the first "general missionary convention of the 
Baptist denomination in North America in behalf of foreign 
missions," in Philadelphia, 1814, when the importance of 
providing Baptist educational institutions was urged by the 



IOO3] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 3 1 

presiding officer, Richard Furman, and a plan was set forth 
for establishing a national school at Washington, D. C, to 
be fed by schools and academies supported by Baptists in 
the several states. The plan was never realized in the shape 
in which it was proposed, but several theological schools 
were opened, societies were formed to aid young men pre- 
paring for the ministry ; and colleges were established at 
Waterville, Me., Washington, D. C, and (in 1832) Hamil- 
ton, N. Y. At a state convention for the promotion of 
educational and missionary interests, meeting in South 
Carolina in 1825, a site was selected for a school to be sup- 
ported by the Baptists of the state, which is now represented 
in Furman university. 

Beginning with the foundation of Georgetown college, 
Kentucky, in 1829, great activity was displayed by Baptists 
in establishing schools and colleges, and for the next forty 
years, except during the interval of the Civil war, a new col- 
lege was added to the list nearly every two years. Cor- 
responding energy was exhibited in the multiplication of 
high schools, academies and girls' schools. Not all of these 
institutions, however, have survived. 

Many Baptist schools and colleges were established in the 
south previous to the Civil war. Activity in that work was 
suspended for thirty years afterward, or till the region had 
recovered from the losses it had suffered. Since it was 
resumed, the work has been carried on with a vieor at least 
equal to that shown in any previous period, and which has 
never been more marked than at the present time. 

Of the societies that have been formed at different times 
to promote Baptist educational interests, one organized in 
1850 sought to secure an adequate endowment for a theo- 
logical seminary in the northwest. The American Baptist 
Education Commission was very successful about 1870 in 
stimulating interest in denominational education. 

The American Baptist Education Society, organized in 
1888, seeks to promote the endowment of Baptist institu- 
tions of learning, and secures subscriptions of funds out of 



32 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [1OO4 

which sums are given to institutions seeking endowment on 
condition of their securing by their own efforts other sub- 
scriptions of a specified amount. 

In 1902, this society reported that in the twelve years of 
its existence it had paid $1,069,520 in grants to Baptist 
institutions, while the aggregate collections made by the 
institutions to meet the grants, including $400,000 by the 
University of Chicago, had been $2,081,625, giving a total 
of $3,151,145. 

Among the contributions of Baptist colleges to educational 
development may be mentioned the system of elective 
studies, which was first proposed by President Francis Way- 
land of Brown university. Dr. Wayland published a book 
in 1842 in which he criticised the current classical curriculum 
and advised its reconstruction. In 1850 he presented a 
report to the board of governors of the university advocating 
the adoption of an elective system, the provision of an oppor- 
tunity for specialization in college studies, the arrangement 
of more extended courses in science and the abolition of the 
four years' term. His recommendations were adopted. 

The American Baptist year book for 1903 gives lists of 
9 Baptist theological seminaries with 1,088 students ; 100 
universities and colleges with 31,314 students, and 91 acade- 
mies with 15,041 students. These institutions returned 
property having an aggregate value of $24,703,148, and 
endowment funds of $24,192,965. 

OTHER BAPTIST CHURCHES 

The Free Will Baptist church has 5 colleges, 4 institu- 
tions of academic grade and 1 institute for colored people. 

The Seventh-Day Baptist church has 1 university, with 
a theological department, 2 colleges and 2 academies. 

OTHER RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS 

Disciples of Christ — The first college of the Disciples of 
Christ, Bethany college, West Virginia, was founded by the 
Rev. Alexander Campbell, under whose ministry the denomi- 
nation originated. At about the same time the Disciples in 



IOO5] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 33 

Ohio and Indiana were contemplating the establishment of 
colleges. An academy was opened in Ohio in 1850, which 
became Hiram college in 1867. >The Northwestern Christian 
university (now Butler university) was founded at Indian- 
apolis, Ind., in 1853. The Disciples of Christ have several 
schools and colleges in the western and southern states. A 
Bible school for colored ministers was opened in Louisville, 
Ky., in 1874. Efforts have been made to endow Bible 
chairs in some of the large universities. 

Friends — The proper education of their young people is 
regarded as one of their highest duties by the Friends, who 
have always seen that schools were provided wherever their 
societies existed. They were associated with the institution 
of the first public school in Pennsylvania. The Friends' 
school in Providence, R. I., has had a continuous existence 
of more than one hundred years. Colleges are sustained in 
most of the yearly meetings, the reputation of some of 
which extends beyond the bounds of the society. Fifty- 
three secondary Friends' schools are enumerated by the 
United States commissioner of education with 291 teachers 
and 2,709 pupils. 

Christian Connection — The Christian connection, a group 
of churches, the oldest of which date from near the begin- 
ning of the nineteenth century, and represented in northern 
and southern conventions, has a Biblical institute and eight 
colleges, one of which is for colored students. 

Universalists — The Universalists maintain 13 academic 
and collegiate schools, including three divinity schools and 
one medical school. 

German Evangelical Church — The German Evangelical 
church in North America, which was formed in 1840 by 
ministers and missionaries of the Evangelical church of 
Prussia, registers 117 teachers in parochial schools, and sus- 
tains a pro-seminary and a theological seminary and college. 
Originally wholly German, it now has a considerable Eng- 
lish element, for which provision is made in the publication 
of school books. 



34 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [l006 

Moravians — The schools of the Moravians, while they 
are not numerous, have been maintained for more than one 
hundred years. 

Hebrews — The Hebrews in the United States have 
availed themselves assiduously of the opportunies afforded 
by the public schools, where their children are noted for 
diligence in study and proficiency in scholarship. In their 
several communities they supplement the instruction given 
in these schools with special religious training and teaching 
in Biblical history and doctrine and Jewish literature and 
philosophy. This instruction has been extended from time 
to time, and now embraces many grades. Existing at first 
as scattered and distantly separated communities, the 
Hebrews were comparatively late in forming concerted 
organizations, but local efforts to instruct their youth were 
made earlier. A Hebrew Sunday school society celebrated 
its semi-centennial in Philadelphia in 1888. At a conven- 
tion held in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1879, a plan for organizing 
Jewish Sunday schools was presented, to which a consider- 
able number of congregations gave their adhesion ; and 
Sunday schools for religious instruction have become a 
common institution in numerous Jewish communities. The 
Hebrew Free School Association of New York was formed 
in 1875, an d established schools in which Hebrew spelling 
and reading, translations of prayers and most of the Penta- 
teuch, Biblical history and the first rudiments of grammar 
were taught. Its work, greatly enlarged and extended, is 
now carried on with great vigor by the Educational Alli- 
ance. Hebrew general schools were established in Phila- 
delphia, and Maimonides college for the higher instruction 
was founded there about 1868, with a faculty -of superior 
qualifications, but failed to attract many students. An 
effort was begun in 1872 for the union of all American 
Israelites, which resulted in the formation of the Union 
of American Hebrew Congregations. Under the auspices 
of this body the Hebrew Union college, at Cincinnati, Ohio, 
was founded in 1875. In 1876 the delegates of fifteen con- 



IOO7] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 35 

gregations from different cities met in New York to con- 
sider plans for the founding and maintenance of a Jewish 
institution of learning, and for furthering the propagation 
of Jewish ideas. It advised the fostering and encourage- 
ment of the study and knowledge of the Hebrew language 
through congregational and general free schools, and other 
institutions, with the establishment of chairs for teaching 
science in the higher departments, or, if possible in the 
future, of an independent theological seminary. In 1886 
the establishment of a theological seminary to train minis- 
ters " to understand, to enlighten, to obey, to learn and to 
teach, to observe, and to perform Jewish law," was proposed 
by the Rev. Dr. Morais. The organization of a seminary 
in the city of New York was effected in the same year, and 
the institution was opened in January, 1887. A charter 
having been obtained for the Jewish Theological seminary 
of America in 1902, this institution was merged in it, upon 
the condition that the new school should be run upon 
the lines of the old one. In April, 1903, a new building 
for the seminary, the gift of Mr. Jacob H. Schiff, was dedi- 
cated in the city of New York. The history of Jewish 
educational enterprises in recent years has been marked by 
continuous activity manifested in different parts of the 
country, in the establishment of industrial, technical, and 
agricultural schools ; the provision of lecture courses on 
Hebrew and Biblical subjects, increase in the number of 
Sunday school associations, and the institution of normal 
instruction for Sabbath school teachers ; the organization 
and work of Gratz college, Philadelphia ; the establishment 
of a chair of Rabbinical literature in Columbia university ; 
the work of the National Council of Jewish women, with 
the organization of circles for study and the maintenance of 
mission schools, kindergartens and sewing and industrial 
schools ; the successful career of the Jewish Chautauqua, a 
summer school, and the activity of the Jewish publication 
and historical societies ; in all of which the advancement of 
Hebrew knowledge and the elevation of the Hebrew peo- 



36 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [l008 

pie who have come to live among us have been the prime 
objects sought. 

Since the great immigration of Jews from Russia began, 
the Hebrews have undertaken the new task of caring for 
their incoming co-religionists by assisting them to the 
means of earning their livings, and helping them qualify 
themselves for American citizenship. In this effort they 
are aided by the fund instituted by the late Baron de Hirsch 
for the benefit of European Hebrews seeking new homes 
abroad, by the aid of which farm colonies and trade centres 
have been established, and educational facilities have been 
provided, with agricultural and trade schools. 

One interesting feature of the educational work among 
the Jews is to be found in the large number of organizations 
laboring in the Hebrew communities of cities, where large 
numbers of children are cared for, under circumstances which 
indicate sacrifice on the part of their parents. One of the 
largest and most efficient of these organizations is the Edu- 
cational Alliance in the city of New York, whose work for 
the moral and intellectual improvement of the quarter of 
the city principally inhabited by Jews is carried on in many 
departments. Its activities include kindergarten work, ele- 
mentary and academic classes, classes in letters, science, 
commerce, domestic art and science, the fine arts and music, 
Jewish history, Hebrew, religious and moral work, Baron de 
Hirsch classes in English for immigrant children and adult 
foreigners, clubs, of which there are about fifty, lecture 
courses for which men of standard reputation in their sev- 
eral fields are engaged, and entertainments. The Alliance 
has an endowment fund of $148,950, and valuable buildings. 
Its classes and clubs had a registered attendance in 1902 of 
7,073 persons, and a gross attendance of 520,162. 

Corresponding interest with that shown by the denomina- 
tions here mentioned is taken by numerous smaller or more 
newly organized denominations, which have, or hope to 
have, schools of their own. 



IOO9] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 37 

FREEDMEN'S SCHOOLS 

The condition of the negroes set free during the Civil 
war at once attracted the attention of the denominational 
home missionary societies, and steps were taken without 
delay to care for their religious and educational needs. The 
American Missionary Association of the Congregational 
churches established a day school in 1861 for the contra- 
bands that were gathered at Fortress Monroe. This was 
the beginning of the undenominational Hampton institute. 
The agents of the association followed the progress of the 
Union armies, opening schools wherever the opportunity 
was offered. In 1 865 it began to establish permanent schools 
among the freedmen for the education of ministers and 
teachers, including, as its work developed, collegiate, nor- 
mal and common schools, and in time departments for pro- 
fessional and technical instruction. It has also recently, as 
have other religious societies interested in education in the 
south, established schools for the white people living in 
the Southern Appalachian mountains. In 1903 it had six 
chartered institutions, 44 normal and graded schools and 14 
common schools in the south, of which 10 were mountain 
schools for whites, returning in all 476 instructors and 14,429 
pupils. 

The American Baptist Home Mission Society began its 
educational work in the south in 1862, and in 1903 was aid- 
ing 34 schools for colored people, the Indians, and the 
Mexicans, 12 of which were chartered institutions of the 
higher grade, with 6,198 pupils. Two hundred and sixty- 
three teachers were employed in these schools. 

The Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society of 
the Methodist Episcopal church, founded in 1866, has 14 
theological and collegiate and 10 academic schools among 
the colored people, and 6 theological and collegiate and 16 
academic schools among the mountain whites. 

The Board of Missions to Freedmen of the Northern Pres- 
byterian church returned, in 1903, 6 boarding schools, 12 



38 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [iOIO 

coeducational schools, 9 academies, and 57 parochial schools, 
with 1,954 young men and women in the boarding schools. 

The Committee of Colored Evangelization of the Southern 
Presbyterian church returned 4 colored schools of high and 
academic grade. It sustains an institute for the training of 
colored ministers at Tuscaloosa, Ala. 

The Protestant Episcopal commission for work among 
the colored people sustains two divinity schools and two 
academies for their instruction. 

The Fathers of St. Joseph's Society for Colored Missions 
of the Roman Catholic church have three institutions under 
their charge. More than 100 negro schools, with upwards 
of 8,500 pupils, are aided by the Commission for Catholic 
missions among the colored people and the Indians, which 
distributes the funds collected annually in behalf of these 
missions by order of the third plenary council of Baltimore. 

Many other denominational societies sustain at least one 
school among the colored people. 

In addition to the regular work of these colored schools, 
agricultural and industrial training and instruction in domes- 
tic occupations are given in many of them, where shops and 
model farms are provided. 

Schools among the Indians in the Indian Territory, on 
the reservations and in Alaska ; schools for the Chinese on 
the Pacific coast and in the large cities, and schools for for- 
eign populations at different places where they have accumu- 
lated, should be mentioned as features of the work of a 
number of home missionary societies. 

FOREIGN MISSION SCHOOLS 

A full view of denominational activity in education cannot 
he obtained without reference to the schools conducted in 
other lands by foreign missionary societies. The larger of 
these societies have built up systems of schools ranging from 
the elementary to the collegiate grade, often having depart- 
ments for industrial and professional instruction which have 
been very successful and have become influential. For the 



IOIl] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 39 

most part they have gained the confidence of the people 
among whom they have been established, and are appreciated 
by their rulers. 

CHARACTER AND RELATIONS OF THE DENOMINATIONAL COLLEGES 

The grade and scope of the instruction given in the 
denominational colleges vary. A large proportion of them 
were started as pioneer institutions, in newly-settled districts, 
where population was sparse and resources were scanty. 
They were mainly dependent upon a farming population 
who were as yet hardly able to raise from the soil more than 
the means of the plainest subsistence. If they received 
outside help, it was from societies which were never able to 
respond in full to the calls made upon them, and whose 
resources at the utmost fell far short of the needs of those 
they sought to assist. During the period of their growth, 
there were no large capitalists able and disposed to make 
great gifts to them, although donors of more modest but 
insufficient sums were not few. These institutions were 
adapted by their managers to the wants and conditions of 
the communities in which they were situated. Preparatory 
departments were opened, and the courses of studies were 
enlarged as the constituents of the schools became qualified 
and ready to receive more advanced instruction. The status 
of a full college was kept constantly in view, but the progress 
towards it was often very slow. The preparatory department 
is still kept up in a considerable number of the institutions, 
but it has been rendered less necessary by the development 
of the public schools. 

The older denominational colleges now teach all that is 
implied in the term college course in its usually accepted 
meaning — the Greek and Latin languages, mathematics, 
general history, topics in literature and philosophy, subjects 
bearing upon religious culture, and science more or less 
extensively and thoroughly according as they have means 
to procure apparatus and provide facilities for experiment. 
The scope of the instruction has been widened as knowledge 



40 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [lOI2 

has increased and as new branches of education have been 
added and new methods developed. A few of them have 
become full universities, affording facilities for the study of 
a very large variety of subjects, and for independent research, 
and many others are advancing toward that standard. 

The education of young women is well cared for. Schools 
especially for them are numerous, and are included, along 
with coeducational schools, in the enumeration of denomina- 
tional academies and secondary schools. A considerable 
number of colleges and universities are open to them on 
equal terms with young men. The colleges especially for 
women, established and maintained by the religious denom- 
inations or conducted under denominational influence, have 
taken a high rank among institutions of that grade. 

While these institutions have been started with the inter- 
ests of the denomination primarily in view, and care has 
been taken in their management that its influence should 
be the prevailing one, it has not as a rule been their custom 
to impose denominational tests on their students ; and in a 
large proportion of cases such tests have not been rigorously 
exacted from the teachers ; it being simply required that 
their teaching shall not be contrary to the denominational 
principles. In most instances it is insisted upon that the 
college, though denominational, is not sectarian. 

The relations of these colleges are generally with the 
district conferences, synods or dioceses, state or other local 
organizations, the missionary or educational societies, or 
with special associations formed within the denomination, 
but not often directly with the general body. Some of 
them have been founded by private parties and placed 
under the control of the denominational judicatory, which is 
exercised through representation on the board of trustees, 
or through visitatorial supervision. It is sometimes merely 
specified that a majority of the trustees shall be members 
of the denomination. 

The majority of the denominational colleges belong to 
the class of what are called small colleges. It is not antici- 



IOI3] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 4 1 

pated that they will ever attract large bodies of students or 
greatly enlarge their courses of study beyond the present" 
limits, except to adopt such modifications as may be 
required from time to time to m'eet the advance of knowl- 
edge and changes in social conditions. But it is believed 
that they offer advantages in the closer intercourse they 
allow between the professors and the students, the opportu- 
nities they afford for individual instruction and develop- 
ment, and their accessibility to students who would never 
be able to attend one of the larger institutions, which will 
always make them useful and entitle them to a recognized 
place in the educational system. 

THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES 

The preparation of suitably qualified ministers is shown 
in the records of the time to have been the primary and 
leading thought in the establishment of the earlier Ameri- 
can colleges and high schools. In the first settlements, 
whether they were English, Dutch or German, the congre- 
gations were dependent upon their mother countries for 
supplies of ministers. But their religious leaders had the 
foresight to perceive that these sources would soon cease to 
suffice. In fact, they never did suffice ; and in their efforts 
to meet the demands from the colonies, urgent appeals were 
made by the mother churches to their people to give their 
young men to this service ; and mingled with these were 
expressions of regret that so few young men offered them- 
selves to go abroad. The necessity for training ministers at 
home for home service became obvious, and prompted move^ 
ments to create schools where candidates could be given the 
required instruction. The provision of ministers engaged 
the attention of the earlier ecclesiastical assemblies, and was 
a subject of earnest consideration in the early meetings of 
the Lutheran ministerium and the coetus of the Reformed 
church in Pennsylvania. Where special professorships of 
divinity were not at first instituted as such in the colleges 
the instruction given was shaped with reference to qualifi- 



42 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [lOI4 

cation for the ministry ; the president of the institution 
was usually a divine of distinguished ability and piety, 
whose whole influence would tend to the furtherance of 
religious study and work, and who was prepared to give 
special aid and counsel to students having the ministry in 
view. The sermons of President Dwight, of Yale college, 
were prepared and arranged with special reference to their 
serving as a course of instruction in divinity. The Hollis 
professorship of divinity in Harvard university was founded 
in 1 72 1. A distinct theological seminary was founded by 
the Reformed Dutch church at New Brunswick, N. J., in 
1784. The Roman Catholics established their first theo- 
logical school in Baltimore, Md., in 1791. The American 
branch of the Associate church (Presbyterian) brought the 
Rev. John Smith from Scotland, who from 1778 to 1782, 
by appointment of the presbytery, " directed the studies of 
such as were pursuing a course with reference to the holy 
ministry," and having separated from the Scottish church 
in 1784, began a school in Pennsylvania in 1794, which is 
represented by the present theological seminary of the 
United Presbyterian church at Xenia, Ohio. The synod 
of the Associate Reformed church (now embodied in the 
United Presbyterian church) resolved in 1796 to establish 
a fund to sustain a professor of theology and to assist stu- 
dents ; and a fund of $5,000 having been collected by him 
in England, the seminary was opened in New York city in 
1804, under the direction of the Rev. J. M. Mason, D. D. 
The Moravian Theological seminary, at Bethlehem, Penn., 
was established in 1807; the Congregational seminary, at 
Andover, Mass., in 1807, in consequence of dissatisfaction at 
the trend of the teaching in the divinity professorship at 
Harvard university ; the seminary of the Presbyterians at 
Princeton, N. J., in 181 1 ; that of the Lutherans at Hart- 
wick, N. Y., in 181 5 ; the Unitarian seminary at Cambridge, 
Mass., about 181 7; the Baptist seminary at Hamilton, N. 
Y., in 18 1 9 and the General Theological seminary of the 
Protestant Episcopal church in New York, in 1820. Sixty 



IOI5] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 43 

seminaries had been established in i860. The number 
increased rapidly after the Civil war, largely in consequence 
of increased demand for ministers to serve the emancipated 
negroes and for the continuously developing new settle- 
ments in the west. The report of the United States com- 
missioner of education for 1901 gave a list of 150 theologi- 
cal schools, with 744 professors, 244 special or assistant 
instructors, and 7,567 students, of whom 181 were women. 
These seminaries returned 1,585 graduates in 1901. Of 
colored students there were 768, and of colored graduates 71. 
The object of the theological seminaries is fundamentally 
to prepare students for the practical work of the Christian 
ministry. The courses of study are arranged with special 
reference to enabling the students to deal intelligently and 
competently with the duties appertaining to that calling, 
and with the questions that may arise in their pursuit of it. 
In a considerable proportion of the seminaries both 
required and elective courses are provided. The courses 
vary in detail in different seminaries and with different 
denominations, but are substantially alike in principle. 
The schools are usually open to students of different 
denominations. Candidates for admission are required to 
be graduates of some college or university or to present 
some other evidence of proficiency in collegiate studies, or 
to pass a satisfactory examination. The branches taught 
are primarily those relating to scriptural study, church his- 
tory and Christian doctrine, with the languages of the Old 
and New Testaments, general history, literature, rhetoric ; 
and studies in scientific methods of research, general phil- 
osophy, psychology, ethics, and other subjects deemed 
appropriate are often provided for in the required or elec- 
tive courses. Attention is given to training in the practical 
work of the ministry, in which the theoretical instruction 
is often reinforced by opportunities afforded to students to 
assist pastors in neighboring cities, to act as ministerial 
supplies in vacant pulpits, to serve country congregations, 
or to engage in vacation pastoral or missionary work. 



44 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [lOl6 

The seminaries sustain different relations to the gov- 
erning bodies of the denominations with which they are 
affiliated. Not all of them are directly responsible to the 
general court of the church, although that is regarded as 
the most desirable plan. A considerable proportion of 
them are controlled by the synods or other local church 
organizations, and are responsible to the general bodies 
only through them. Some have been founded under private 
endowments, or by bodies not responsible to the church, 
and have sought its approval and patronage by forming 
contract relations with its boards. Other seminaries of 
private foundation are bound by stipulations in the original 
deeds holding them to the teaching of doctrines conformed 
to the standards of the church with which it is intended 
they shall be connected. In a few instances in recent years 
the general bodies of certain of the churches have encoun- 
tered difficulty in enforcing the strict conformity of the 
teachings in seminaries not directly under their control to 
the standards of the church, and have been embarrassed in 
dealing with them. This experience has prompted efforts 
in several denominations to make new adjustments with 
the governing bodies of their theological seminaries, by the 
operation of which the supreme court may exercise an 
effective supervision over the teaching given in them. Sev- 
eral such readjustments have been made. 

Besides the denominations of foreign origin, which offer 
theological instruction in their native languages and in 
English, the larger denominations having considerable con- 
stituencies of foreign nationality maintain theological 
schools or departments specially adapted to the needs of 
such nationalities. The Northern Presbyterians have two 
German theological seminaries. The Baptists have a Ger- 
man seminary, which is under the control of the triennial 
German Baptist convention. The Congregationalists have 
German and Scandinavian departments. The Methodist 
Episcopal church has a Swedish, a Norwegian-Danish, and 
two German theological institutions. 



IOI7] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 45 

STATISTICS OF DENOMINATIONAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN 
THE UNITED STATES. 

The following tables of statistics of the denominational 
universities, colleges, academies, secondary schools, and 
theological seminaries in the United States have been com- 
piled from the report of the United States Commissioner 
of Education for 1901, and from the official denominational 
reports for later years. 

In table I are given the statistics of the denominational 
universities and colleges, including the number of schools 
and the number of instructors and of students and the 
estimated aggregate value of the property and amount of 
productive funds for all the institutions of each denomina- 
tion. Table II makes a similar showing for the denomina- 
tional academies and secondary schools; and table III for 
theological seminaries. 

Tables I and II include institutions for men, for both 
sexes, and for women alone. 

A fourth table is added showing the colleges and schools 
of secondary grade which have been established in the 
south by various denominations and missionary societies for 
the education of the colored people and of the whites of 
the Appalachian mountains and other remote regions in the 
south, where the ordinary opportunities for education are 
very limited. It is given to illustrate the extent of denomi- 
national activity in that line of work. The numbers should 
not be added to those given in tables I and II, most of the 
institutions included in it being already represented in those 
tables. 



4 6 



RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 



[lOl8 



TABLE I — Statistics of Denominational Universities and Colleges 



DENOMINATION 



Adventist Church, Seventh Day 
Baptists 

Free Baptist Church 

Seventh Day Baptist Church. 

German Baptists 

Brethren Church, the, National 

Conference of 

Christian Connection 

Church of God 

Congregationalists 

Disciples of Christ (also desig 

nated Christians) 

Evangelical Association 

Friends 

German Evangelical Synod of 

North America 

Latter Day Saints 

Lutherans 

Methodist Episcopal Church... 
Methodist Episcopal Church, 

South 

Methodist Protestant Church.. . 

Free Methodist Church 

African Methodist Episcopal Ch. 
African Methodist Episcopal 

Zi on Church 

Moravian Church 

Presbyterian Church in the 

United States of America 
Presbyterian Church in the 

United States 

United Presbyterian Church 

North America 

Cumberland Presbyterian Ch 
Reformed Presbyterian Church 

(two bodies) 

Associate Reformed Synod of the 

South 

Reformed Church in America 
Reformed Church in the United 

States 

Protestant Episcopal Church... 

Roman Catholic Church* 

United Brethren Church 

United Brethren Church (Old 

Constitution)., 

United Evangelical Church .... 
Universalists 

Total 



v. m 


V* 


O C 




O 








-C." 


% 2 


fi w 


ES 




3 c 


£■- 


£~ 


I 


21 


IOO 


2,033 


6 


66 


3 


36 


2 


35 


1 


10 


8 


66 


1 


14 


3« 


i,334 


14 


262 


1 


22 


8 


127 


1 


7 


2 


26 


50 


557 


52 


2,173 


18 


380 


3 


86 


1 


15 


4 


74 


1 


15 


I 


6 


39 


731 


10 


138 


6 


87 


7 


78 


2 


15 


1 


9 


2 


55 


4 


86 


8 


86 


64 


i,43i 


7 


87 


2 




3 


3i 


4 


77 


475 


10,276 



E2 



423 

31,314 

1,037 

475 
492 

N 

I 9 I 

938 

"5 
17,716 

4,803 

360 

1,780 

107 

679 

9 IX 4 
31,227 

4,896 
720 
204 

1,516 

35o 

37 

9,365 

2,793 

1,430 
1,373 

219 

99 
546 

1,145 

808 

12,287 

1,544 



294 
1,396 



141,733 



?« l. c rt 



_ o-- 

rt «* 3 



3 B* 



$174,000 

19,558,856 

649,972 

160,291 

150,000 



272,000 

100,300 

12,422,497 

1,520,500 

Il8,000 

1,206,608 

50,300 

127,667 

3,022,716 

14,638,780 

3,537,6q2 
354,000 
150,000 
310,500 

12,650 
100,500 

8,619,756 

606,700 

468,800 
784,600 

190,300 

82,000 
571,000 

718,500 

2,146,472 

20,590,277 

425,900 



84,508 
1,455,000 



$95,281,642 



S.5 "> 

s-o-o 

2 o B 



$19,731,786 
776,532 
153,044 

41,000 

33,400 

20 r, 800 

49,000 

23,825,216 

1,417,000 

104,000 

1,057,207 

4,000 

100,000 

1.016,301 

11,074,454 

2,683,983 

80,000 

130,000 

25,000 

150,000 
115,000 

7,248,423 

768,000 

525,553 
400,000 

147,000 

100,000 
749,967 

633,000 
1,909,124 

I,735,i84 
90,740 



140,820 
2,065,000 



2,281,534 



* These numbers are from the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1901. 
They do not agree with those given in the Roman Catholic almanacs, which are computed upon a 
different basis and refer to a different system of classification. These were, for 1902, number of 
universities, 7; of seminaries, 81, with 3,402 students ; number of colleges for boys, 163 ; number o£ 
Colleges for girls, 629. 



IOI 9 ] 



RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 



47 



TABLE II — Statistics of Denominational Secondary Schools a7id Academies 



DENOMINATION 



Advent Christian Church 

Advent Church, Seventh Day 

Second Adventists 

Baptists 

Free Baptist Church 

Seventh Day Baptist Church. 

Baptists, German 

Christian and Disciples 

Congregationalists 

Durker Brethren 

Evangelical Association 

Eriends . , 

Latter-day Saints 

Lutherans 

Mennonites 

Methodist Episcopal Church . . 

Methodist Episcopal Church, 
South 

Methodist Protestant Church. 

Eree Methodist Church 

American Wesleyan Church 

African Methodist Episcopal 
Church 

Colored Methodist Episcopal 
Church , 

" Methodist " 

Moravian Church 

New Jerusalem, Church of the , 

Presbyterian Church (including 

both the northern and south 

em branches) 

United Presbyterian Church 
in North America 

Cumberland Presbyterian 
Church. 

Reformed Presbyterian Ch. 
Reformed Church in America 
Reformed Church in the United 

States 

" Protestant " schools 

Protestant Episcopal Church 

Roman Catholic Church 

Schwenkfelders 

Unitarians 

Universal ists 

United Brethren 

Total 












'5 










.- 


^-i - 


**- u 


O o 













V 


u 


-O 


J2 


s 


C 


3 


3 


z 


z 


I 


7 


4 


3i 


I 


2 


105 


828 


4 


26 


2 


239 


4 


39 


11 


49 


45 


225 


1 


14 


1 


1 


53 


291 


6 


75 


43 


263 


3 


19 


60 


593 


38* 


169 


1 


3 


6 


25 


1 


6 


3 


11 


7 




11 


85 


4 


26 


2 


7 


92 


39 6 


4 


19 


6 


18 


1 


8 


5 


18 


7 


57 


4 


14 


88 


664 


361 


1,912 


1 


9 


2 


4 


2 


14 


5 


36 


995 


6,203 



87 

868 

144 

15,041 

486 

145 

815 

1,512 

2,792 

627 

34 
2,709 
1,819 

3,949 

496 

11,074 

3,202 

151 

703 

22 

303 



1,529 
483 



4,885 

865 

1,026 
220 
300 

740 

380 

4,882 

17,171 

245 

49 

330 



80,994 



§J'f 



— WO 2 

o c 5 a 

12 ., « 
V72 u a 

J2 = 3 a. 

> 



$15,000 
136,000 

28,500 

4,006,667 

165,000 

10,000 
110,000 

6l,000 

I,233,H5 
85,000 
40,000 

1,476,000 
400,300 

1,303,600 
73,208 

3,824,300 

1,060,784 

4,000 

I08,000 

l6,l6l 

75,000 



120,000 

168,000 

65,000 



2,345,410 

Il6,000 

65,000 
25,000 
10,000 

165,000 

5,305,497 

13,361,537 

50,000 

162,000 
84,000 



•.274,079 



$1,509,078 



58,000 
1,093,959 

15,000 



10,500 
25,000 



>2,7ii,537 



* The Year Book of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, for 1903 gives the 
number of secondary schools as more than 100, but furnishes no statistical details. 



4 8 



RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [l02O 



TABLE III — Statistics of Theological Seminaries 



DENOMINATION 



Baptists 

Free Baptist Church 

Seventh Day Baptist Church. . 

Christian Connection 

Congregationalist 

Disciples of Christ 

Evangelical Association 

German Evangelical Synod of 

North America 

Hebrews 

Lutherans 

Methodist Episcopal Church . . . 

Methodist Episcopal Church, 
South 

Methodist Protestant Church. 

Free Methodist Church 

American Wesleyan Church . . 

African Methodist Episcopal 

Church 

Moravian Church 

New Jerusalem, Church of the. . 

Presbyterian Church in the 

United States of America . . 

Presbyterian Church in the 
United States 

United Presbyterian Church in 
North America 

Cumberland Presbyterian Ch. 

Reformed Presbyterian Church 
(two branches) 

Associate Reformed Synod of 

the South 

Reformed Church in America . 

Reformed Church in th 
United States 

Christian Reformed Church . 
Protestant Episcopal Church . . 

Roman Catholic Church 

Unitarians 

United Brethren 

Universalists 

" Non-sectarian " 

Total 



2 

23 
13 

I 

3 

1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

13 
5 

2 



158 



77 
11 

6 

ir 

105 

13 

2 

4 
20 

87 
58 



24 
2 



3 
13 

33 

4 

84 

221 

20 

4 

28 

14 



995 



1,088 

58 

9 

43 

423 

387 

45 

65 

99 

1,021 

828 

52 
66 
10 



35 

27 

6 

636 

161 

93 

5i 



6 

53 

135 
21 

363 
1,836 

52 
50 
49 



7,959 



•41 3 



&I, 137,625 
3,000 

20,000 

I,l6l,783 

37,500 



150,000 

110,000 

1,600,600 

1,961,302 



I0,000 



10,000 

100,000 

60, OOO 

2,l88,OI5 

310,000 

156,000 

20,000 

270,000 

125,000 

2,695,197 

3,773,000 

25,28l 

38,000 

85,000 

165,000 



),2I2,303 



fc2,952,I07 
63,000 
35,232 
69,058 
3,482,325 
80,000 
20,000 



500,000 

768,464 

1,953,060 



4,000 



100,000 
152,000 

5,162,417 

658,541 

465,000 
80,000 

87,OI3 

32,000 

579,773 
215,000 

3,532,574 
747,3oo 
499,686 

60,000 
165,000 

47,610 



[,22,511,160 



I02l] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 49 

Total statistics of denominational universities, colleges, 
academies, secondary schools, and theological seminaries 
in the United States : 

Whole number of institutions 1,628 

Whole number of instructors 17,474 

Whole number of students 230,686 

Total value of property $147,768,024 

Total amount of productive funds 104,504,231 



These exhibits can be regarded as only approximate, and 
generally falling short of the actual numbers. Many schools 
entitled to be classed as denominational are not represented 
in the general reports. Discrepancies are not infrequent, 
and omissions of important items sometimes occur, even in 
officially published reports. However, the conditions are 
constantly and rapidly changing in the direction of growth. 
The facilities of the institutions are enlarging, the numbers 
of students are increasing, new properties are added from 
year to year ; and large additions are made, by gifts and 
bequests, to productive funds, with a frequency and liber- 
ality which at the present time far exceed anything ever 
before recorded in the history of American education. 



5Q 



RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 



[l022 



TABLE IV — Statistics of Denominational Secondary and Higher Schools 
for Colored Students, and Other Missionary Schools in the South 



DENOMINATION 



Baptists 

Free Baptist Church 

Christian Connection 

Congregationalists 

Disciples of Christ 

Friends ... 

Methodist Episcopal Church. . . 
Methodist Episcopal Church 

South* 

African Methodist Episcopal 

Church. 

African Methodist Episcopal 

Zion Church 

Colored Methodist Episcopal 

Church 

Presbyterian Church (northern 

and southern branches). . . . 

United Presbyterian Church 

in North America 

Cumberland Presbyterian 

Church, colored 

Reformed Church in America . . 
Protestant Episcopal Church... 

Roman Catholic Church 

Universalists 

Total 



«> 


^ 





3 







A 







c 





*° 










V 


V 


-O 


J3 


6 


S 


3 




fc 


z t 


24 


337 


I 


7 


I 


8 


40 


408 


I 


8 


2 


21 


43 


434 


2 


20 


6 


87 


5 


20 


7 




' 10 


109 


2 


70 


1 




1 




7t 


26 


2 


16 


1 


2 


156 


1,573 



6,098 

122 

147 
12,119 

93 

445 

10,329 

533 
1,810 



2,280 
1,007 



784 

808 

70 



37,332 



■3 "2 <g 

o JO 
W> „ w 

°.E § rt 

•a a 

«j."3 s p. 

a a 3 o. 
-3^1 S as 

> 



$864,500 
50,000 

399,500 
50,000 
25,000 

883,800 

78,733 
315,050 
l65,000 



479,000 
IIO.OOO 



1,500 



$2,666,583 



frl, 394,382 
1,663,052 

25,000 



14,500 



$,096,934 



In addition to these institutions, many local and ele- 
mentary schools are taught in connection with mission 
stations among the colored people and the mountain whites, 
and several industrial schools are sustained. 



* In co-operation with the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church, 
f Including three theological departments, returning 6 instructors and 34 
students. 



INDEX 

BY CHARLES ALEXANDER NELSON 
0} the Columbia University Library 



Academic honors, 228-29 
Academic summer schools, 831-32 
Academies, Local, in many cities, 873-74 
Academies, National, for army and navy, 

6, 96 
Academies and seminaries, Private, 25-26; 
of the middle period, 143, 148-50, 361; 
English precedents followed, 148; the 
"Log College," 149; Phillips academies, 
140-50; character of the, 153-56; for the 
middle class, 153; religious, 154-55; co- 
educational, 155; supplied teachers, 156; 
became the preparatory schools, 161; im- 
portance of, 161-62; statistics, 202 
Academische Gymnasium of Vienna, 438 
Academy of Medicine in New York City, 

876 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 

873 

Academy of Philadelphia, The, 149, 263, 
366 

Academy of Sciences, New Orleans, 874 

Accrediting system of college entrance, The, 
165-68; at University of Michigan, 165- 
66; at University of California, 166-68; 
not wholly satisfactory, 168; of Indiana, 
194-96; of University of Wisconsin, 197- 
98 

Adams, Herbert Baxter, introduced Uni- 
versity extension in the U. S., 852; on 
diminished zeal for extension, 859 

Adams, John, on President Witherspoon, 
238 

Adams, John, taught in grammar school at 
Worcester, 365 

Adams, Mrs. John, on female education in 
America, 366 

Adelbert College, excluded women, 333m 

Administration see Organization and ad- 
ministration 

Admission to agricultural colleges, Require- 
ments for, 620-21 

Admission to practise medicine, A uniform 
standard for, 5ogn2 

Admission to the bar, Preliminary educa- 
tion required for, 471-72; in colonial 
days, 498-500; after the Revolution, 500- 
2; present requirements, by states, 502-5 

Admission to the university, Qualifications 
required for, 290-95 



Adolescence, Results of the study of, 182-83 

^Esthetic element lacking in American edu- 
cation, 751-52 

^Esthetic faculties not cultivated in manual 
training school courses, 742-44 

^Esthetics in the schools, 187 

Affiliated colleges, Five, in U. S., 346-51; 
the Harvard Annex the first American, 

347 ni 

African Methodist Episcopal Church aided 
in educational work by the Unitarians, 
991; schools of, 1001 

African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, 
Schools of the, 1001 

Afro-American teachers and preachers in 
the South, 917 

Agassiz, Louis, graduate lecturer at Har- 
vard, 285; professor in Lawrence Scien- 
• tific School, 576; took out field parties of 
students, 824; opened laboratory on Pen- 
ikese Island, 824, 837, 890 

Agassiz, Mrs. Louis, head of the Harvard 
Annex, 347m 

Age, School; defined, vii 

Agricultural college, The first, established 
in Michigan, 609 

Agricultural College of Maryland estab- 
lished, 609; experiment station at, 640- 
4i 

Agricultural colleges, The first, 606-n; the 
argument for independent, 617; classifi- 
cation of, 618-20. See also Agricultural 
education; .Colleges of agriculture and 
mechanic arts 

Agricultural colleges and experiment sta- 
tions, Veterinary workers in, 546-47 

Agricultural education (C. W. Dabney), 
593-651: The colonial farmer, 595; Wash- 
ington's interest in agriculture, 596-97; 
fir3t societies and fairs, 597-600; rise of 
agricultural schools, 600-3; beginnings 
of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 603-5; the 
first agricultural colleges, 606-n; in New 
York State, 607-8; Michigan, 609; Mary- 
land, 609; Massachusetts, 609-10: Penn- 
sylvania, 610; the land-grant colleges, 
611-18; classification of agricultural col- 
leges, 618-20; requirements for' admis- 
sion, 620-21; courses of study, 621-28; 
military instruction, 628; expenses of stu- 



1023 



1024 



INDEX 



dents, 629; extension work in agriculture, 
629-32; in the common schools, 632-37; 
the Cornell attempt, 633-36; of high 
school grade, 636-37; statistics of the 
land-grant colleges, 637-40; origin of the 
agricultural experiment stations, 640-44; 
Tables I-III, 646-51 

Agricultural experiment stations, 640-44; 
origin of the, 640; early stations, 640-42; 
the Hatch Act providing for, 642-43; 
statistics, 643-44 

Agricultural schools, Private, established, 
606,607 

Agricultural societies and fairs, The first, 
597-600 

Agriculture, Boards, commissioners, or sec- 
retaries of, in nearly all the states, 599-600 

Agriculture, Instruction in, by correspon- 
dence and home reading, 631-32; in the 
common schools, 632-37; nature teach- 
ing. 635 

Aid, Granting of, by state, implies naming 
of conditions, 21 

Air ducts, 414-16, 420, 421, 422-23, 424, 
449; conveying air through, 423; size of, 
429 

Alabama, Illiteracy in, ix; grant of swamp 
lands to, 96; county and congressional 
townships the units in, 105; corporal pun- 
ishment in, 133; passed first dental law, 
531; law on licensing apothecaries, 537; 
secondary schools of agriculture in, 636 

Alabama Experiment Station maintained 
by the state, 643 

Alaska, General government educates chil- 
dren in, 96; agricultural experiments be- 
gun in, 643; appropriation for, 644 

Albany capitol building, Ornamentation in 
interior of, 760-61 

Albany prohibits corporal punishment, 133 

Alleghany (Pa.), Corporal punishment in, 

133 

Allen, Edward Ellis, Education of de- 
fectives, 769-819 

Allen, F. S., architect, 458 

Alumni, Filial devotion of, 235 

American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 

8 7 T . 
American Academy of Medicine, 876 

American Academy of Political and Social 
Science, 879 

American Antiquarian Society, 879-80 

American art annual, 1898, 726 

American Association for the Advancement 
of Science, Objects of the, 869; members, 
fellows, and sections, 869-70; list of pres- 
idents, 870 

American Assoc, to Promote the Teaching 
of Speech to the Deaf, 782 

American Asylum at Hartford for the Edu- 
cation and Instruction of the Deaf and 
Dumb, 775; Mass. made appropriation 
for education of pupils at, 776 

American Baptist Education Commission, 
1003 



American Baptist Education Society, 1003-4 
American Baptist Home Mission Society, 
Educational work of, in the South, 1009 
American Baptist Year Book, 1004 
American Bar Association, 876-77; Report 
of Committee of, on legal education, 498; 
recommendation of, in re admission to 
the bar, 501-2 
American Chemical Society, 877 
American college, Extravagance of trustees 

of the, in the matter of buildings, 616 
American college, The (A. F. West) 209- 
49: its place and importance, 209-10; the 
old fashioned, 210-12; the college of to- 
day; proposals to shorten the course, 212- 
14; the course and the bachelor's degree, 
214-19; other phases of change, 219-23; 
freedom in studies; elective courses, 223- 
27; modes of instruction, 227-28; aca- 
demic honors, 229; student life, 229-35; 
organization and administration, 236-37; 
student expenses, 237; the college is Amer- 
ican, 238-39; a few statistics, 239-41; list 
of colleges in chronological order, 241-49 
American Dante Society, S80 
American Economical Association, 879 
American education, Fundamental princi- 
ples of, xv 
American Folklore Society, 878, 880 
American Geographical Society of New 

York, 878 
American Historical Association, 879 
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 

877. 
American Institute of Homeopathy, Action 

of the, 509 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, 

8 77. 
American Journal of Dental Science estab- 
lished, 526 
American Journal of Education, 710 
American Journal of Pharmacy, 534 
American Journal of Science founded by 

Silliman, 880 
American Library Association, 880 
American Mathematical Society and its 

publications, 878 
American Medical Association organized, 

508, 876 
American Metrological Society, 878 
American Missionary Association opened 
earliest school for freedom at Fortress 
Monroe, 915; work of the, 919; Daniel 
Hand Educational Fund of the, 919; 
Freedmen's schools of the, 1009 
American Museum of Natural History, 886 
American nationality, American schools 

developed with development of, 143 
American Naturalist, The, founded, 880 
American Numismatic and Archaeological 

Society, 880 
American Ornithologists' Union, 879 
American Pharmaceutical Assoc, Efforts 
of, for laws regulating practice of phar- 
macy, 538-39 



INDEX 



IO25 



American Philosophical Society organized 

by Franklin, 870; scope of the, 871 
American Presbytery of the Associate 
Church, The, 995; and Rev. John Smith, 
1014 
American Social Science Association, 879 
American Soc. for Extension of University 
Teaching.organized, 853; held a national 
conference in Philadelphia, 853-54; work 
of, 854-55; courses and audiences, 856- 
57, 859; table of work, 857-58; proposed 
a seminary, 860 
American Society of Civil Engineers, 877 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 

American Society of Naturalists, and affili- 
ated societies, 878-79 

American spirit, The, 31, 156, 159, 289; 
cost of discovering, 305 

American Statistical Association, 879 

American system of education, No. v, xv- 
xx; weakest point in, 404-5 

American Unitarian Association, 991 

American universities, xii-xiii 

American university, The (E. D. Perry) 
253-318: I. Do universities exist in the 
U. S. ? 253-56; not in the European 
sense, 256. II. Different forms of , 257-75: 
unconnected with colleges, 1. Clark Uni- 
versity, 257-59; 2. Catholic University of 
America, 259-60; united with colleges 
and professional schools, 260-65; typical 
American form, 260-61: 1. Johns Hopkins 
University, 261-63; 2. Bryn Mawr Col- 
lege, 263; 3. University of Pennsylvania, 
263-65; with graduate courses open to 
undergraduates, 265; institutions of pri- 
vate foundation, 266-75: 1. Harvard Uni- 
versity, 266-68; 2. Yale University, 268- 
69; 3. Columbia University, 269-72; 4. 
Cornell University, 272-74; 5. University 
of Chicago, 274-75; the state universities, 
276-80: University of Wisconsin, 278- 
79; University of California, 279-80; con- 
trast with European universities, 280- 
82. III. Earliest beginnings of university 
or graduate instruction, 283-87; develop- 
ment out of the college, 285-88; influence 
from Germany, 288-89. IV. Qualifica- 
tions for admission, 290; studies and de- 
grees, 290-96; Ph. D. degree, 291-94; 
master's degree, 294-95; lecture and sem- 
inar, 295-96; the honorary Ph. D., 296; 
laboratories, museums, and libraries, 
296-97. V. Publications of Amer. uni- 
versities, 297-300. VI. Fellowships and 
scholarships, 300-3; gifts and endow- 
ments, 303-4. VII. Some present prob- 
lems, 305-13; organization, 305-7; func- 
tion, 307-8; relation of graduate to other 
work, 308-10; freedom, 311-13; statistics, 
314-15; bibliography, 316-18 

American University, The, at Washington, 
D. C, 999 

American Veterinary College opened. 543 



American Veterinary Medical Association, 
Requirements of, for veterinary schools, 

545 
Amherst College founded by Congregation- 

alists, 989; closed to women, ^^^ 
Andover Phillips Academy established, 

149; seminary for teachers opened at, 

156; courses of study in, 177-78 
Andover Theological Seminary, 489, 989, 

1014 
Andrew D. White Fellowships at Cornell, 

3°3 

Andrews, Elisha Benjamin, on the Kinder- 
garten, 64 

Anesthetics in dentistry, 527-28 

Angell, Pres. George Thorndike, on instruc- 
tion in pedagogics at Univ. of Michigan, 
392 

Annals of the Deaf started, 783 

Annapolis, Naval Academy at, 96 

Annisquam, A Marine Biological Labora- 
tory at, 842 

Anthropological Society of Washington, 
D. C, 873 

Anthropology, Journals of, 883 

Antioch College coeducational, 324; found- 
ed, 991 

Apartment house, Impertinent modern, at 
Washington, D. C, 758 

Appleyard, W. P., and E. A. Bowd, Plan 
for economical one room country school- 
house, pi. I. 422, 413, 415; 458 

Apprenticeship in pharmacy, The question 

of, 535 
Apprenticeship system in study of medicine, 

506 
Archaeological Institute of America, 879 
Architects, Lists of, 458; work of school 

supervisors and, 460-61 
Architectural treatment of school buildings, 

43<?-3i 

Architecture and sanitation, Bibliography 
of schoolhouse, 461-64 

Arithmetic in elementary schools, 109 

Arizona, Women may vote at school elec- 
tions in, 102; district the unit in, 106; 
kindergartens authorized in, 112; author- 
izes corporal punishment, 133 

Arkansas, Annual school session in, viii; il- 
literacy in, ix; grant of swamp lands to, 
96; supervision by districts in, 100; 
school directors, 101; district the unit in, 
106; corporal punishment allowed in, 133 

Armour, Philip Danforth, founder of Ar- 
mour Institute, 572-73 

Armour Institute of Technology founded,. 
572; purpose of, and courses, 573; 687 

Armstrong, Gen. Samuel Chapman, and 
the Hampton Institute, 926-27 

Army and naval academies, National, 6 

Army veterinary service, 546 

Arnold, Sarah Louise, on kindergarten 
children, 49 

Art, The relation of, to education, 717-19, 
7 2 3 



1026 



INDEX 



Art academies and collections, Early efforts 
for, 752; poverty of nation in, 753; in- 
crease of, since 1883, 754 

Art and industrial education (I. E. Clarke) 
705-67: Absence of art consciousness in 
England and America, 707-8. — II. Prog- 
ress of art education, 709-27; efforts to 
introduce drawing in the public schools, 
709-n; made permissible by law in 
Mass., 712; failure of "farm schools," 
713-14; worth of education to the work- 
ingman, 714; Circular of education on 
Drawing in the public schools, 715-16; 
other publications, 716m; American fa- 
cilities for art training, 717; influence of 
localities on art development, 717-19; 
drawing the alphabet of art, 718; art in 
commonest things, 719; Massachusetts 
the first state to act, 720; condition of 
education relating to art in 1S74, 720-21, 
723; schools of design, 721; schools of 
art, 721-22; art departments in colleges 
and universities, 722; public art museums 
and galleries, 722, 724; loan exhibitions, 
722-23; statistics of art institutions, 724- 
25; few books on art, 725; influence of the 
Centennial Exhibition, 725; the Amer- 
ican art annual, 726. — III. The move- 
ment for manual training, 727-49; kin- 
dergartens and object teaching, 728; re- 
sults of drawing in the schools, 728-29; 
drawing a requisite in all schools of sci- 
ence, 729-30; universal teaching of, 
essential, 730-31; influence of art knowl- 
edge on art industries, 731-32; industrial 
phase of the movement, 732-34; advent 
of the industrial era, 734-35; drawing in 
American schools, 735; relation of draw- 
ing to industrial education, 735-39; class 
instruction, 736; lesson of the Centennial 
Exhibition, 737, 738-39, 753; artistic 
adornment of school buildings, 739-42; 
no culture of aesthetic faculties in manual 
training school courses, 742-44; scope of 
the industrial education movement, 744- 
47; statistics of manual training, 747-49; 
intent of the Art and industry report, 
749-53; aesthetic element lacking in all 
American education, 751-52; the Colum- 
bian Exhibition, 754-55; the Boston Pub- 
lic Library, 755; the National Library, 
755; influence of classic examples, 755— 
57; epidemic of many-storied buildings, 
757-59; art in decoration of interiors, 
760-63; comparison of Europe and Amer- 
ica, 764-65; a knowledge of mechanical 
drawing indispensable, 765-66; the work- 
ers, 766; worth of industrial art proven, 
767 

Art and industry: Education in the indus- 
trial and fine arts in the U. S. by I. E. 
Clarke, Titles of volumes of, 716m; sum- 
mary of the intent of the Report, 749-60 

Art capitals of Europe and America, 717-18 

Art collections for school decoration, 739-47 



Art departments in colleges and universities 

in 1874, 722 
Art development, Influence of localities on, 

717-19 
Art discoveries, The influence of, 756-57 
Art idea, Failure of the, in manual training 

schools, 742-44 
Art ideal of the Boston promoters, The, 749 
Art institutions, Statistics of, for 1881-82, 

724-25; in American art annual, 1898, 726 
Art knowledge, Influence of the, upon the 

art industries of a people, 731-32 
Art loan exhibitions, 722-27 
Art museums and galleries, Public, 722 
Art schools, 7, 721-22 
Art treasures, Poverty of the U. S. in, in 

1874, 716 
Artists, American, A few early, well known, 

752 

Ashley, Charles Degrand, on methods of 
instruction in law schools, 498 

Association of Amer. Agricultural Colleges, 
Com. on Entrance Requirements on 
courses of study, 623-24; Com. on 
Methods of Teaching Agriculture on 
courses of study, 624-26 

Association of Amer. Instructors for the 
Blind, 796 

Association of Amer. Medical Colleges, on 
admission to medical schools, 509; report 
of Com. of, on medical education, 510-12 

Association of American Physicians, 876 

Association of Colleges, Report of Com. on 
entrance requirements, on average stand- 
ard of admission to agricultural colleges, 
620-21 

Assoc, of Colleges and Preparatory Schools 
in the Middle States and Maryland, 169 

Assoc, of Colleges and Preparatory Schools 
of the Southern States, 169 

Association of Collegiate Alumnae, Col- 
leges admitted to the, 330m; bachelor's 
degrees conferred by the colleges of the, 

355 
Association of Secondary School Teachers 

in Massachusetts, 168 
Associations for annuity or retirement fund, 

134 
Associations for temporary aid and annuity, 

J 34 

Associations of teachers, Many local, 876 

Associations, societies, institutes, and clubs 
for teachers, 400-1 

Astronomical observatories, Three great, 
887-88 

Astronomy, Journals of, 882 

Athletics in secondary schools, 189; in col- 
leges, 222, 233 

Atkinson, William, Plan for an eight-room 
schoolhouse, 425-26, pi. VIII-IX 

Atlanta, Coeducation in, 103 

Atlanta University, 924 

Atlantic Monthly, The, 881 

Attendance, Average, in public schools, 
79; increase in, 79 



INDEX 



IO27 



Attitude of different sections of U. S. toward 
coeducation and separate education, 328 

Attorneys, Colonial statutes relating to, 
498-500 

Atwater, Wilbur Olin, in charge of Conn. 
Experiment Station at Wesleyan Uni- 
versity, 641 

Augusta College, Ky., 998 

Augustana (Swedish) Synod, The, 987 

Auk, The, 879 

Authorities on normal schools, 379m, 406-7 

Authorities on professional education, 467 

Authorities on teachers' institutes, 386m 

Avery Architectural Library at Columbia, 

3°3 
Avery Institute, Allegheny City, 906 
Average amount of schooling per inhabi- 
tant, viii, 80, 139 

Bachelor of Arts, Degree of, 211, 212, 214, 
224; modified, 214, 216, 223; students 
taking course for, 241; at Columbia, 285; 
conferred at Chautauqua, 844 

Bachelor of Divinity, Degree of, conferred 
at Chautauqua, 844 

Bachelor of Letters, Degree of, 214, 218; 
students for, 241 

Bachelor of Medicine, Degree of, first 
granted in 1768 in Phila., 507; abandoned 
in 1813, 507-8 

Bachelor of Philosophy, Degree of, 214, 
218; students for, 241 

Bachelor of Science, Degree of, 214, 216; 
students taking course for, 241 

Bachelor of Science in Economics, Degree 
of, 692 

Bachelor's degrees, Variety of, 214-19, 
290; requisite for admission to graduate 
schools, 290; number of women holding, 
355. See also Degree; Degrees 

Baird, Spencer Fullerton, secretary of the 
Smithsonian, 884 

Baker, Frank, director of National Zoo- 
logical Park, 890 

Bala (Pa.) School for Deaf and Dumb has 
normal classes, 784 

Baldwin, Maria L., colored, principal of 
the Agassiz School, Cambridge, Mass., 
907 

Baltimore, Coeducation in, 103; first city 
superintendent in, 124; prohibits cor- 
poral punishment, 133; benefit associ- 
ations in, 134; Brothers of the Christian 
Schools in, 154; manual training school 
in, 181; girls not prepared for college in 
high schools of, 322n 

Baltimore and Ohio Railway, Educational 
experiment of the, 750-51 

Baltimore City College established, 158 

Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, the 
first in the world, 526 

Baltimore High School, Drawings from, 
at the Centennial Exhibition, 711 

Bancroft, George, student and lecturer at 
German universities, 283-84; effort of, 



to transform college into university, 283, 
288, 311 

Baptist Church, Schools of the, 1002-4 

Bar, Admission to the, see Admission to the 
bar 

Bard, Dr. John, dissected a human body 
for instruction in 1750, 506 

Barnard, F. A. P., Annual reports of, xiv; 
urged instruction in teaching, 396 

Barnard, Henry, Work of, in Conn, and 
Rhode Island, 124, 900-1; conventions 
of teachers held by, 382; purpose of the 
institutes, 383-84; on drawing in the 
public schools, 710 

Barnard College affiliated with Columbia 
University, 270, 346, 350; special stu- 
dents at, 343m; organization of, 348 

Barnard Fellowship in Physical Science at 
Columbia, 303 

Barnes, Earl, University extension lecturer, 

855 

Barrie (Mass.), Normal School at, 368 

Bartlett, — of Cincinnati, opened first busi- 
ness college, 658 

Bartram, John, began a Botanical Garden 
in Philadelphia, 889 

Basement, Use of properly constructed, 437 

Bate, Fenimore C, architect, 458 

Bay of Monterey, Cal., Biological Labora- 
tory of Stanford University at, 891 

Bay View Reading Circle, 863 

Beal, Dr. J. H, on apprenticeship in 
pharmacy, 536n 1; on a model pharmacy 
law, 539 

Bell, Alexander Graham, introduced his 
father's system of visible speech, 782; 
influence of work of, 783; a founder of 
Science, 881 

Bell, Andrew, author of the Madras system,. 
taught in Virginia, 364; monitorial in- 
struction of, 368 

Bell chairs of education in Universities of 
Edinburgh and St. Andrews, 393 

Bellamy, Dr. Joseph, conducted first in- 
dependent theological seminary, 488 

Bellevue Hospital Medical College, 518 

Bemis, Edward Webster, gave first exten- 
sion lectures at Buffalo, 852 

Benefit associations for temporary aid, 134 

Bequests for southern education, 91S-23 

Berkeley, Bp. George, Verses by, 898;. 
favored founding of King's College, 983 

Berkeley, Gov. William, against common 
schools, 120-21 

Berkshire Agricultural Soc. of Mass., 603 

Bethany College, W. Va., 1004 

Biblical Institute at Boston University,. 

999 
Bibliography of American university edu- 
cation, 316-18 
Bibliography of normal schools, 379m 
Bibliography of pedagogy, 406-7 
Bibliography of schoolhouse architecture 

and sanitation, 461-64 
Bibliography of secondary education, 204-5 



1028 



INDEX 



Bibliography of Summer schools and Uni- 
versity extension, 864b 

Bibliography of the deaf, blind, deaf-blind, 
and feeble-minded, 811-15 

Biological laboratories, 890-91 

Biological Society of Washington, D. C, 

873 

Blaine, Mrs. Emmons endows Teachers 
College at Chicago, 400 

Blaine, James G., taught in the Western 
Military Institute at Blue Lick Springs, 
364 

Blair, Rev. James, procured charter for 
College of William and Mary, 982 

Blind, Education of the, 786-97; eighty per 
cent, of adults, 787; reasons for schools 
for, 787; Dr. S. G. Howe and the New 
England Asylum, 787; the New York 
Institution, 787; the Pennsylvania In- 
stitution, 788; state schools, 788-89; 
teachers from Paris and Edinburgh, 789; 
kindergarten departments for, 789-91; 
industrial training, 791-92; Sloyd, 791; 
music, 792; physical training for, 792; 
embossed books for, 792-95; higher edu- 
cation for, 796; occupations of, 797; 
statistics, 797, 818; bibliography, 812-14 

Blind, colored, First school for, opened in 
North Carolina, 789 

Blount College, see University of Tennes- 
see, 589 

Blow, Susan Elizabeth, Kindergarten 
education, 35-76 

Bluntschli, Johann Kaspar, Library of, at 
Johns Hopkins, 304 

Board of Education of Methodist Episco- 
pal Church, 998-99 

Board of Missions to Freedmen of the 
Northern Presbyterian Church, 1009 

Boards of education in cities, 101; title of 
local boards in Ohio, 101 

Boelte, Miss, see Kraus-Boelte, Mrs. Maria 

Bohm, Arthur, architect, 461 

Bookkeeping, Advanced, 665 

Books on artistic industries, No, up to 
1876, 725 

Boston, Pioneer kindergarten movement in, 
35; public kindergarten in, closed, 37; 
kindergarten system in, 42; testimony of 
primary teachers of, on kindergarten 
children, 42-60; fulfilled expectations, 62; 
coeducation in, 103, 322m, railroad con- 
nections of, 123; first city superintendent 
in, 124; corporal punishment in, 133; 
annuity and pension funds in, 134; 
secondary education for girls in, 32 2n; 
commercial courses in high schools, 

675, 679 

Boston Art Museum, 722 

Boston English High School, modeled on 
that of Edinburgh, 157-58 

Boston Latin-English High School de- 
scribed, 438-40 

Boston line print, The, devised by Dr. 
Howe, 792; books in, 795 



Boston Normal School, Kindergarten work 
in, 73; high-school education for girls at 
the, 322n 

Boston Public Latin School established, 
120, 144; course of study for, 179 

Boston Public Library building, 755 

Boston public schools, Work in drawing 
from the, at the Centennial Exhibition, 
707 

Boston Scientific Society, 873 

Boston Society of Natural History, 873; and 
the Marine Biological Laboratory, 842 

Boston University, opened coeducational, 
326; women at, 33402 

Botanical Garden in Philadelphia begun 
by John Bartram, 8S9; in New York by 
David Hosack, 889; affiliated with Co- 
lumbia University, now at Bronx Park, 
889; others, 889-90 

Botanical garden, A United States, estab- 
lished, 605 

Botany, Journals of, 882 

Botany and chemistry, Summer instruction 
in, at Harvard, 837 

Bourne, Richard, and the Indians, 941 

Bowd, E. A., architect, 458 

Bowdoin College founded by Congrega- 
tionalists, 989 

Boynton, John, a founder of Worcester 
Polytechnic Institute, 562-63 

Bradley Polytechnic Institute, 573 

Braidwood, Thomas, taught articulate 
speech to deaf-mutes, 773; would not 
teach Gallaudet, 774-75 

Braidwood school, A, for deaf and dumb 
started in Va., 774 

Braille, Louis, Writable point system of, 

793> 794 

Braille, The American, system for the 
blind, 794 

Brainerd, John, instructed the teachers of 
Cleveland in drawing, 711 

Breeders associations, Cattle, 600 

Brewer, William Henry, on first industrial 
college in New York, 607-8; student un- 
der J. P. Norton, 610 

Bridgewater (Mass.) Normal School, Or- 
ganization of, 124, 368: course of study, 
368-69, 371 

Bridgman, Laura, The case of, 798-800 

Briggs, Dr. C. A., on a theological educa- 
tion, 492 

Briggs, Warren R., Plan of, for two-room 
schoolhouse, 420, pi. Ill, 422; 458 

Brighton (Mass.), Kindergarten in, closed, 
37 

Britton, Nathaniel Lord, director of New 
York Botanical Garden, 889 

Brookline, Kindergarten system in, 42; 
S. T. Dutton on, 68-69 

Brooklyn Art Association, 722 

Brooklyn, Kindergarten system in, 42; co- 
education in, 103; first city superintend- 
ent in, 124; aid, annuity, and pensions in, 
134 



INDEX 



IO29 



Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, or- 
ganized, 886-87; offers University ex- 
tension courses, 855, 856 

Brooklyn Institute, Biological Laboratory 
of, at Cold Spring Harbor, 827, 891 

Brooklyn Kindergarten Association, 37 

Brothers of the Christian Schools, 154-55 

Brown, Rev. Amos, secured act for N. Y. 
State Agricultural College at Ovid 
Academy, 608; secured N. Y. land-grant 
for People's College, 608-9 

Brown, Elmer Ellsworth, Secondary 
education, 143-205 

Brown University, 274; has assumed re- 
sponsibility for its Women's College, 
350; Pres. Wayland tried to establish a 
course in teaching at, 392; Francis Way- 
land favored introducing scientific studies 
at, 611; built up by the Baptists, 976 

Bruce Fellowship in Biological Science at 
Johns Hopkins, 303 

Bruess, J., architect, 458 

Bryant and Stratton commercial schools, 
659m, 671 

Bryn Mawr College offers university in- 
struction, 254; high standard of, 263, 
287; scholarships and fellowships at, 301; 
three European fellowships, 302; one of 
the largest, 337; organization 0^339-40; 
excludes accomplishment courses and 
special students, 342, 343; requirements 
for entrance have raised standard for 
teachers in fitting schools, 343^; un- 
married men instructors at, 344n; self- 
government under Students' Association 
at, 345; marriage rate of, 358 

Buffalo, School affairs in, 12; post-graduate 
kindergarten work in, 74; had first 
city superintendent, 124; corporal pun- 
ishment in, 133; benefit association and 
pension fund in, 134 

Buildings, The many storied, of New York, 

757.-59 

Buildings used for common schools, Value 
of, vii-viii, 30 

Bureau of American Ethnology, Publica- 
tions of the, issued by the Smithsonian 
Institution, 885 

Bureau of Education, see U. S. Bureau of 
Education 

Burgess, John William, on liberty and gov- 
ernment, xvii-xviii 

Burke, Edmund, on educated Americans, 
238 

Business arithmetic, Regents' test in, 666 

Business career, Preparation for, see Com- 
mercial education 

Business college, First, opened by Bartlett 
of Cincinnati, 658; advance made by the, 
668 

Business English, Regents' test in, 668 

Business High School, Washington (D. C), 
181 

Business practice and office methods, 
Regents' test in, 667 



Business schools, see Commercial education 
Bussey, Benjamin, Bequest of, to Harvard, 

641 
Bussey Institution founded, 641 
Butler University founded, 1005 

Cadwallader, Dr. Thomas, gave instruction 
in anatomy, in Phila., 506 

California, Illiteracy in, ix; length of 
annual school session in, viii; grants of 
lands to, 26; kindergartens in, 42; de- 
partments for, in normal schools, 73; 
compulsory law in, 99; women county 
superintendents in, 101; district the unit 
in, 106; kindergartens authorized in, 
112; pension funds in all cities of, 134; 
secondary school teachers in, 191; in- 
come from land grant, 638-39; provision 
for its University, 639 

California College of Pharmacy, 280 

Calisthenics beneficial to the feeble-minded, 
807 

Calvert, Charles B., Agricultural college on 
estate of, 609 

Cambridge (Mass.), First school in, 120; 
aid to Latin school in, 144; English High 
School described, pi. XIV-XV, 440-42; 
gift of F. H. Rindge, 442, 448 

Cambridge University, Organization of our 
earliest colleges inherited from, 209, 210, 
280; a congeries of colleges, 280; number 
of women taking the higher local exam- 
inations at, 343n2; colleges for women 
at, 346n4; summer meetings for teachers 
at, 387; University extension begun by, 
849-50; experience at, 852 

Campbell, Rev. Alexander, founded the 
Disciples of Christ, 1004 

Carlisle, Indian School at, 957-58 

Carr, Dr. William, on dentistry, 526n2 

Case, Leonard, founder of Case School of 
Applied Science, 568-69 

Case School of Applied Science incorpo- 
rated, 568; courses and degrees, 569-70 

Castration, Effect of, on the feeble-minded, 
8nni 

Casts from the antique, Few collections of, 
before 1870, 752-53 

Caswell, Oliver, taught by Laura Bridg- 
man, 800 

Catholic School for Girls at Georgetown, 
D. C, 981 

Catholic secondary schools, 154-55 

Catholic Summer School of America at 
Cliff Haven, N. Y., 826; at Detroit, 826 

Catholic University of America, The, 255; 
constitution of the, 259-60; closed to 
women, 260; opening of, 981 

Cattell, James McKeen, Scientific so- 
cieties and associations, 865-91 

Cattle lung plague, Eradication of the, 547 

Cattle show, First, at Pittsfield (Mass.), 599 

Cazenovia Seminary, 998 

Centennial Exposition of 1876 gave im- 
petus to manual training, in, 1S1: 



1030 



INDEX 



lessons of the, 707, 725, 737, 738, 752, 
753-54, 763-64; interest taken in the, 
716, 725; showing of Boston schools at, 
745; advance since the, 764 

Centralization, Tendency towards, 21 

Certificating teachers, 20, 27-28, 401-4 

Chairs of education in colleges and uni- 
versities, 391-95 

Chamber of Commerce, see New York 
Chamber of Commerce 

Chandler, Abiel, founds School of Science 
at Dartmouth College, 577 

Chandler, Charles Frederick, professor in 
School of Mines, 579 

Chandler School of Science, Dartmouth 
College, founded, 577 

Channing, William Ellery, a private in- 
structor in Richmond, 364 

Chapman, Dr. J. Wilbur, established 
Winona Bible Conference, 834 

Charitable School at Philadelphia chartered 
as an academy, 149, 263; called College 
and Academy of Philadelphia, 263; 
later University of Pennsylvania, 264 

Charleston, S. C, Pension fund in, 134; 
free school at, 983 

Chartered rights, Inviolability of, 157 

Chase, Salmon P., taught a classical semi- 
nary in Washington (D. C), 364 

Chautauqua Assemblies in Indiana, Kansas 
and California, 825; as summer schools, 
826, 827; varieties of, 835-36 

Chautauqua Assembly, The first, 824, S35; 
characteristics of the, 835-36 

Chautauqua Assembly at Madison, S. D., 
825 

Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts, 863 

Chautauqua, Institute for Teachers at, 826 

Chautauqua Institution, Foundation and 
development of the, 843-45 

Chautauqua Institution at Lakeside, Ohio, 
825 

Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle 
founded, 844; plan of, 862-63 

Chautauqua Reading Circle, 862 

Chautauqua School of Theology, 863 

Cheever, Ezekiel, early schoolmaster of 
Boston, 120 

Chemistry and farming, 595; hopes for, 601 

Chemistry, Journals of, 882 

Chicago, Kindergarten system in, 42; 
normal department of Free Kindergarten 
Association, 73; first city superintendent 
in, 124; prohibits corporal punishment, 
133; benefit association and pension fund 
in, 134; manual training in, 1S1 

Chicago Academy of Sciences, 874 

Chicago, Free Kindergarten Association of, 

Chicago Froebel Association, 37 

Chicago Kindergarten College, Post- 
graduate work at, 74; mothers' depart- 
ment at, 75-76; organization of, 376 

Chicago Medical College adopted graded 
system of instruction, 516 



Chicago Public Library building of the re- 
naissance period, 760 
Chicago University, see University of Chi- 
cago 
Child, The work of the school for the, 

1 14-15 
Child-nurture, The study of, 74-76 
Child-study, Results of, for the feeble- 
minded, 811 
Children, Average time spent in public 

schools, 746 
Children, Employment of, 97-98, 100 
Children of the district schools, 9 
Chimney, The schoolhouse, 414-17, 419; 

the aspirating, 415, 420 
Christian Connection, Schools of the, 1005 
Christian Reformed Church, Theological 

School of the, 997 
Church, John R., Exit registers in plan of, 

415-16, 458 
Church and state, Separation of, 147, 156 
Cincinnati, First city superintendent in, 
124; corporal punishment in, 133; bene- 
fit associations and pension fund in, 134 
Cincinnati Art Academy, Summer instruc- 
tion at, 825 
Cincinnati Kindergarten Association, 37 
Cincinnati Law School. opened, 495 
Cities, Increase in number of, 14, 123 
Citizen, Average schooling for each, 80-81 
City pupils, Number of, 30 
City school systems, 12-17; °f Buffalo, 12; 
of Cleveland, 13; badly managed in the 
greater cities, 13-14; Committee of 
Fifteen on, 14-15; legislative functions, 
14; administrative officers, 15; powers 
of city boards, 16-17; demands for best, 

17 

City schools, Number of, 30; exert a 
stronger moral force than rural, 94 

City superintendent, Women holding posi- 
tions of, 101 

City ward and grammar school, Architec- 
tural treatment of the, 429-30; E. M. 
Wheelwright on the, 430-31; New York 
School No. 165, 432-37; heating and 
ventilating, 432; the H type, 432-33; 
manual training and auditorium in, 433- 
34; lighting, 434; size of rooms, 435; 
wardrobes, 436; playgrounds, 437 

Civil War, Effects of the, on elementary 
and secondary education, 323 

Civilization, Four fundamental institutions 
of, 117-18 

Clandestine schools for negroes, 902 

Clark University has no undergraduate 
department, 242, 255, 287; organization 
of, 257-59; number of students, 258; the 
"torso of a university," 258; closed to 
women, 260, 2>Z2>\ surprising in view of its 
courses, 351^3; study of education at, 
398-99; summer instruction at, 826; 
Summer School of Psychology, 833 

Clarke, Isaac Edwards, Art and indus- 
trial education, 705-67 



INDEX 



IO31 



Clarke Institution for Deaf-Mutes opened 
as an oral school, 781; normal classes at 
the, 784 

Clarkson Institute of Technology, 573 

Class vs. individual instruction, 85-87 

Classic literature, Study of, 185 

Clay, Cassius M., never reconciled to slave 
system, 902 

Clay, Henry, never reconciled to slave 
system, 902 

Clerc, Laurent, instructor of deaf and dumb 
in sign language, 775-76 

Cleveland, Board of Education of, 13; first 
city superintendent in, 124; prohibits 
corporal punishment, 133; benefit asso- 
ciation in, 134; drawing in the schools of, 
711 

Cleveland Summer School of Library Sci- 
ence opened, 826-27 

Cloak and coat rooms, 419, 421, 422, 436, 

437 

Closets, Location of, 455-57 

Coal, Foot pounds of actual work in one 
pound of, 428; saving in consumption 
of, 429 

Coeducation of the sexes, the general prac- 
tice, 103-4, 322; in academies, 155; in 
high schools, 180, 322n, 323; in college 
education, 321-35; in state universities, 
323-25; introduced at Cornell, 326; 
table of colleges for, and closed to, 327; 
attitude of different sections toward, 
328-29; at fifty-eight colleges, 330-33; 
diagram of growth of, 332; arguments 
against answered by experience, 333; suc- 
cess of, 334-35; objection of men to, 
335n2; progress of, in theology, law, 
medicine, etc., 353-54; vs. separate edu- 
cation, 358a-58c. 

Coeducational colleges, Women average 
higher standing than men at, 333-34; 
increase of attendance at, 334-35; no 
modification of courses for women in, 
342 

Cogswell, Joseph Green, graduate of a 
German university, 283 

Cokesbury College, the first Methodist, 998 

Colby College, Coeducation partial at, 
333m, 1003 

Cold Spring Harbor, Biological Laboratory 
at, 827, 891 

Colgate University, closed to women, ^^t, 

College, The American, see American col- 
lege, The (A. F. West) 

College, Local influence of the, xii 

College, The old fashioned, blended second- 
ary and higher education, 211; require- 
ments of admission, 211; prescribed 
course, 212; changes in, 220-22 

College and university, The union of, the 
typical American organization for higher 
education, 260 

College and University Professors of Edu- 
cation, Report of committee of, on certifi- 
cation of graduates as teachers, 402-4 



College Assoc, of Pennsylvania, 169 

College comradeship, 231-32 

College course, Proposals to shorten the, 
212-14, 311; alterations in the, 214-19; 
development of elective, 223—27 

College education of women, see Coeduca- 
tion, Colleges for women, Women, Edu- 
cation of 

College entrance examination, 229 

College entrance requirements, N. E. A. 
Report on, xiv; movement for uniformity 
of, 169; Com. of Ten on, 172; N. E. A. 
Com. on, 174-77; national units or norms 
in, sought, 175; recommendations on, 
176; the old fashioned, 211 

College entrance requirements in English, 
169; nearly uniform, 175 

College for Women of Western Reserve 
University, Organization of, 349; a sep- 
arate institution, 350 

College matriculation, Requirements for, 
unified, 169, 175; examination for, 229 

College of California, 279 

College of Civil Engineering at Cornell 
University, 585 

College of Commerce and Politics at Uni- 
versity of Chicago, 692-94; courses, 692- 
94; confers degree of B. Ph., 694 

College of Commerce at University of Cali- 
fornia, 695-97; courses, 695-97 

College of Engineering and Mechanic Arts 
in University of Minnesota, 588-89 

College of Engineering at Ohio State Uni- 
versity, 588 

College of Engineering, University of Illi- 
nois, Courses in, 587-88 

College of Mechanics and Engineering at 
University of Wisconsin, Courses at, 587 

College of New Jersey chartered and in a 
measure supported at the start by the 
state, 26; the classical school it sprang 
from, 121; requirements of admission, 
146; origin of Princeton University, 242, 
362; gave free education for the ministry, 
487; under Presbyterian control, 976; 
beginning of the, 992 

College of Philadelphia, Course of lectures 
in law by James Wilson at, 495 

College of Physicians, Philadelphia, S76 

College of Physicians and Surgeons, 271; 
largest medical scholarship in, 477; 
organized, 507; Vanderbilt Clinic and 
Sloane Maternity Hospital added to, 518 

College of Rhode Island, later Brown Uni- 
versity, founded, 1002 

College of Science, University of Illinois, 
587, 588 

College of Technology of Tulane Univer- 
sity, Courses in, 583 

College of the City of New York opened as 
the Free Academy, 159 

College of the University of Pennsylvania, 
58 1 

College of to-day, 212-14; age of entrance 
increased, 212, 219, 221; a shortened 



1032 



INDEX 



course, 213-14; new courses and degrees, 
214-19; change of form and spirit, 219- 
23; student government and sports, 222; 
elective freedom, 224-26; the historic 
bachelor's course, 226-27; modes of in- 
struction, 227-28; examinations and 
honors, 228-29; form of government, 
235-36; administration, 236 
College of William and Mary, Graduates 
of, in the national life, 238; organized, 

3 6 3 

College professor, The old and the new, 
221-22 

College women, Number of, 354-56; health 
of, 356-57; marriage rate of, 357-58a; 
occupations of, 358a 

Colleges, Number of, and their source of 
supply of students, xii; children of the 
state, 26 

Colleges, American, Too narrow curricu- 
lum of, 156; the secondary schools and 
the, 163-65; our first, classical, 600-2 

Colleges and universities, Commercial edu- 
cation in, 687-700; unwilling to take up 
the practical subjects, 688; four institu- 
tions noted, 688-700 

Colleges and universities, Number of, 30, 
221, 327; coeducation in the, 104, 329; 
the state should grant charters to, 156; 
the schools and the, 163-65; the accred- 
iting system, 165-68; so-called univer- 
sities, 220, 329n3; large number of weak, 
239; statistics, 240-41; list of, in chrono- 
logical order, 241-49; ambiguity of 
names, 254-55, 329^; demand different 
organization, 255; principles and prac- 
tices common to, 255; fifty-eight, giving 
true collegiate work, 330-33; long closed 
to negroes, 906; now open to, 924-25 

Colleges for men open to women, 326-35; 
70 per cent of, 329 

Colleges for women, 324-25, 336-51; in- 
dependent colleges, 336-46; and the pri- 
vate fitting schools, 343^; standard of 
scholarship for instructors at, 344; work 
at, must be of same quality as at men's, 
345; domestic work at, 345; discipline at, 
345-46; affiliated colleges, 346-51 

Colleges for women in England organized 
in precisely the same way as those for 
men, 346n4 

Colleges of agriculture and the mechanic 
arts, Land grant act of 1862 for, 24, 95, 
611-18; separate, 619-20; requirements 
for admission, 620-21,623; courses of 
study, 621-28; military instruction in, 
628; expenses of students, 629 

Collegiate School of Connecticut, Saybrook, 
268; moved to New Haven and became 
Yale College, 268 

Collegiate students, Number of, 30, 240 

Colonial and revolutionary colleges, 242 

Colonial life, Opposing influences in shap- 
ing of, 143 

Colonial schools, Characteristics of, 146-47 



Colonial systems of secondary education, 

145 

Colorado, Kindergartens in, 42; depart- 
ments for, in normal schools, 73; com- 
pulsory law in, 99; clothing furnished 
poor school children in, 100; women 
county superintendents in, 101; women 
may hold any school office in, 102; 
woman suffrage in, 102; district the unit 
in, 106; kindergartens authorized in, 112; 
school and college association in, 169; 
aid to University, 639, 640 

Colorado School of Mines, 589 

Colored Methodist Episcopal Churches, 
The, 1000-1 

Colored students, Provision for, in second 
Morrill Act, 618 

Colored youth, Secondary and higher 
schools for, 180, 924-28; financial sum- 
mary of 169 schools for, 924, 936; 
teachers and students, 925-26; Table 3, 
937; classification of, 926, 932; number 
of students and graduates, 926, 933; 
professional students and graduates, 934; 
industrial training, 926, 935 

Columbia College, Professional studies in 
last year at, 213, 272; and the bachelor's 
degree, 219, 272; graduates of, in the 
national life, 238; legal designation of, 
270; S. L. Mitchill professor of agricul- 
ture at, 602; N. Y. Chamber of Com- 
merce plans a commercial course at, 
697-99; Lutheran theological professor- 
ship at, 986 

Columbia Institution for the Deaf and 
Dumb incorporated, 776-77; E. M. 
Gallaudet principal, 777 

Columbia Law School, Opening and 
growth of the, 495-96 

Columbia University, Gifts to, xiv; origi- 
nally King's College, 242, 269-70; organ- 
ization of, 270-72, 287; non-professional 
schools, 271; professional schools, 271- 
72; graduate courses and lectures, 285, 
287; A.M. and Ph.D. at, 287, 291; gradu- 
ate students candidates for higher degree, 
290-91; requirements for Ph.D. at, 292- 
93; for A. M., 294; Library of, 297; pub- 
lications of, 299; scholarships and fellow- 
ships at, 301; notable fellowships at, 
303; gifts to, 303, 304; special studies be- 
gun before receiving degree, 310; gradu- 
ate students at, 312; president's report, 
317; unrestricted coeducation in graduate 
department of, 350; scientific, technical, 
and engineering schools at, 378-80; 
Teachers College an integral part of, 
396-97; opens summer school, 827; 
chair of Rabbinical literature in, 1007 

Columbia University Library, gift of Seth 
Low, 303; fund for, from the Due de 
Loubat, 303 

Columbia Agricultural Society formed, 599 

Columbian Exposition in Chicago, 725, 752, 
754, 764; the architecture of the, 754-55 



INDEX 



I033 



Columbus (O.), Corporal punishment in, 

Commercial college, The, a peculiarly 
American institution, 657; function of 
the, 660-61; has no rival, 669; aim of its 
training, 669-70 

Commercial education (E. J. James), 653— 
703; Statistics of, unsatisfactory, 655; 
four classes of opportunities for, 656-57; 
the commercial college, 657-74; pecu- 
liarly American, 657; small beginnings, 
658-59; statistics, 657m, 659; broaden- 
ing views in, 660-61; pedagogical for 
teachers of, 662; rivalry of the public 
high school, 662-63; recognition by the 
University of the State of New York, 
664-65; Regents' syllabus, 665-68; work 
of the commercial college, 668-74; its 
quality, 669; increased employment for 
women, 670; work of S. S. Packard, 670- 
73; of T. M. Pierce, 673-74: in the public 
school, 674-80; in Omaha and other 
cities, 674-75; Supt. Pearse on, 676; the 
course in, 676-77; study-plan in Phila- 
delphia Central High School, 677-78; 
in Pittsburgh High School, 679; in, 
Boston high schools, 679; in Hillhouse 
High School, New Haven, 679-80; work of 
private secondary schools and normal 
schools, 680-87; Drexel Institute courses 
in three departments, 681-87; i n colleges 
and universities, 687-700; attitude of, 
687-88; in University of Pennsylvania, 
689-92; in University of Chicago, 692- 
94; in University of California, 695-97; 
in Columbia University, 697-99; in 
University of Vermont, 699m; App.: 
Statistics of schools, 701; Table I: Com- 
mercial and business colleges, 702; 
Table II: Students in business courses in 
other institutions, 703 

Commercial geography and history of com- 
merce, Regents' test in, 666-67 

Commercial law, Regents' test in, 666 

Commercial or business colleges, 181 

Commercial schools, 7 

Commission of Colleges in New England 
on Admission Examinations, 168-69 

Committee of Colored Evangelization of 
the Southern Presbyterian Church, 1010 

Committee of Fifteen, see N. E. A. Com. 
of Fifteen on Elementary Education 
Committee of Ten, see N. E. A. Com- 
mittee of Ten 

Common school statistics of the southern 
states, Table of, 929; remarks on, 909- 
10; expenditures, 910; Table, 930 

Common school statistics of the U. S., 
Table of, 130 

Common schools defined, vii, xxii; number 
of pupils registered in, vii; total receipts 
for, viii; land rights for support of, 23; 
agriculture in the, 632-37; are the pre- 
paratory academies for the agricultural 
colleges, 730 



Compulsory school attendance, Laws for, 
22, 30, 97-98; statistics of, 98-100 

Concord School of Philosophy established, 
825, 833 

Congregational Church, The, and educa- 
tion, 988-91 

Congregational Education Society, The, 
990 

Congress, Appropriations by, for education 
of the Indians, 943-45 

Connecticut (colony), Schools established 
in, 120, 144; one fourth of revenue for, 
121; grammar school required in each 
county town, 145 

Connecticut, Illiteracy in, ix; kindergartens 
in, 42; departments for, in normal 
schools, 73; compulsory law in, 97, 99; 
truants, 100; employment of children, 
100; secretary of State Board of Edu- 
cation, 101; school visitors, 101; women 
hold school offices in, 102; may vote at 
school elections, 102; town and district 
in, 105-6; authorizes industrial training, 
112; kindergartens authorized in, 112; 
work of Henry Barnard in, 124, 901; 
corporal punishment allowed in, 133; 
high schools in, 159, 160; laws on venti- 
lation, 459; admission to bar in, 471; 
law suppressing colored schools, 904 

Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 

873 

Connecticut Asylum for the Education and 
Instruction of Deaf and Dumb, 775 

Connecticut Common School Journal, 7 10 

Connecticut Experiment Station estab- 
lished, 641-42; maintained in part by the 
State, 643 

Connecticut School for Imbeciles, 805 

Conn. State Board, Documents of, on 
schoolhouses, 460 

Constitution, A written, creates and defines 
the powers of a government, xviii 

Constitutions, state, Provision for popular 
education in, 19 

Contract schools for Indians, 958-59 

Conventual schools for girls, 155 

Cookery in elementary schools, in 

Cooley, Thomas M., Decision rendered by, 
in the Kalamazoo case, xx-xxi 

Cooper Union art schools, 721 

Coppee, Henry, first president of Lehigh 
University, 566 

Corcoran, William Wilson, founder of 
Corcoran Art Gallery, 724 

Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D. C, 
722; founded, 724 

Cornell, Ezra, founder of Cornell Univer- 
sity, 272, 273, 307 

Cornell University, Scope of, included 
many colleges, 255; foundation of, 272- 
73; organization, 273; College of Medi- 
cine in New York City, 273; degrees 
offered to graduate students, 274; gradu- 
ate courses at, 286; Library of, 297; 
scholarships and fellowships at, 301, 477- 



:o34 



INDEX 



79; notable fellowships at, 303; conception 
of plan of, 307; graduate students at, 
312;- first private college to admit women, 
326; Medical School of, in New York 
City, 519; instituted veterinary chairs, 
544; schools of engineering at, 584-85; 
land-grant of N. Y. State turned over to, 
609; admission requirements to College 
of Agriculture, 621; itinerant agricultural 
school, 632; holds unique position among 
land-grant colleges, 639; Experiment 
Station, 642 

Corporal punishment, Laws and regula- 
tions on, 133 

Correlation of studies in secondary schools, 
Com. of Ten on, 1 7 1-7 2 

Correspondence, Instruction in agriculture 
by, 631-32, 634, 635 

Correspondence instruction instituted by 
W. R. Harper, 863; at several universi- 
ties, 863-64; variety of schools for, 864; 
value of, 864-64a; E. Marburgh on 
quality of technical, 864a 

Correspondence work in college subjects 
inaugurated at Chautauqua, 844 

Cotton, Rev. John, and the Indians, 941 

Coubertin, Pierre de, on true Americans, 
238 

Country schoolhouse, The, 412-19, pi. I- 
II; seating, 413; heating and ventilating, 
413-17; lighting, 417-19; two-room 
building, 419-21, pi. III-IV; three-room 
building, 421-23, pi. V; eight-room 
building, 423-29, pi. VI-IX 

County superintendent, Women holding 
position of, 101 

County superintendents elected in thirteen 
states, 100 

County system, The, of the southern states, 
11, 105 

County teachers' institutes, Varieties of, 

383 

Course of study, see College course 

Courses of study for secondary schools, 
Com. of Ten on, 170; actual, show great 
diversity, 177; in Andover Phillips 
Academy, 177-78; in high schools of 
Minnesota, 178-79; in Boston Public 
Latin School, 179 

Courses of study in agricultural colleges, 
621-28; four years' course, 622-26; 
Prof. Jordan on, 626-27; the short 
courses, 627-28 

Cowan, Minnie R., on kindergarten chil- 
dren, 65 

Cox, John, Jr., architect, 458 

Crandall, Prudence, School of, for colored 
misses suppressed by law, 904; mob 
violence against, 905 

Crawford, Thomas, sculptor, 762 

Crime, Education and, ix-xi; statistics of, 
in Mass., xii; of the country, 115-16 

Culture aspect of teachers' institutes, 384 

Cumberland Presbyterian Church, The, 
College of, at Princeton, Ky., 995 



Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn., 

995 

Curry, Jabez Lamar Monroe, on the Pea- 
body Education Fund, 921-22 

Curtains, Proper use of, 418 

Curtius, Ernst, Library of, bought for Yale 
Univ., 304 

Dabney, Charles William, Agricultural 
education, 593-651 

Dartmouth College, closed to women, 333; 
originated in an Indian missionary 
school, 976; founded by Congregation- 
alists, 989 

Dartmouth College decision, Importance 
of the, 157 

Dartmouth Medical College organized, 507 

Dana, James Dwight, and field parties of 
students, 824 

Davenport, Charles Benedict, director of 
Biological Laboratory at Cold Spring 
Harbor, L. I., 891 

Day schools for Indians, 945-47 

Deaf and dumb, First schools for the, 771, 
773; Connecticut Asylum for, incorpo- 
rated, 775; sign language for, 777-78; 
oral or English language method, 778- 
80; manual alphabet method, 780; con- 
flict of methods, 781-82; a periodical for, 
783; The Volta Bureau, 783; sources of 
teachers for, 784; public day schools for, 
784; practical training for, 785-86; 
Convention of, at Columbian Exposition, 
786; bibliography, 811-12 

Deaf-blind, The, 797-804; Laura Bridg- 
man, 798-800; Helen Keller, 801-4; 
bibliography of, 813-14; statistics, 816- 

17 
Defectives, Education of (E. E. Allen), 
769-819: Experimental beginnings, 771; 
T. H. Gallaudet, 771, 774-75; public and 
semi-public institutions, 771-773; the 
deaf, 773-86; foreign schools, 773-74; 
school in Va., 774; Connecticut Asylum 
incorporated, 775; schools established, 
775-76; the Columbia Institution in- 
corporated, 776; sign language and 
manual alphabet methods, 777-80; the 
oral method, 780-82; Annals of the Deaf, 
783; the Volta Bureau founded, 783; in- 
fluence of A. G. Bell, 782, 783-84; nor- 
mal and day schools, 784; practical train- 
ing, 785-86; the blind, 786-97; why 
schools were started, 787; New England 
Asylum and Dr. S. G. Howe, 787-88; 
state schools, 788-89; kindergarten de- 
partments, 789-91; industrial training, 
791-92; music, 792; embossed books, 
792-95; appliances for, 795; higher edu- 
cation of the blind, 796; statistics of 
graduates, 797; the deaf-blind, 797-804; 
Dr. Howe and Laura Bridgman, 798- 
800; Helen Keller and Miss Sullivan, 
801-4; the feeble-minded, 804-n; early 
schools for, 805; the training school and 



INDEX 



!°35 



the asylum, 806; school methods, 807-9; 
statistics of causes, Sio; bibliography, 
811-15; statistics of schools, 815-19. 
See also Blind; Deaf; Deaf-blind 

Defectives, Free schools for, 6 

Degree of A. B., 211, 212, 214, 215, 216, 
219, 223, 224, 241, 262, 267, 268, 285, 347, 
348, 397. 473-74, 844 

Degree of A. M., First, after examination 
conferred at Univ. of Michigan, 285, 
287; at Harvard, 285-86; at Princeton, 
286; last in course at Columbia, 287; 
requirements for at various institutions, 
294-95; in England, 295; 35in2; 264, 267, 
269, 274, 275, 278, 280, 290, 347 

Degree of Agr. S. B., 267 

Degree of B. D., 267, 269, 275 

Degree of Bachelor of Letters, 214, 218 

Degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics, 372 

Degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy, 373 

Degree of B. S., 214, 216, 267, 278, 473-74 

Degree of Bachelor of Social Science, 259 

Degree of C. E., 269, 271, 278 

Degree of Certified Public Accountant, 
474n2 

Degree of Doctor of Civil Law, 259 

Degree of D. D. S., 526 

Degree of D. M. D , 267, 527 

Degree of Doctor of Ecclesiastical Law, 259 

Degree of Doctor of Social Science, 259 

Degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, 
267 

Degree of Electrical Engineer, 278 

Degree of Engineer of Mines, 271 

Degree of J. U. D., 259 

Degree of Licentiate of Instruction, 375 

Degree of LL. B., 219, 259, 267, 269, 271; 
Work required for the, 496-97 

Degree of LL. D., 259-60 

Degree of LL. M., 259, at Columbia, 291 

Degree of Master of Civil Engineering, 274 

Degree of Master of Mechanical Engineer- 
ing, 274 

Degree of M. D., 219, 262, 267, 268, 271, 
5°9. 526 

Degree of Master of Pedagogics, 372 

Degree of Master of Soc. Sc, 259 

Degree of Mech. E., 269, 278 

Degree of Ph. B., 214, 218, 271 

Degree of Ph. D., at Catholic University, 
259; 262, 264, 275, 278, 280; at Yale, 269, 
284; at Harvard, 267, 285, 291; at Cor- 
nell, 274, 286; at Princeton, 286; at Univ. 
of Michigan, 287; number of persons 
who received, 287; at Columbia, 290; 
requirements for, at different institutions, 
291-94; in Germany, 295; opposition to 
conferring honorary, 296; number of 
conferred, 296; 358c 

Degree of Ph. G., Graduate in Pharmacy, 
586 

Degree of Ph. M., 259, 275 

Degree of Sc. D. at Harvard, 267, 285, 286, 
291 

Degree of Sc. M., 267, 269, 275, 278, 280 



Degree of Sc. M. in Agr., 274 

Degree of Sc. M. in Arch., 274 

Degrees, Difference between English and 
American, 346n4 

Degrees granted by professional schools, 
469; varying standards for, 470; pre- 
liminary general education for, 472-73; 
professional students with college, 473- 
74; power to confer, 485 

Delafield, John, planned first industrial 
college in New York, 607-8 

De La Mater, Ida, on kindergarten chil- 
dren, 67 

Delaware, District the unit in, 106; pro- 
fessional licenses in, 471 

Delaware State Medical Society organ- 
ized, 507 

Democracy, The future of, bound up with 
that of education, xxiii-xxiv; entire peo- 
ple of a, should be educated, 113; the 
rising spirit of, Calvinistic, 143 

Democratic movement for popular educa- 
tion, Demand of the, for better teachers, 
367 

Denominational colleges, 7 ; vast number of, 
26; number of, closed to women, 328 

Denominational colleges, Character and 
relations of the, 1011-13 

Denominational educational institutions, 
Statistics of the, 1017, 1021 ; Table 1, Uni- 
versities and colleges, 101S; Secondary 
schools and academies, 1019; Theological 
seminaries, 1020; for colored students 
and others, 1022 

Dental licenses, Interchange of, proposed, 

53^31 

Dental schools, Scholarships in, 478; fees, 
479; libraries, 479-80; endowments, 481; 
value of property, 482-83; growth of, 527; 
degrees granted, 527 

Dentistry, Women students in, 353-54; in- 
dependent schools, 526-27; dental de- 
partments, 527; growth, 527; discoveries 
and inventions, 527-28; societies, 528- 
29; subjects discussed, 529-31; legisla- 
tion, 531; present requirements, 472, 531- 

33 
Denver, Corporal punishment in, 133 
Des Moines, Kindergarten system in, 42; 

time gained by children in, 68 
Design, Schools of, see Art and industrial 

education 
Detroit, Corporal punishment in, 133; 

benefit association and pension fund in, 

134 

Development of popular education, 897- 
901 

Dewey, Melvil, urged University extension 
upon the Regents, 85 2; remarks on, 854 

De Witt, Simeon, proposed an agricultural 
college of the State of New York, 606 

Dickens, Charles, interested in Laura 
Bridgman, 800 

Dickinson, Daniel Stevens, favored agri- 
cultural studies in schools, 607 



1036 



INDEX 



Dickinson, John W., inaugurated the 
"teachers' retreat" at Chautauqua, 843 
Dickey, Sol C, active in founding the Wi- 
nona Assembly and summer schools, 834 
Differentiation of secondary schools, 179-82 
Diplomas given to graduates of Bridge- 
water Normal School, 371 
Disciples of Christ, Schools of the, 1004-5 
Discipline, of the graded school, 91-93; 
harsh, of the rural, 92; in secondary 
schools, 185-86; in colleges for women, 

345 

Discoveries in the realms of nature, Results 
of, far-reaching, 733-34 

Dissertation for Ph. D., 293-94 

District of Columbia, Illiteracy in, ix; com- 
pulsory law in, 99; appropriations for 
industrial training in, 112; aid and 
annuity associations in, 134; education 
of negroes in the, 909-10 

District school, The old-time, 84, 122 

District system, The, 7-9, 106, 122 

Divinity School of Harvard University, 991, 
1014 

Doctor of Medicine, Degree of, first con- 
ferred in 1770 at King's College, 507 

Doctor's degree, see Degree of Ph. D. 

Dods, Dr. Thaddeus, School of, chartered 
as Washington College, 992 

Domestic work in colleges for women, 345 

Dorchester (Mass.), First school in, 120 

Doren, Supt., on farm work for the feeble- 
minded, 809 

Dormitories, 281-82; 301 

Dozier, Miss C. P., Supervisor N. Y. 
Kindergarten Assoc, 74 

Drake University, Summer school of 
methods for school teachers at, 825 

Draper, Andrew Sloan, Educational 
organization and administration, 3-31 

Drawing in the public schools, General 
movement for, 707, 712, 735, 750; Frank- 
lin advocated, 709; in Boston public 
schools, 709; early efforts for, 710; of 
W. Minifie in Baltimore, 710-11; in 
schools of Cleveland, 711; made per- 
missible in Massachusetts, 712; sporadic 
efforts for, 713; adopted in Mass., 714- 
15; Circular of Education, No. 2, 1874 
on, 715, 716-19; the very alphabet of 
art, 718; results of introduction of, 728; 
a requisite preparatory study for all 
schools of science, 729-30; art knowledge 
and art industries, 731-32; the new de- 
parture, 732-34; relation of, to the in- 
dustrial movement, 735-42; art quality 
of, again recognized, 747 

Drawing, industrial, Universal teaching of, 
essential, 730-31 

Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, 590; Dept. 
of Commerce and Finance, 680-87: 
Founded 681; three special courses, 
681; the general course, 682-83; office 
courses, 684-85; evening classes, 686; 
work done at, 687 



Drisler Classical Fund at Columbia, 304 
Durham University joined Cambridge in 

University extension work, 851 
Durant, Henry F., founder of Wellesley 

College, 338 
Dutch colonial common schools, 4, 362-63: 
Dutch Latin school at New Amsterdam, 144 
Dutch schoolmasters, Duties of the, 362-63 
Dutch West India Co., Provision of, for 

clergyman and schoolmaster in New 

York, 120, 996 
Dutton, Samuel Train, on advantages of the 

kindergarten, 68-69 
Dwight, Theodore, on the early schools in 

New York City, 363 
Dwight, Timothy, Sermons of, at Yale, 

a course in divinity, 1014 

Eaton, Amos, first director of Rensselaer 
Polytechnic Institute, 556-58 

Eaton, Gen. John, Report on the worth of 
education to the workingman, 714 

Edbrook & Burnham, Exit registers in 
plan of, 415, 458 

Edinburgh, High School of, imitated in 
Boston, 158; summer meetings for 
teachers at, 387 

Education, a state function, vi-vii, xviii- 
xix, 401; private aid to, xiv; fundamental 
principles of American, XV; study of, 
xxiv; elective study of, in colleges and 
universities, 403-4; enormous growth of, 
405; gifts and bequests for general, 484; 
Journals of, 883 

Education and crime, ix-xi 

Education and industry, xi 

Education, Chairs of, in colleges and uni- 
versities, 391-95; University of Michigan, 
392-94 

Education in the South, see Southern States 

Education of defectives (E. E. Allen) 
769-819 

Education of the Indian (W. N. Hailmann) 
937-72 

Education of the negro (B. T. Washing- 
ton) 893-936 

Education of women, see Women, Educa- 
tion of 

Education, tax-supported, Unlimited power 
of the people to provide, xx-xxii 

Education through the agency of religious 
organizations (W. H. Larrabee) 973— 
1022 

Educational Alliance, The, New York, 
1006, 1008 

Educational institution, Three types of, in 
the U. S., xviii-xx 

Educational opportunities must be provided 
and taken advantage of, 22 

Educational organization and administra- 
tion (A. S. Draper) 3-31 

Educational organization in the U. S., 94- 
106 

Educational Review, The, 317-18; founded 
by N. M. Butler, 881 



INDEX 



io 37 



Educational revival, The, of early 19th 
century, 361, 367 

Educational system, The American, xv-xx; 
at beginning of 19th century, 6-7, 22; 
Summer schools a part of, 823 

Egleston, Thomas, planned the School of 
Mines, 578-79 

Elective courses, Development of college, 
223-27 

Elective system, The, in secondary educa- 
tion, 172-74; first proposed by Francis 
Wayland of Brown University, 1004 

Elementary course of study, 106-13. ^ ee 
Elementary education, III. 

Elementary education (Wm. T. Harris) 
79-139: I. General survey of school sys- 
tem, 79-94; enrollment and attendance, 
79-80; average schooling, 80; greatest 
good accomplished by the system, 81; 
educated teachers, 82-83; graded schools 
vs. ungraded, 83-85; individual sup- 
planted by class instruction, 85-86; 
text-book vs. oral instruction, 86-87; 
definition of school instruction, 88; diffi- 
culties of the rural schools, 88-91; divi- 
sion of labor, 89; organization and gov- 
ernment in the city school, 91-93; school 
discipline, 92-93; moral force of rural 
and city schools, 93-94. — II. Educational 
organization, 94-106: No control by 
central government, 94-95; gifts of land 
and funds, 95-96; Bureau of Education, 
97; centralized power in each state, 97; 
compulsory attendance, 97-98; statis- 
tics of, 99-100; statistics of supervision, 
100-1; school boards, 101; women in 
school administration, 101-2; salaries of 
teachers, 102-3; coeducation of the 
sexes, 103-4; sectarian division of school 
funds, 104-5; the local unit of school 
organization, 105-6. — III. The elemen- 
tary course of study, 106-13: Elementary 
school course, 107; general program, 108; 
subjects actually taught, 109-11; manual 
training, 111-12; kindergartens, 112-13. 
— IV. Place of popular education in the 
ideals of the American people, 113-17. — 
V. Historical beginnings, 117-25: Family 
training and school technique, 1 17-19; 
earliest schools, 120-22; Berkeley and 
Jefferson on free schools, 120-21; dis- 
trict schools, 122; the urban epoch, 123; 
Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, 123- 
25. — VI. Appendixes, i-ix, 126-39: App. 
i, Total attendance in schools and col- 
leges, 1897-98, 126-27; App. ii, Enroll- 
ment in common schools at various pe- 
riods, 128-29; App. iii, Common school 
statistics of U. S., 130; App. iv, State 
systems, 131-32; App. v, Corporal pun- 
ishment, 133; App. vi, Teachers' pen- 
sions and benefit associations, 134; App. 
vii, Text-books; selection and supply, 
135-38; App. ix, Average total amount of 
schooling, 139 



Elementary education, N. E. A. Report on 
organization of, xiv; assumed by the 
government, xix 

Elementary school course, 107; general 
program, 108 

Elementary schools, Public, carefully reg- 
ulated by law, vii, 6; subjects actually 
taught in, 109-10 

Eliot, Charles William, Reports as presi- 
dent of Harvard University, xiv, 312; on 
a theological education, 493-94; on 
teaching medicine, 516-17; on state 
medicine, 519-20 

Eliot, John, and his work with the Indian, 
940-41 

Ellsworth, Henry Leavitt, Distribution of 
seeds by, 604-5 

Elmira College, 338m; organization of, 341 

Embossed books for the blind, 792-95; 
point and line systems, 793; the Amer- 
ican braille, 794 

Embossed libraries for the blind, 794, 795 

Emma Willard School, 338n 

Encouragement of schools a function of 
government, 5 

Endowments of professional schools, 481 

Engineering schools, see Scientific, technical 
and engineering education, 553-92 

Engineers, chemists, and miners, Need of, 
601 

England, University extension in, 849-50; 
ideal course in, 856 

English, Art development of the, since 
185 1, 707; Haydon on, 708 

English, good, Kindergarten children learn, 

57-58 
English academies, Origin of the, 148 
English colonists established colleges, 4-5 
English language method for the deaf and 

dumb, 778-79; history of the, 780-81; 

Bell's visible speech, 782 
English universities, Residential halls 

characteristic of the, 280-81 
Enrollment, Public school, of the U. S. 79; 

increase in the, 79; one person in every 

five, north and south, 81 
Entomological Society of Washington, 873 
Entrance examinations of the women's col- 
leges, Influence of, on the private fitting 

schools, 343n2 
Entrance requirements for admission to the 

agricultural colleges, 620-21 
Entrance requirements for professional 

schools, 473 
Episcopal Divinity School at Philadelphia, 

492 
Episcopal Theological School at Cambridge, 

49 2 

European universities, Contrast of Amer- 
ican with the, 280-82; features of the, 
281; points of difference, 282 

Evangelical Association, Schools of the, 
1001 

Evelyn College, affiliated with Princeton, 
closed, 346n2 



io 3 S 



INDEX 



Evening high schools, 180 

Everett, Edward, first American graduate 
of a German university, 283 

Examinations for degrees at English col- 
leges, 346n4; oral, for admission to the 
law, 501-2 

Examining boards for teachers, 401-2 

Exercises, Froebelian, vs. arbitrary, 71 

Exeter Phillips Academy established, 149 

Expenditure for common schools in the 
southern states and D. C, 910; 918; 
Table of, 930 

Expenditure per capita for common schools, 
viii, 79; increase of, 79-80 

Expenses, Student, 237; of agricultural 
students, 629 

Experiment Station (Hatch) Act passed, 
642-43 

Experiment Station at University of North 
Carolina, 642 

Experimental farm, The first, in South 
Carolina, 598 

Extension work in agriculture, 629-32; 
farmers' institutes, 629-30; cooperative 
field experiments, 631; instruction by 
correspondence and home reading, 631- 
32; itinerant agricultural school, 632 

Eye and hand, Training of, in the kinder- 
garten, 39-40, 47, 49, 52, 54, 57 

Eyes, Protection of the, in lighting rooms, 
417-18, 421 

Fairs and exhibitions, Agricultural, 598-99 
Fall River, Corporal punishment in, 133 
Family, The, and the school, 1 17-18 
Farm schools, Failure of the, 713-14 
Farmer, The, needs knowledge of condi- 
tions not methods, 626-27; popular 
education for the, 633-37 
Farmer, The colonial, 595 
Farmers' High School incorporated in 
Pennsylvania, 610. See also Pennsylvania 
State College 
Farmers' institute, The, 629-30 
Farmers' National Congress, The, 600 
Fathers of St. Joseph's Society for Colored 

Missions, 1010 
Fay, Edward Allen, investigated marriages 

of the deaf, 783 
Fayerweather, Daniel B., Munificence of, 

3°4 

Federal government, see General govern- 
ment 

Federation of Business Teachers' Asso- 
ciations, 660; address of J. E. King be- 
fore, 66mi, 663 

Federation of Graduate Clubs, opposed to 
honorary Ph. D., 313; Graduate hand- 
book of, 317; colleges included in the, 

33° ni > 35 1 
Feeble-minded, The, 804-n; the first 
school for, public, 771; opened in 1848, 
805; Mass. Commission on, 805; insti- 
tutions for, 805-6; divisions of, 807; 
instruction of and work done by, 808-9; 



custodial cases, 809; causes of, 810; 
castration of the, 8nni; bibliography of, 
814-15; statistics of schools for, 819 

Fellowships, Number of, at Chicago, Co- 
lumbia and Univ. of Penna., 301; average 
value of, 301-2; differences between 
scholarships and, 302; first extensively 
used at Johns Hopkins, 302; some 
notable, 302-3; at Amer. schools of classi- 
cal studies at Athens and Rome, 303 

Field Columbian Museum of Chicago, 887 

Field experiments, Cooperative, 631 

Finance and economy, see Wharton School 
of Finance and Economy 

Financial summary of 169 colored schools, 
924; Table 8, 936 

Fine arts, Opportunities for thorough train- 
ing in the, 764-65 

Fireplace, The open, in the school room, 
416-17, 421 

Firmin, Dr. Giles, gave readings on oste- 
ology in 1647, 506 

Fish, Hamilton, recommended a state 
agricultural college, 607 

Fisher, Laura, director of Boston kinder- 
gartens, 44; post-graduate work organ- 
ized by, 74 

Fisk University, 924 

Florence (Mass.), First charity kinder- 
garten at, 35, 36 

Florida, Illiteracy in, ix; The county system 
in, 11, 105; grants of land to, 96; district 
the unit in, 106; repudiated bonds, 920 

Flower Hospital, Study of practical medi- 
cine at the, 518 

Fogg Art Museum at Cambridge (Mass.) 

3°3 

Foreign missions schools, 1010-11 

Forestry protection, 600 

Fortune, T. Thomas, on the New England 
teachers of the freedmen, 916-18 

Forum, The, 881 

Foul air, Removal of, 414-17 

Fowle, William Bentley, introduced draw- 
ing in his school in Boston. 709-10 

Framingham (Mass.), Normal school at, 124 

France, Systematic work for defectives be- 
gan in, 773 _ 

Franklin, Benjamin, and manual training, 
111; established an academy at Philadel- 
phia, 149, 263, 750; on need of teachers, 
366-67; on drawing, 709; president Amer. 
Philosophical Soc, 871 

Franklin and Marshall College, Beginning 
of, 997 

Franklin College, Lancaster, Penn., 986 

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, 873 

Free industrial classes for adults obligatory 
in Mass., 720, 721 

Free School at New York, see New York 
Free School Society 

Free-Will Baptist Church, Schools of the, 
1004 

Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education 
Society of the M. E. Church, 1009 



INDEX 



IO39 



Freedmen's Bureau, Establishment and 
work of the, 914-16, 918 

Freedmen's Schools, 1009-10 

Freshman, The American, not a university 
student, 225; compared with foreign, 
225; picture of career of, 229-35 

Friedlander, — , started school for the blind 
in Philadelphia, 787-88 

Friends, Society of, established Institute for 
Colored Youth at Philadelphia, 906, 925; 
opened first public school in Pennsyl- 
vania, 976; schools of the, 1005 

Frissell, Hollis Burke, head of Hampton 
Institute, 927 

Froebel, Friedrich, First kindergarten of, 
35; principles of, 63; traditional games 
and toys, 70-71; education of mothers, 
75-76 

Froebel Association (Chicago), Normal 
department of the, 73 

Froebel associations in the United States, 36 

Froebelian ideals, 35, 36; merit of, recog- 
nized, 43-44; 49-50, 61, 63; no sentimen- 
talism in, 69; obstacles to, 70-71; St. 
Louis kindergartners study of, 74; the 
education of mothers, 75-76 

Froebel's gifts, Child trained in, 39 

Fuller, Sarah, and Helen Keller, 803 

Function of a university, The true, 307-8 

Fundamental principles of American edu- 
cation, xv 

Funds, State school, 18 

Furman, Richard, and Baptist schools, 
1003 

Furnace, The, should be centrally located, 
420, 422; steam plant, vs., 424 

Gallaudet, Edward Miner, principal of 
Columbia Institution, 776-77; abroad 
to study methods, 781 

Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins, founder of 
deaf-mute instruction in America, 774; 
sent to Europe, 771, 774-75; secured 
L. Clerc, 775; statute of, at Gallaudet 
College, 786 

Gallaudet College has normal classes, 784 

Gaines, traditional, Froebel's modification 
of, 70 

Garland, Miss, Kindergarten training 
school of, 72 

Garrett, Miss, Gifts of, to School of Medi- 
cine of Johns Hopkins University, 262 

Garrett, Robert, 751 

General Education Board subsidized the 
Summer School of the South, 842 

General government, The, and education, 
22-25, 94-95; land rights for mainte- 
nance of schools, 23; Ordinance of 1787, 
24; land grant act of 1862, 24, 95; U. S. 
Bureau of Education, 24-25, 97; has no 
control over, 94; total amount of land 
donated, 95; supports West Point and 
Naval Academy, 96; educates Indians 
and children in Alaska, 96 

General science, Journals of, 881 



General Theological Seminary established, 

489, 984, 1014 
Genesee Wesleyan Seminary, 998 
Geography in elementary schools, 109 
Geological and topographical surveys, 

Governmental, 888-89 
Geological Society of Washington, 873 
Geology, Summer instruction in, at Har- 
vard, 824, 837 
Geology and geography, Journals of, 882 
Georgetown College, D. C, founded by 

Bp. Carroll, 980 
Georgetown College, Ky., founded, 1003 
Georgia, Illiteracy in, ix; the county system 
in, 11, 105; kindergarten department in 
normal school, 73; authorizes county 
manual labor schools, 112; passed first 
law licensing apothecaries, 537; law of, 
against educating negroes, 902 
German Evangelical Church, Schools of 

the, 1005 
German teachers' seminaries, 378 
German theological seminaries, 1016 
German universities, First Americans at, 
283; made possible by their rigid Gym- 
nasium system, 288-89 
Germany, Impulse and inspiration brought 
from, 288; university methods of, adapted 
not adopted, 288-89 
Gibbs, Wolcott, president National Acad- 
emy of Sciences, 868 
Gifts and endowments, 300-1, 484; many 
of the largest from non-collegiate men, 
3°4 
Gillett, Philip G., on the sign language, 

777-78 

Gilman, Arthur, originator of the Harvard 
Annex, 347m; examined Helen Keller, 
803 

Girard, Stephen, 750 

Girard College, Negroes not admitted to, 
906 

Girls, Colonies provided no education for, 
147; academies for, 155; high schools, 
180, 322m; conditions favoring educa- 
tion of, 321-25; per cent of, in secondary 
schools, 322n2; excluded from early pub- 
lic schools of Boston, 366 

Girls' schools, College entrance require- 
ments have raised standard of teachers 
in, 343n2 

Girton College, Cambridge (Eng.), 338m, 
346n4, 347 m 

Golden Gate Association, of San Francisco, 
36-37; training school of the, 73 

Goode, George Brown, administrator of 
U. S. National Museum, 886 

Goodhue, Lincoln P., on the kindergarten, 

65 

Gookins, Daniel, superintendent of Indians 
in Mass., 940 

Gottingen, American students at, 283-84 

Gould, B. A., took Ph. D. at a German uni- 
versity, 284 

Government, The State and the, xv-xx 



1040 



INDEX 



Government in secondary schools, 187-88 

Graded schools, Long session of, 80; edu- 
cated teachers in the, 82-83; work in the, 
88; division of labor in, 89; superiority 
of education in, 91-92: discipline in, 92- 
93; a stronger moral force than rural, 94; 
demanded professional teachers, 122 

Graduate Clubs, The Federation of, op- 
posed to honorary Ph.D., 313; publica- 
tions of, 317 

Graduate fellowships and scholarships, 352 

Graduate handbook, 317 

Graduate instruction for women, 351-54; 
in Faculty of philosophy, 351-52; in 
theology, law, medicine, etc., 353-54 

Graduate school closer to collegiate course 
than professional faculty is, 309; prepa- 
ration of candidates for admission to, 310 

Graduate schools, Statistics of, 314-15, 
352; the sixteen open to women, 351-52 

Graduate students, Resident, 30-31; at 
Harvard before 1800, 283; number of, 
287; remaining at their almae matres, 312; 
associations of, 312; statistics of, 314-15 

Graduate work, Many institutions for, in 
the U. S., 256, 257, 265; beginnings of, 
284-89; at Yale, 284; University of 
Michigan, 285, 287; Columbia, 285, 287; 
Harvard, 2S3, 2S5-86; Cornell, 286; 
Princeton, 286; expansion of, 287-88; 
relation of, to the college, 310 

Graduates, College, in the national life, 
238-39; Report on the certification of 
college and university, as teachers in 
public schools, 402-4 

Graduation exercises, 189 

Grammar in elementary schools, no 

Grand Rapids, Kindergarten system in, 
42 

Gratz College, Philadelphia, 1007 

Gray, John Chipman, on methods of teach- 
ing law, 498 

Great Britain, Agricultural societies in, 

598 

Green, J. C, founder of John C. Green 
School of Science, 681-82 

Greene, B. Franklin, 558 

Greenough, Horatio, sculptor, 762, 763 

Greenwood, John, first American dentist, 
526 

Gregory, Dr., on experience in a pharmacy, 
535-36 

Gregory, Charles Noble, on salaries of law 
teachers, 497 

Griggs, Edward Howard, University ex- 
tension lecturer, 855 

Guyot, A., Graduate course of, at Colum- 
bia, 285 

H type of schoolhouse, 432-33; 436-37, 

pi. XII 
H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for 

Women, 346; organization of, 349; a 

separate institution, 350 
Hackley School for Boys, Unitarian, 991 



Hackney & Smith, Exit registers in plan of, 

4i5 

Hadley (Mass.), Latin grammar school in, 
144 

Hailmann, William Nicholas, Educa- 
tion of the Indian, 937-72 

Haines, Henrietta, introduced kindergarten 
in her school in New York, 36 

Hale, George Ellery, director of the Yerkes 
Observatory, 888 

Hall, Use of, as cloak and coat room, 422, 
426 

Hamilton College, closed to women, ^t,^ 

Hamilton Literary and Theological Insti- 
tute, 1003, 1014 

Hamilton Theological Seminary, the first 
Baptist, opened, 489 

Hammond, John E., Report of, 460 

Hampden-Sidney College, Patriotic charter 
of, 238 

Hampton Normal and Agricultural Insti- 
tute, 926-27 

Hand, Daniel, Gift of, to Amer. Missionary 
Assoc, for education of negroes, 905, 919 

Hannan, James, on the kindergarten, 65 

Harper, William Rainey, head of Summer 
School Dept. of Chautauqua, 844; in- 
stituted correspondence courses, 863 

Harris, William Torrey, Elementary 
education, 79-139 

Harris, William Torrey, on national grants 
for education, vi; reports of public schools 
of St. Louis, xiv; as thinker and writer, 
25; introduced the kindergarten in St. 
Louis, 38-39; on value of the kindergar- 
ten, 39-41; on enrollment in normal 
schools, 378; at Martha's Vineyard Insti- 
tute, 841; at national conference on Uni- 
versity extension, 853 

Harrison, Samuel A., on kindergarten chil- 
dren, 66 

Harrison Fellowship Fund at Univ. of 
Penna., 303 

Hart, Miss C. M. C, Kindergarten training 
school of, in Baltimore, 73; postgraduate 
work at, 74 

Hartford, Early Latin school in, 144; 
changed to high school, 158-59; 

Hartwick Seminary founded, 489, 987, 
1014 

Harvard, John, Endowment given by, 120, 
266 

Harvard Annex, Organization of the, 347m 

Harvard Astronomical Observatory, Gift 
of Robert Treat Paine to the, 304 

Harvard College set up to train the aris- 
tocracy, 4; chartered and supported at 
the start by the state, 26; founded, 120; 
requirements of admission, 146; and the 
bachelor's degree, 218-19; graduates of, 
in the national life, 238; center of the 
University, 242; resident graduates at, 
283, 285; tO train for the ministry, 487, 
97 5 ; to meet demand for higher education, 
899; founded by Congregationalists, 989; 



INDEX 



IO41 



T. Hollis founds divinity professorship 
in, 1002 
Harvard examinations for women, 343n2 - 
Harvard Law School, the earliest connected 

with a university, 495 
Harvard Medical School organized, 507; 
adopted graded system, 516; opened a 
dental department, 527; summer courses 
at, S25 
Harvard Observatory, The, 887-88 
Harvard Summer School, The, 837-39; 

Cuban teachers at, 838-39 
Harvard University, Gifts to, xiv; founded, 
266; organization of, 266-67; the Grad- 
uate School, 267, 286; courses under 
Faculty of Arts and Sciences, 267-68; 
other schools, 268; requirements for Ph. 
D. at, 292; the Library of, 297; publica- 
tions of, 298; scholarships and fellow- 
ships at, 301; twelve non-resident fellow- 
ships, 302; notable benefactions, 302-3; 
college and graduate work at, 310; gradu- 
ate students, 312; president's report, 317; 
Bussey Institution at, 641; summer in- 
struction in geology at, 824; Botanic Gar- 
den and Arnold Arboretum of, 889; Uni- 
tarian influence predominates in manage- 
ment of, 991 
Haskell Institute, 954-57 
Hastings College of the Law, 280 
Hatch, William H., advocate of the Experi- 
ment Station Act of 1887, 642 
Hawaii, Agricultural Experiment Station 

in, 643 
Haydon, Benjamin Robert, on lack of art 
development in England, 708; tragic 
failure of, 7 13 
Health of college women, 356-57, 356m 
Hearst, Mrs. Phoebe A., Kindergarten 
sustained by, in Washington, D. C, 72; 
gifts of, to University of California, 279, 

3°4 

Heating and ventilating the schoolroom, 
413-17; the furnace, 420; apparatus for, 
centrally located, 420, 422, 426, 449; in 
N. Y. City ward school, 432 

Hebrew Free School Association of New 
York, 1006 

Hebrew Sunday School Society, 1006 

Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, 1006 

Hebrews, Work of the, for education, 1006-8 

Heffley School, 687 

Hegel on the ultimate end of the State, xvi 

Heidelberg College founded, 997 

Heinicke, Samuel, adopted oral method for 
deaf-mutes, 773 

Hemenway Fellowship of American Archae- 
ology und Ethnology at Harvard, 303 

Henderson, George, secretary of Univer- 
sity extension movement in Philadelphia, 

853 
Henrico College at Jamestown, Va., 982 
Henry, Joseph, Opening address, at agri- 
cultural college in Maryland, 609; first 
secretary of the Smithsonian, 884 



Henry Drisler Fellowship in Classical Phi- 
lology at Columbia, 303 

Heriot J. C. A., architect, 458 

High school building, The, 438-46; the 
Boston Latin-English, 438-40; court 
plan, 438; rooms, 439; assembly halls, 
440; Cambridge English High School, 
pi. XIV-XV, 440-42; Hplan, laboratories 
and class rooms, 440-41; elegance of 
architecture, 442; Springfield (Mass.), 
442-45, pi. XVI-XVIII; central court 
plan, 443; heating, 443~44! lighting, 444; 
laboratories, 444-45; observatory, 445; 
lunch room, 445-46 

High school movement, The, 156-60 

High schools not usually regulated by law, 
vii; rapid increase in number of, xii; 
number of, xi, 30; free public, 6; period 
of public, 143, 156-60; fill gap in com- 
plete educational system, 162-63; con ~ 
nection with the colleges, 163-65; the 
accrediting system, 165-68; differentia- 
tion in, 179-82; evening, 180; for colored 
students, 180; manual training, 181; com- 
mercial, 181; of Massachusetts, 192; of 
Maryland, 194; of Indiana, 194-96; 
of Wisconsin, 196-98; of Minnesota,. 
198-99; table of students in certain 
courses in, 201-3; commercial education 
in the, 662-63, 674-80 

High schools and academies, private, Num- 
ber of, 30; table of students in, 202 

Higher education, Bibliography of Amer- 
ican system of, 316-17 

Hill, S. H., opened first charity kindergar- 
ten, 36 

Hillside Home for Feeble-minded Children, 
The, 805 

Hinsdale, Burke Aaron, The training of 
teachers, 359-407 

Hiram College founded, 1005 

Hirsch Fund for the Benefit of European 
Hebrews, 1008 

Historical societies very numerous, 879 

Historical Society of Pennsylvania, S79 

History in elementary schools, no; neg- 
lected in secondary schools, 187 

History and archaeology, Journals of, 883 

Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y., founded, 
984 

Hodgkin, Thomas G., Bequest of, to the 
Smithsonian Institution, 886 

Holland, A school law in, 120 

Hollis, Thomas, founded divinity pro- 
fessorship at Harvard, 1002, 1014 

Hollister, F. W., architect, 458 

Holloway, David P., Commissioner of 
Patents, 605 

Holmes, Dr. Bayard, on present tendencies 
in medical education, 520-21 

Hoist, Hermann Eduard von, on the uni- 
versity in America, 256 

Home Reading Union of England, 863 

Honors, Academic, 228-29 

Hope College, Holland, Mich., 996 



1042 



INDEX 



Hopewell Academy, N. J., opened, 1002 
Hopkins, Gov. Edward, Notable bequest 

of, 144 
Hoppin Fellowship at Athens, 303 
Horace Mann School of Boston a day 

school for the deaf, 784; Helen Keller 

at the, 803 
Horizontal point alphabet, The New York, 

for the blind, 793 
Hornaday, William Temple, director New 

York Zoological Garden, 890 
Horticultural societies, 600 
Hosack, David, began a Botanical Garden 

in New York, 889 
Hospitals, Gifts and bequests for, 484 
Houghton, Frank A., on the kindergarten, 

67 
Howard & Camdwell, architects, 461 
Howard, Gen. Oliver Otis, Work of, 

through the Freedmen's Bureau, 914-15 
Howard University, 914, 924 
Howe, Dr. Samuel Gridley, abroad with 

Horace Mann, 780; at New England 

Asylum, 787; Boston line print devised 

by, 792; and Laura Bridgman, 797-800; 

Report of, on idiocy, 805 
Hubbard, Gardiner Greene, a founder of 

Science, 881 
Hudson, William H., in extension work, 855 
Hudson & Wachter, architects, 461 
Huested, Dr. A. B., on the teaching of 

pharmacy, 536-37 
Hull House, First summer school of, 826 
Humphreys, Richard, endowed Institute 

for Colored Youth at Philadelphia, 906 
Hunt, Richard Morris, Art building at 

Chicago by, 757 
Hunt, William Morris, Influence of the 

pictures of, at Albany, 755, 761, 763 
Hunter, Dr. Wm., gave first lectures on 

anatomy in 1752 at Newport, 506 
Hygiene, see School architecture and hy- 
giene (G. B. Morrison) 409-64 
Hygiene, Study of, 519 

Idaho, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law in, 
99; women county superintendents in, 
101; women may hold any school office 
in, 102; woman suffrage in, 102; district 
the unit in, 106 

Idiotic hand, The, 807 

Illinois, Kindergartens in, 42, 112; depart- 
ments in normal schools, 73; grants of 
land to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; truant 
schools in, 100; employment of children, 
100; school directors, 101; women 
county superintendents in, 101; women 
may hold any school office in, 102; may 
vote at school elections, 102; township 
the unit in, 105; or district, 106; author- 
izes industrial training, 112; corporal 
punishment in, 133; first teachers' in- 
stitute in, 382; leads in professional stu- 
dents, 470; professional licenses in, 471; 
education of defectives in, 771 



Illinois Industrial University instituted 
veterinary chairs, 544 

Illinois Institution for the Education of 
Feeble-minded children, 805 

Illiteracy in the U. S., ix 

Illiterate population, An, transformed into 
a reading one, by the public school sys- 
tem, 81; proportion of criminals in, 

94 

Immigrants to America established schools, 
119-22 

Independent colleges for women, see 
Women, Education of 

Indian civilization, Features of, 961-62 

Indian, Education of the (W. N. Hail- 
mann) 937-72: Introduction, greed and 
fair play, 939-40; John Eliot, 940-41; 
Sergeant and Wheelock, 941; persistence 
of spirit of work, 941-42; shortcomings, 
942-43; period of inaction, 943; resump- 
tion of work, 943-44; governmental 
zeal, 944; decay of missionary effort, 
944-45; present organization, 945-61: 
Day schools, 945-47; reservation board- 
ing schools, 947-52; non-reservation 
boarding schools, 952-53; industrial 
training schools, 953-57; Carlisle, 957— 
58; Contract schools, 958-59; supervision, 
'960-61; conclusion and outlook, 961-63; 
schools of Indian Territory, 963-64; 
statistical tables, 965-72 

Indian Rights Association, Influence of, for 
the Indians, 942-43 

Indian schools, Statistical tables of, 965- 
72; number and attendance, 965-66; lo- 
cation and capacity of day schools, 967 
of reservation boarding schools, 967-69 
of non-reservation boarding schools, 970 
of contract schools, 971; appropriations 
for private schools, 972 

Indian Territory, Schools of the five civi- 
lized tribes of, 963-64 

Indiana, Kindergartens in, 42 

Indiana, Grant of swamp lands to, 96; 
compulsory law in, 99; truants in, 100; 
clothing furnished poor school children, 
100; school trustees in, 101; women may 
hold any school office in, 102; may vote 
at school elections, 102; township the 
unit in, 105; authorizes industrial training 
in cities, 112; and kindergartens, 112; 
corporal punishment allowed in, 133; 
provision of constitution of, for general 
system of education, 152; commissioned 
high schools under State Board of Edu- 
cation, 194-96 

Indiana Institute of Technology, see Pur- 
due University, 586 

Indiana Teachers' Reading Circle, Success 
of the, 390, 863; list of books read by, 
390-91 

Indiana University, Accrediting system in 
the, 194; admitted women, 325; summer 
courses at, 825; Biological Station of, on 
Winona Lake, 826 



INDEX 



I043 



Indianapolis, Kindergarten system in, 42; 
corporal punishment in, 133 

Indians, uncivilized, General government 
educates children of, 96 

Individual instruction supplanted by class 
instruction, 85-87 

Industrial classes, Scientific and liberal 
education provided for the, 613-14, 617- 
iS 

Industrial college, The first, in New York, 
607-8 

Industrial education, see Art and industrial 
education, 705-67 

Industrial education for the negro, 925-28; 
Institute for Colored Youth, 925; Hamp- 
ton Institute, 926-27; Tuskegee Insti- 
tute, 927-28; Table of statistics of, 935 

Industrial education movement, Scope of 
the, 744-47 

Industrial era, Advent of the, 734, 739 

Industrial progress, Effects of general sec- 
ondary education on, 322n2 

Industrial schools, 7 

Industrial training, States authorizing, 112. 
See also Art and industrial education 
(I. E. Clarke) 

Industrial training for the blind, 791-92 

Industrial training schools for Indians, 
953-58; Haskell Institute, 954-57; Car- 
lisle, 957-58 

Industries of applied art, Opportunities 
for workers in the, 764 

Industry, Education and, xi. See also 
Education and industry 

Ingham University, closed, 336n2 

Institute for Colored Youth, Philadelphia, 
endowed by R. Humphreys, 906, 925 

Institutions, Privately-established, vi, 266- 
70; enrollment in, viii; relation of, to 
American education, 25-26; Harvard 
University, 266-68; Yale University, 
268-70 

Instruction, college, Modes of, 227-28 

Introduction (N. M. Butler) v-xxiv 

Iowa, Length of annual school session in, 
viii; illiteracy in, ix; kindergartens in, 
42; grants of land to, 96; school directors, 
101; women county superintendents in, 
101; women may vote at school elections 
in, 102; township or district the unit in, 
106; authorizes kindergartens, 112; 
corporal punishment allowed in, 133; 
higher schools authorized, 160; first 
teachers' institute in, 382; professional 
licenses in, 471; income from land grants, 

639 
Iowa Agricultural and Mechanical College, 

Veterinary Dept. at, 544 
Iowa Educational Board of Examiners, One 

member of the, must be a woman, 102 
Iowa, State University of, coeducational, 

324; chair of didactics at, 392 
Itinerant agricultural school under College 

of Agriculture at Cornell University, 

632, 635 



James, Edmund Janes, Commercial edu- 
cation, 653-703 

James, Edmund Janes, in University ex- 
tension work, 855 

Jamestown (N. Y.), Kindergarten system 
in, 42 

Jamestown, Va., Henrico College planned 
at, 982 

Jefferson, Thomas, recommended manual 
training, in; system of general instruc- 
tion, 121, 913; opposed to slave system, 
902; educational ideas of, endorsed by 
Virginians, 908 

Jefferson College begun as the Log College 
of Dr. J. McMillan, 992 

Jersey City, First city superintendent in, 
124 

Jewish Chautauqua at Atlantic City, 826; 
a success, 1007 

Jewish Sunday Schools organized, 1006 

Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 
organized, 1007 

John C. Green School of Science, of Prince- 
ton University, 581-82 

John Tyndall Fellowship in Physics at 
Harvard, 302 

Johns Hopkins University, Electives in 
undergraduate college at, 219, 242; 
organized at a college, 255; foundation 
of, 261; admits women to School of 
Medicine, 262, 328, 333, 351; fellows at, 
262; classes of students, 262-63; f° r 
graduate work, 287; requirements for 
Ph.D. at, 292, 293; publications of, 298; 
scholarships and fellowships at, 301, 302; 
Bruce Fellowship at, 303; library of 
Bluntschli given to, 304; aims at produc- 
ing specialists, 310; graduate students, 
312; president's report, 317; medical 
school of, a true university school, 351m; 
exclusion of women, a serious matter, 
35in2; influence of, on schools of science 
and engineering, 591 

Johnson, Samuel W., agricultural chemist, 
607; professor at Sheffield Scientific 
School, 641 

Joliet (HI.), Fifth ward school building, 
424-25, pi. VI-VII 

Jordan, Prof., on the knowledge needed by 
the farmer, 626—27 

Joselyn, E. A., architect, 461 

Journal of Psycho-asthenics, The, 811 

Journal of the Franklin Institute, 873, 880 

Journal of the Philadelphia College of 
Pharmacy started, 534 

Journals, List of scientific, 880-84 

Judd, Orange, established chemical labora- 
tory at Wesleyan University, 641 

Kalamazoo case, Decision in the, xx-xxi, 

Kansas, Illiteracy in, ix; kindergarten de- 
partment in normal school, 73; grant of 
land to, 96; compulsory law in, 79; 
women county superintendents in, 101; 



1044 



INDEX 



women may vote at school elections in, 
102; district the unit in, 106; corporal 
punishment in, 133; income from land 
grant, 638, 639 

Kansas City (Mo.), Corporal punishment 
in, 133 

Kansas City (Mo.), Manual Training High 
School of, 425-26; mechanical ventilation 
in the, 429; 442; described, 447-55, 
pi. XIX-XXII 

Kansas State Normal School, Summer 
school- of methods at, 825 

Karr, C. Powell, Plan of, for country school- 
house, 419, 422, pi. II; 458 

Keeler, James Edward, director of the 
Lick Observatory, 888 

Keener, Win. Albert, on methods of teach- 
ing law, 498 

Keller, Helen Adams, 801-4; mastery of 
speech by, 802-3; at Radcliffe College, 
803; Dr. Job Williams on, 803-4 

Kempin, Madame, Private law school of, 
incorporated with New York University 
Law School, 354m 

Kent, James, Course of lectures in law by, 
at Columbia College, 495 

Kentucky, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory 
law in, 99; school trustees, 101; women 
county superintendents in, 101; women 
may vote at school elections in, 102; dis- 
trict the unit in, 106; granted lands for 
academies, 152; legal provisions for 
schoolhouses, 459; education of defect- 
ives in, 771; first state school for deaf- 
mutes, 776 

Kentucky Institution for Feeble-minded 
Children, 805 

Kentucky University, admitted women, 

325 
Kenyon College founded, 984 
Kindergarten, W. T. Harris on the value 

of the, 39-41 
Kindergarten, Experimental, opened in 

Boston, 35; closed, 37; in St. Louis, 38- 

4i 
Kindergarten associations, The work of, 

36-37, 73 

Kindergarten children, Testimony of Bos- 
ton primary teachers on, 44-60; disci- 
pline of, 46-48; characteristics of, 49-60; 
in third grade, 60-61; testimony of St. 
Louis teachers, 63-64; Chicago superin- 
tendents and principals on, 64-68; time 
gained by, 67-68; number of, 112-13 

Kindergarten departments in normal schools 
and other institutions, 72-73, 376; states 
providing, 73 

Kindergarten education (S. E. Blow) 35- 
76; four movements in America, 35; 
pioneer movement of Elizabeth Peabody, 
35-36; Miss Boelte, 36; philanthropic 
movement in Boston, San Francisco, 
New York and Chicago, 36-37; national 
movement begun by W. T. Harris in St. 
Louis, 38-41; number of public kinder- 



gartens, 41; cities and states providing, 
42; aim of, development not instruction, 
43; unjust criticism of kindergarten chil- 
dren, 43; testimony from primary 
teachers of Boston, 44-61; trend of un- 
favorable criticism, 45-46; as to disci- 
pline, 46-48; moral tone and progress, 
48-50; replies from teachers in full, 50- 
60; influence extends beyond the primary 
room, 60-61; letter from E. P. Seaver, 
61-63; favorable letters from St. Louis, 
63-64; valuable testimony from Chicago 
superintendents and principals, 64-68: 
gives favorable age result, 68; S. T. 
Dutton on benefit of, 68-69; "sentimen- 
talism" not discoverable in, 69-70; 
qualified supervisors needed, 70; two 
dangers contravening Froebel's ideals, 
70-72; efficient normal training needed 
for, 72-73; notable departments for, 73; 
postgraduate work in, 74; the maternal 
movement, 75-76 

Kindergarten Institute of Chicago, 72 

Kindergarten teachers, Number of, 11 2-13 

Kindergarten training, Summer school for, 
at Grand Rapids, 826 

Kindergarten training for the blind, 789- 
91; for the feeble-minded, 808 

Kindergartens, Number of public, 41-42, 
112; fifteen states have extensive pro- 
vision for, 42; statistics, 42, 112-13; au- 
thorized by law in fourteen states, 112; 
cities establish under charters, 112; num- 
ber of, and of pupils, 1 12-13 

Kindergartens, Private, 7, 36-37, 42, 72-73; 
number of, 112 

Kindergartens and object teaching in public 
schools, 728 

Kindergartners, Normal schools for, 72-73; 
as students of educational literature, 

73-74 

King, J. E., on the commercial college, 
66mi, 663 

King William's School, Annapolis, 145 

King's College established to prevent 
spread of republican ideas, 5; chartered 
and supported by the state at the start, 
26, 270, 362, 983; strongly religious in 
aim and purpose, 976; theological chair 
for the Dutch contemplated, 996 

King's College, Medical Dept. of, 468. See 
also College of Physicians and Surgeons 

Kirchaffer, W. G., architect, 458 

Kirk, John R., valuable work of, in Mis- 
souri, 461 

Kirkland Fellowship at Harvard founded 
by George Bancroft, 302 

Knoxville College the colored department 
of the University of Tenn., 995 

Koch, H. C, & Co., architects, 458 

Kraus-Boelte, Mrs. Maria, Kindergarten 
work of, 36; kindergarten training school 
of, 72 

Laboratories, Instruction in, 1S3-84; in 



INDEX 



I045 



college, 228; university, 296-97; gifts of, 
303-4; Cambridge English High School, 
440-41; Springfield (Mass.), 444-45; 
Kansas City, 453-54; great physical 
and chemical, needed, 888 

Ladd, George T., on the American uni- 
versity, 253 

Eady Margaret Hall, Oxford (Eng.) 346n4 

Lafayette College, closed to women, ^1,1, 

Lancaster, Joseph, The monitorial instruc- 
tion of, 368 

Land grant act of 1862, 24, 95, 729 

Land-grant colleges, Free, 6; work of J. S. 
Morrill for, 611-12; purpose of the Act, 
612-15; free tuition in, 615; not class 
institutions, 616; buildings for, must be 
provided outside the grant, 616-17; 
character of each, to be determined by 
the state legislature, 617-18; second Act 
providing endowment for, 618; statistics 
of the, 637-40; tables, 646-51 

Land grant of New York State turned over 
to Cornell University, 609 

Land grants for education, v; total .".mount 
of, 95, 96 

Land rights from the public domain, 23, 95 

Lane, Albert G., on the kindergarten, 64 

Langley, Samuel Pierpont, secretary of the 
Smithsonian, 884 

Language of signs for deaf and dumb, 777— 
78; defense of, 779 

Lareabee, William H., Education through 
the agency of religious organizations, 
973-1022 

Latin, Increased study of, in high schools, 
xii; 185 

Latin grammar schools of the colonial 
period, 143, 144-47; characteristics of 
the, 146-47, 361 

Laurie, S. S., on a faculty of education, 

395-96 

Law, Women students in, 353-54 

Law schools, Number of, 30; scholarships 
in, 477-78; fees, 479; libraries, 479-80; 
endowments, 481; value of property, 

' 482-83; gifts and bequests, 484; early, 
495; development of, since 1858, 495-96; 
number of, 496; salaries in, 497; methods 
of instruction, 497-98; admission to the 
bar, 498-5 S 

Lawrence, Abbott, founder of Lawrence 
Scientific School, 575-76 

Lawrence Scientific School founded, 575, 
611; object, courses, 576; affiliation with 
Harvard, 577 

Lawyers, Ratio of, to population, 496m; 
state and local societies of, 876-77 

Lecture system not prominent in secondary 
schools, 184; the rule in college instruc- 
tion, 228, 295-96 

Legislation for schools, 19, 21 

Legislation on pharmacy, 537-39; require- 
ments of, 539-42 

Legislation on school architecture in various 
states, 458-60 



Legislative requirements for practice of 
veterinary medicine, 549 

Lehigh University closed to women, 333; 
founded, 565; courses and organization, 
566 

Lehrfreiheit and Lemfreiheit, 311 

Leland Stanford, Jr., University, 274; gifts 
from Leland Stanford, 304; the purpose 
of, 307; coeducational, 32S; science 
courses, 583; Biological Laboratory of, at 
Bay of Monterey, Cal., 891 

L'Epee, Charles Michel, abbe de, elabor- 
ated sign language for deaf-mute school 
in Paris, 773 

Levy, Florence N., Statistics of art institu- 
tions gathered by, 726 

Lexington (Mass.), The first normal school 
in the U. S. at, 82; founded, 124, 368; 
moved to Framingham, 124; organization 
of, and courses, 368-69; all normal school 
work traces back to, 371 

Liberal education, The college the shelter 
of, 209-10; confused ideas of, 215-19 

Liberty and government established by the 
State, xvii-xviii 

Libraries, College, 228; growth cf univer- 
sity and, 297 ; great benefactions for, 303- 
4, 484 

Libraries, public, N. E. A. Report on rela- 
tion of, to public schools, xiv, xix; num- 
ber of, 30 

Libraries for teachers, 401 

Libraries in professional schools, 479-80 

Library science, Entrance requirements 
for degrees in, 474n2 

Library training, School for, at Madison, 
Wis., 826 

Licenses to practice professions, Varying 
standards for, 470-71; preliminary gen- 
eral education for, 471-72 

Licentiate of Instruction, Degree of, 375 

Lick, James, established the Lick Observa- 
tory, 888 

Lick Observatory, 279, 280, 583, 888 

Liebig's Lectures on chemistry, Popularity 
of, 601 

Lighting of the schoolhouse, 417-19, 421, 
422, 424-25; ideal, 426, 452 

Lincoln, Abraham, Dept. of Agriculture 
and Land-grant Act approved by, 605, 
612 

Lincoln University, 906 

Litchfield (Ct.), First American law school 
at, 495 

Literature, The study of, 185, 187 

Literature Fund of the State of New York, 
151, 160 

Literature of education, xiii-xiv 

Live stock of the U. S., Value of the, 548 

Loan exhibitions, 722-24 

Local school boards, Various titles of, 101 

Local influence of the college, xii 

Local school officials agents of the state, 21 

Local unit of school organization, The, 97, 
105-6 



1046 



INDEX 



"Log College," The, at Neshaminy, Pa., 
149, 992 

London Exhibition of 185 1, Results of the, 
707, 708, 723, 725, 734 

London Society for the Extension of Uni- 
versity Extension established, 851 

Long Island Hospital College, The Pol- 
hemus Memorial Clinic at the, 51S 

Los Angeles, Kindergarten system in, 42; 
corporal punishment in, 133 

Loubat, Joseph E, Due de, Gift of fund 
for Library of Columbia, 303 

Louisiana, Illiteracy in, ix; grants of land 
to, 96; school supervision in, 100; school 
directors, 101; women may hold any 
school office in, 102; county the unit in, 
105; professional licenses in, 471 

Louisiana State University, closed to 
women, 325, 329 

Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station, 643 

Louisville, Coeducation in, 103; corporal 
punishment in, 133 

Louisville Kindergarten Association, 37; 
training school of the, 73 

Lowell, James Russell, graduate lecturer 
at Harvard, 285 

Lowell, John, endowed Lowell Institute 
Lectures, Boston, 873 

Lowell Institute Lectures, Boston, 873 

Lowell School of Practical Design affiliated 
with Mass. Institute of Technology, 561, 
721 

Luther, Ideas of, echoed by reformers else- 
where, 119 

Lutheran Church, Schools of the, 985-88 

Lyman, J. Frank, architect, 458 

Lyon, Mary, opened Mt. Holyoke Seminary, 
33§n 

Lyon phonetic manual, The, 782 

McCulloch, Mary C, supervisor of St. 
Louis kindergartens, 31 

McDonogh, John, 750 

McHenry, Olive, on time gained by kinder- 
garten children, 68 

Mackinder, Halford John, University ex- 
tension lecturer, 854 

McKinley, William, on the national growth, 

895-97 

McKinney, Corliss, architect, 458 

McMillan, John, opened his "Log College" 
in Washington Co., Pa., 992 

Maimonides College, Philadelphia, 1006 

Maine, Compulsory law in, 99; truants, 
100; superintending school committees 
in, 101; women hold school offices in, 
102; township may be unit in, 106; 
authorizes industrial drawing, 112; cor- 
poral punishment allowed in, 133 

Maine Wesleyan Seminary, 998 

Manderson, Charles E, on local bar asso- 
ciations, 502 

Mann, Horace, Reports of Mass. Board of 
Education, xiv; secretary, 123, 900; revo- 
lutionized the educational system, 123- 



24, 900; first president of Antioch Col- 
lege, 324; on common school teachers, 
362; introduced study of teaching at 
Antioch, 392; praised the oral method, 
780, 782 
Manning, Rev. James, Efforts of, for Col- 
lege of Rhode Island, 1002 
Mansfield, G. Stanley, architect, 458 
Manual alphabet method for the deaf and 
dumb, 780; taught to Laura Bridgman, 

799 

Manual labor schools of agriculture, 606 

Manual training, in elementary education, 
111-12; in secondary education, 181; 
origin of the educational form of, 732; 
statistics of, 747-49 

Manual training, The movement for, 727- 
49, 750. See also Art and industrial 
education (I. E. Clarke), III 

Manual training high school, 446-55; de- 
velopment of the, 446, 737-38; the first 
in St. Louis, 447; the Kansas City, 447- 
55, pi. XIX-XXIII; the building, 448; 
heating and ventilation, 449-52; lighting, 
452-53; laboratories, 453-54; construc- 
tion, 454 

Map showing attitude of different sections 
toward coeducation, 328 

Marburgh, Edward, on the value of cor- 
respondence instruction in technical edu- 
cation, 864a 

Marine Biological Laboratory established, 
842-43, 890 

Mark Hopkins Institute of Art, 280 

Marriage rate of college women, 357~58a 

Marsh, George Perkins, Graduate course 
of, at Columbia, 285 

Marsh, Othniel Charles, and field parties 
of students, 824 

Martha's Vineyard, Summer school founded 
at, 387 

Martha's Vineyard Summer School of 
Pedagogy, 825; founders and work of, 
840-41 

Maryland, County the unit in, 105; author- 
izes industrial training, 112; erected King 
William's School at Annapolis, 145; 
county grammar schools, 145; high 
schools, 160, 194; professional licenses 
in, 471; an agricultural college estab- 
lished in, 609; experiment station, 640- 

4i 
Maryland Academy of Sciences, Baltimore, 

873 
Maryland College of Pharmacy founded, 

534 

Maryland Institute School of Design, 711 

Mason, George, sent to Scotland for private 
teachers, 363 

Mason, Rev. J. M., director of Presby- 
terian Theological Seminary in New 
York, 1014 

Massachusetts, Educational system in, not 
centralized, vii; length of annual school 
session in, viii; illiteracy in, ix; education 



INDEX 



IO47 



and crime in, x; average school period 
for, xi; individual productive capacity in, 
xi; source of supply of students at col- 
lege in, xii; kindergartens in, 42, depart- 
ments for, in normal schools, 73; com- 
pulsory law in, 97, 99; truants, 100; 
employment of children, 100; secretary of 
State Board of Education, 101; school 
committees, 101; women hold school 
offices in, 102; township may be unit in, 
106; requires manual training courses, 
112; an early law requiring education, 
120, 145, 899; established Harvard Col- 
lege, 120, 899; law of 1647, 121; school sys- 
tem of, reconstructed by Horace Mann, 
123-24, 900; annuity guild in, 134; Latin 
grammar schools in, 144; provision for 
town grammar schools, 152; modified 
laws and reaction, 160, 899; report on 
high school teachers, 190; provision for 
secondary education in, 191; high schools 
of, 192; nine normal schools in, 320; 
courses in, 371; teachers in, who received 
normal instruction, 376-77; first teachers" 
institute held in, 382; appropriated money 
for institutes, 382; local examining boards 
in, 401-2; legal provisions for school- 
houses, 459; established veterinary in- 
struction at State Agricultural College, 
546; made drawing a public school study, 
720 

Massachusetts Agricultural College opened, 
610; the only specially agricultural in- 
stitution, 619 

Massachusetts Board of Agriculture es- 
tablished, 610 

Massachusetts College of Pharmacy 
founded, 534 

Massachusetts Commissioners on Idiocy, 
Report of, 805 

Massachusetts Historical Society, 879 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
558-62; admitted women, 326; founders 
of the, 559-60; courses, 561; degrees 
conferred at, 562; F. A. Walker and 
manual training at the, 747; field in- 
struction in mining and metallurgy at, 
824; summer courses in engineering at, 
825 

Massachusetts Normal Art School, Work 
in drawing from, at the Centennial 
Exhibition, 707, 745 

Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble- 
minded Youth established, 805 

Massachusetts School of Agriculture, Char- 
ter granted to, 610 

Massachusetts Soc. for the Promotion of 
Agriculture, 598; gave aid to Harvard 
for an experimental station, 641 

Massachusetts State Board of Education 
organized; Horace Mann, secretary, 123; 
favored techni-industrial education, 712 

Master of Arts degree, see Degree of A. M. 

Maternal movement, Evolution of the, 35, 
75-7 6 



Mathematics, Journals of, 881 

Mather, Cotton, List of N. E. churches in 
1696, 487 

May, Samuel Joseph, gave bail for Pru- 
dence Crandall, 905 

Mayo, Amory Dwight, on the common 
school, 899, 900; on education in Vir- 
ginia, 907, 908; on Jefferson's educational 
scheme, 913 

Mead, E. H., architect, 461 

Meadville Theological School Unitarian, 
991 _ 

Meat inspection by experts, 547 ; science of, 
548 

Mechanical drawing an essential factor in 
industrial education, 766 

Medical_ College of Philadelphia, 468; 
organized, 506, 507; requirements for 
admission at, 508 

Medical Dept. of King's College organized, 
507; discontinued, 507. See College of 
Physicians and Surgeons 

Medical lectures, First public, 506 

Medical schools, Number of, 30; indepen- 
dence of the, 260; scholarships in, 477, 
478; fees, 479; libraries, 479-80; endow- 
ments, 481; value of property, 482-83; 
gifts and bequests, 4S4; early, 506-8; 
no requirements for admission, 508; in- 
fluence of medical societies on, 508-1.2; 
teaching facilities in, 510-n; gradedsys- 
tem of instruction in, 516-17; and stu- 
dents in 1899, 517-19; hygiene and state 
medicine, 519-20; present tendencies, 
520-21; early legislation 521-22; grad- 
uates must take licensing examinations, 
S22-25 

Medical sects, 513-15 

Medical societies, Influence of, on medical 
education, 508-12 

Medical Society of the District of Columbia, 

873 

Medical students, Requirements of, recom- 
mended, 511-12 

Medical women's colleges regular and ir- 
regular, 353114 _ 

Medicine, Preliminary education for license 
to practice, 471; apprenticeship system 
in study of, 506; results of licensing ex- 
aminations in, 508m; requirements for 
night to practise, 522-25 

Medicine, Women students in, 353-54 

Memphis, Corporal punishment in, 133 

Men teachers, Average monthly salary of, 
vii, 102; number of, viii, 375n 

Mendenhall, Thomas Corwin, Scienti- 
fic, technical, and engineering education, 

55I-9 2 
Mentor, The, a periodical for the blind, 796 
Methodist Episcopal Church, Educational 

history of the, 997-1000 
Methodist Episcopal Church South, Schools 

of the, 1000 
Methodists, First theological seminary of 

the, founded, 489-90, 491 



1048 



INDEX 



Methods of instruction in law schools, 497- 

9 8 

Methods of instruction in secondary sub- 
jects, 183-86; laboratories, 183-84; oral 
and written recitations, 184; study of 
literature, 185; Latin and Greek, 185 

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 
722 

Michigan, Length of annual school session 
in, viii; kindergartens in, 42; kindergarten 
departments in normal schools, 73; 
grants of land to, 96; compulsory law in, 
99; truants, 100; township supervision 
in, 100; employment of children, 100; 
school boards, 101; women county super- 
intendents in, 101; women may vote at 
school elections in, 102; district the unit 
in, 106; authorizes kindergartens, 112; 
gives local boards power of discipline, 
133; a university established in, 151; 
opposition to secondary schools in, 159; 
school and college association in, 169; 
first teachers' institute in, 382; admission 
to bar in, 471-72; income from land grant, 

639 

Michigan School of Mines, 589 

Michigan State Agricultural College opened, 
609 

Michigan State Normal College confers 
.degrees of Bachelor and Master of Ped- 
agogics, 372 

Michigan, Supreme Court of, Decision of, 
in the Kalamazoo case, xx-xxi 

Middle states, Education in the, 362-63 

Middlebury College founded by Congre- 
gationalists, 989 

Middleton, Dr. Peter, dissected a human 
body for instruction in 1750, 506 

Midwifery, 515-16 

Migration of students, desirable, 311-12 

Military science, Land-grant colleges to 
give instruction in, 612, 628 

Mill, John Stuart, on the fatal belief of the 
American public, 405 

Mill construction, 425-26, 454 

Miller, Lewis, a founder of the Chautau- 
qua Institution, 843 

Mills College, Organization of, 342 

Milton, John, and the English academies, 
148 

Milwaukee, Kindergarten system in, 42; 
kindergarten work in Normal School, 
73; corporal punishment in, 133 

Milwaukee High School, Four year com- 
mercial course in, 675 

Minerva, Colleges and universities includ- 
ed in, 330m 

Minifie, William, taught drawing in Bal- 
timore, 710-11 

Minneapolis, Corporal punishment in, 133 

Minnesota, Illiteracy in, ix; kindergartens 
in, 42; department for, in normal school, 
73; grants of land to, 96; compulsory law 
in, 99; truants, 100; women county su- 
perintendents in, 101; women may hold 



any office of school management in, 102; 
may vote at school elections in, 102; 
township may be unit in, 106; or district, 
106; corporal punishment allowed in, 
133; courses of study for high schools of, 
178-79; state system of high schools, 
19S-99; income from land grant, 638; 
millage to University, 640 
Missionary bodies, Work of, for the Indians, 

943-45 . 

Mississippi, Illiteracy- in, ix; grants of land 
to, 96; school supervision in, 100; school 
trustees in, 101; county or district the 
unit in, 105-6; corporal punishment in, 
133; seven normal schools in, 370; repu- 
diated bonds, 920 

Missouri, Decision of Supreme Court of, 
on common schools, xxii 

Missouri, Grants of land to, 96, 639; women 
county superintendents in, 101; school 
unit in, 106 

Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, 88q 

Mitchill, Samuel Latham, first professor of 
agriculture, 602 

Mohonk Conference, Influence of, for the 
Indians, 942 

Montana, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law 
in, 99; women county superintendents 
in, 101; women may vote at school elec- 
tions in, 102; district the unit in, 106; 
corporal punishment in, 133 

Montreal, Brothers of the Christian Schools 

in. 154 

Moody, Dwight Lyman, established sum- 
mer conferences at Northfield, 834 

Morais, Rev. Dr., proposed a Jewish semi- 
nary, 1007 

Moral influence of secondary schools, 186- 
88; personal influence of teachers, 186; 
music and history, 1S7; government, 187- 
88; social life of the school, 188 

Morality the ultimate end for which the 
State exists, xvi 

Morals and manners in elementary schools, 
in 

Moravian Theological Seminary, Bethle- 
hem, Pa., 1014 

Moravians, Schools of the, 1006 

Morrill, Justin Smith, Work of, for the 
land-grant colleges, 611-12; on the 
meaning of the Act, 613-14, 615; secures 
passage of second Act for endowment, 
618 

Morrison, Gilbert B., School architec- 
ture and hygiene, 409-64 

Morton, Henry, first president of Stevens 
Institute, 567-68 

Morton, Wm. Jennings, discoverer of anes- 
thetics, 527 

Mosenthal Fellowship in Music at Colum- 
: bia, 303 

Motherhood, A more enlightened and con- 
secrated, 35, 75-76 

Moulton, Richard Green, University ex- 
tension lecturer, 854-55 



INDEX 



IO49 



Mt. Holyoke College, 33811; organization 

of, 340; closed preparatory department, 

343 
Mount Holyoke Seminary founded by Con- 

gregationalists, 990 
Mount St. Mary's College, Emmetsburg, 

Md., Catholic, 980 
Mowry, William Augustus, president of 

Martha's Vineyard Institute, 841 
Muhlenberg, Henry A., Sr., on German 

Lutheran Seminary in Philadelphia, 986 
Muhlenberg, Henry Melchior, bought 

ground for a theological seminary in 

Germantown, 986 
Muhlenberg College, 987 
Mulcaster, Richard, proposed a teachers' 

college, 395 _ 
Muscles of children easily trained, 39-40; 

in the kindergarten, 54, 57, 59, 66 
Museums accessible to university students, 

297; gifts for establishing, 303 
Museums and other scientific institutions, 

884-91; of societies and universities, 887 
Music a field for the blind, 792 
Music schools, 7 

Nation, The, 881 

National Academy of Design, 880 

National Academy of Design, Schools of 
the, 721 

National Academy of Sciences incorpo- 
rated, 867; adviser of the government, 
868; membership and officers, 868-69 

National Association of Dental Examiners, 
Efforts of the, 528-29; proposed uniform 
examinations, 530 

National Association of Dental Faculties, 
Influence of the, 528, 529; subjects dis- 
. cussed by, 530 

National Association of German Technolo- 
gists, 878 

National board of agriculture, First move- 
ment for a, defeated, 603; recommended 
by Washington, 604 

National Board of Health needed, 891 

National Confederation of State Medical 
Examining and Licensing Boards, on 
standards of admission, 510 

National Council of Jewish Women, 1007 

National Deaf-mute College, 777 

National Educational Association, Meet- 
ing of, at Boston, 830, 837; objects of the, 
875-76 

National Educational Association, Publi- 
cations of the, xiii-xiv 

N. E. A. Committee of Fifteen on Elemen- 
tary Education, on a large city school 
system, 14-15; on training of teachers, 
190 

N. E. A. Committee of Ten on Secondary 
School Studies, Report of, 169-72; on 
courses of study, 170; correlation of 
studies, 171; requirements for admission, 
172 

N. E. A. Committee on College Entrance 



Requirements, Report of, 174-77; na- 
tional units or norms, 175; significant 
recommendations, 176-77 

N. E. A. Committee on Elementary Course 
of Study, Report, 106-7; general pro- 
gram, 108 

National Farmers' Alliance, 600 

National Geographic Society, S73, 878 

National government and education, v-vi, 
22-25 

National Library, The, 755; library of the 
Smithsonian Institution added to, 885 

National University at Washington advo-~\ 
cated, 313; report of N. E. A. committee 
against, 3i3n 

National Zoological Park under the di- 
rection of the Smithsonian Institution, 
8S5 

National Zoological Park, Washington, 
D. C, 890 

Nation's life, A, and a nation's government, 
xvi-xx 

Natural science in elementary schools, 111 

Natural science, Journals of, 882 

Natural science camp for boys, The first, 
at Canandaigua Lake, 825 

Nature teaching in the rural schools, The 
Cornell attempt at, 633-37 

Naval academy, National, 6 

Nazareth Hall, the first normal school, es- 
tablished by the Moravians, 976 

Nebraska, Illiteracy in, ix; has kindergar- 
ten dept. in Normal School, 73; grant of 
land to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; 
school boards, 101; women county super- 
intendents in, 102; women may vote at 
school elections in, 102; district the unit 
in, 106; millage for University, 640 

Negro, Education of the (Booker T. 
Washington) 893-936: I. Introduction: 
Pres. McKinley on the national growth, 
895-97. — II- Development of popular 
education, 897-901; the public school 
system of New England, 897-99; under 
Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, 900- 
1; little done for the negro, 901. — III. 
Education of negroes before i860, 901- 
7; slave code laws against teaching ne- 
groes, 902; clandestine schools, 902; zeal 
for instruction, 903; special law enacted 
in Conn, against a private colored school, 
904-5; private schools in the North, 905- 
6; change in public sentiment, 906-7. — 
IV. Public school education in the South 
after the War, 907-12; A. D. Mayo on, 
907-8; revival through the South, 909; 
enrollment of white and negro children, 
909-10; expenditure for both classes, 910; 
optimistic outlook, 911-12. — V. Ground 
work education in the South, 912-18; 
two prejudices overcome, 912-13; Jef- 
ferson's plans more than accomplished 
for both races, 913; government provi- 
sion through the Freedmen's Bureau, 
914-16; teachers from the North, 916- 



i°5° 



INDEX 



18. — VI. Bequests for southern education, 
918-23; the American Missionary Assoc, 
918-19; bequest of Daniel Hand, 919; 
the Peabody Education Fund, 919-22; 
the Slater Fund, 922. — VII. Present edu- 
cational status, 923-28; secondary and 
higher education provided for, 923-26; 
Hampton Institute, 926-27; Tuskegee 
Institute, 927-28; Table I, Common 
school statistics, 929; Table 2, Sixteen 
former slave states and D. C, 930; 
Table 3, Teachers and students in in- 
stitutions for the colored race, 931; 
Table 4, Classification of colored stu- 
dents by courses of study, 932; Table 5, 
Number of colored normal students and 
graduates, 933; Table 6, Colored pro- 
fessional students and graduates, 934; 
Table 7, Industrial training of colored 
students, 935; Table 8, Financial sum- 
mary of the 169 colored schools, 936 

Nevada, Illiteracy in, ix 

Nevada, Grant of land to, 96; compulsory 
law in, 99; school trustees in, 101; dis- 
trict the unit in, 106 

New departure in education in the public 
schools: The industrial movement, 932- 
42 

New England, Supply of schools in early, 
361; sent out the Yankee schoolmaster, 
364; men and women teachers from, 
settled in the South, 364-65; first school 
for deaf and dumb in, 771; development 
of common school system of, 897-901 

New England and middle states, Separate 
college education in, 321; private colleges 
of the, slow to admit women, 326; of 
true college grade in, 33on 

New England Association of Colleges and 
Preparatory Schools, 168-69 

New England Asylum for the Blind incor- 
porated, 787 

New England colonies maintained gram- 
mar schools, 145 

New England states, School supervision 
by townships in, 100; school societies in, 
122 

New England teachers of the freedmen, 
The, 914, 916-18, 923 

New Hampshire, Illiteracy in, ix; compul- 
sory law in, 99; truants, 100; employment 
of children, 100; school boards, 101; 
women hold school offices in, 102; women 
may vote at school elections in, 102; 
township may be unit in, 106; profes- 
sional licenses in, 471; lax statute for 
admission to the bar in, 501 

New Haven, Corporal punishment in, 133; 
first Latin school in, 144 

New Haven (Conn.) Hillhouse High School, 
Commercial course in the, 679-80 

New Jersey, Length of annual school ses- 
sion in, x 

New Jersey, Kindergartens in, 42; depart- 
ments for, in normal schools, 73; com- 



pulsory law in, 99; truants, 100; employ- 
ment of children, 100; school trustees, 
101; women on school boards in, 102; 
may vote at school elections, 102; town- 
ship the unit in, 105; authorizes manual 
training, 112; early schools in, 121; for- 
bids corporal punishment, 133; pension 
fund in all cities of, 134; professional 
licenses in, 471 

New Jersey Experiment Station, 642; 
maintained by the State, 643 

New Mexico, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory 
law in, 99; district the unit in, 106 

New Mexico University coeducational, 325 

New Orleans, School board of, 13; first 
city superintendent in, 124; corporal 
punishment in, 133 

New York Academy of Sciences, 872 

New York Chamber of Commerce, Report 
of Com. of, on establishing a commercial 
course at Columbia University, 697-99;. 
plan for the course, 698-99 

New York City, Brothers of the Christian 
Schools in, 154 

New York City, Pioneer kindergarten move- 
ment in, 36; most extensive provision for 
kindergartens in, 42; coeducation in, 103; 
the early Dutch schools in, 120; school 
societies in, 122; city superintendent in, 
124; prohibits corporal punishment, 133; 
annuity and pension funds in, 134; man- 
ual training schools in, 181; has several 
normal or training schools,. 373-74; Pub- 
lic School No. 20, 432, pi. XIII, 437; Pub- 
lic School No. 165, 432-35, pi. X, 437; 
Free Lecture Courses, 855, 856, 858 

New York City Hall, Belittling of, by high 
buildings, 758 

New York College of Dentistry founded, 
526-27 

New York College of Pharmacy founded, 

534 

New York College of Veterinary Surgeons 
chartered, 543 

New York (Colony), Admission to the bar 
in, 500 

New York Free Academy (later College of 
the City of N. Y.) opened, 159 

New York Free School Society, 122, 145 

New York Historical Society, 879 

New York Institution for the Blind in-* 
porated, 787 

New York Institution for the Instruction of 
the Deaf and Dumb, 781; teachers sup- 
plied by, 784 

New York Kindergarten Association, 37 

New York Medical College and Hospital 
for Women, 518-19 

New York Soc. for the Promotion of Agri- 
culture, 598, 602 

New York (State) educational system 
centralized, vi; length of annual school 
session in, viii; illiteracy in, ix; cities in, 
contribute to support of country schools, 
18; educational organization of, excep- 



INDEX 



IO51 



tionally complete and elaborate, 20-21; 
Board of Regents, 20; powers of State 
Supt. in, 20; provision for kindergartens 
in, 42; in normal schools, 73; compulsory 
law in, 99; truants, 100; employment of 
children, 100; school trustees, 101; 
women county superintendents in, 102; 
women may vote at school elections in, 
102; towns and districts as units, 106; 
authorizes industrial training, 112; and 
kindergartens, 112; had first state super- 
intendent, 124; gives local boards power 
of discipline, 133; the University and the 
Literature Fund, 150-51; service of the 
academies, 156; high schools in, 159; 
academic departments in the University, 
160; «chool and college assoc. in, 169; 
secondary school teachers in, 190-1; 
twelve public normal schools in, 370; 
first teachers' institute was held in, 382; 
appropriated money for institutes, 382; 
requires attendance at institutes, 385- 
S6; a State School Library for Teachers, 
401; legislation on school architecture in, 
458; professional students in, 470-72; 
high standards demanded for degrees in, 
472; admission to the bar in, 500-2; first 
dental law in, 531; leadership of, in 
veterinary education, 545-46; income 
from land grant, 638; Experiment Sta- 
tion maintained in part by the State, 
643; school for deaf and dumb in, 771, 
775; appropriation for University exten- 
sion, 853 
New York State Agricultural College 

opened at Ovid Academy, 608 
New York State Agricultural Society, Work 

of, for agricultural education, 606, 607 
New York State Board of Regents, 20 
New York State College of Forestry, 273 
New York State Library School, 826 
New York State Normal College gives pro- 
fessional work only, and confers degree of 
Bachelor of Pedagogy, 373 
New York State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction, Authority vested in the, 20; 
established in 18 12, 28 
New York State Veterinary College, 273 
New York University, admits women to 
graduate work, 333; opens to summer 
students, 827 
New York University School of Pedagogy, 

379-98 

New York Zoological Garden, Bronx Park, 
890 

Newark, Kindergarten system in, 42; first 
city superintendent in, 124 

Newark, Coeducation in, 103 

Newcomb, H. Sophie, see H. Sophie New- 
comb Memorial College 

Newnham College, Cambridge (Eng.) 346n4 

Newspaper, The, extends average educa- 
tion, 81 

Newton Street Girls' High School, Casts 
and busts procured for the, 739 



Niel, Miss H. A., Kindergarten training 
school of, 72; postgraduate work at, 74 

Nixon bill, The, for horticultural experi- 
ments in New York, 632 

Non-Episcopal Methodist churches, 
Schools of the, 1001 

Non-reservation boarding schools for In- 
dians, 952-53; superintendents responsi- 
ble to the Indian office, 952; the most 
successful, 953 

Normal College of City of New York con- 
fers degrees, 372 

Normal school and college buildings, 457- 
58 

Normal school at Lexington (Mass.) the 
first in the U. S., 82, 386, 371; founded 
through influence of Horace Mann, 124; 
at Bridgewater, 124, 368, 371; first in 
Conn., 124; 

Normal school students, Number of, 82, 
377-78, 379; in colleges and universities, 
379-80; in high schools and academies, 
380 

Normal schools, City public, having kinder- 
gartens, 73, 376; reasons for maintaining, 
373; authorized by law in N. Y. State, 

374 

Normal schools, N. E. A. Report on, xiv; 
free, 6; excellent, 18; of New York State, 
20; number of, 30, 82, 379; providing kin- 
dergarten instruction, 73, 376; increase 
of, 124-25; names of leading, 370; work 
in the Massachusetts schools, 371; the 
first were private, 374; statistics of, 377, 
379. See also Training of teachers. I: 
Normal schools, 368-79 

Normal schools of Prussia, Attendance at 
the, 378 

Normal schools, see Training of teachers 
(B. A. Hinsdale) I, 368-79 

North American Review, The, 881 

North Carolina, Annual school session in, 
viii; illiteracy in, ix; expenditure for public 
education in, xi; individual productive 
capacity in, xi; the county system in, n; 
school supervision by districts in, 100; 
county the unit in, 105; or district, 106; 
corporal punishment allowed in, 133; 
seven normal schools in, 370; colonial 
statute relating to attorneys, 498-99 

North Central Assoc, of Colleges and 
Preparatory Schools, 169 

North-Central division of states, Students 
in universities of the, 18 

North Dakota, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory 
law in, 99; employment of children, 100; 
women county superintendents in, 102; 
women may vote at school elections in, 
102; township the unit in, 106; school and 
college association in, 169 

Northfield, Mass., Summer conferences at, 

834 
Northwestern College, 1001 
Norton, Charles Eliot, graduate lecturer at 

Harvard, 285 



1052 



INDEX 



Norton, John P., professor of agricultural 
chemistry at Yale College, 610 

Nurses, Training schools for, 468ns 

Oberlin College, the first coeducational col- 
lege, 324 

Oberlin College founded, 089 

Observatories, Special, and at universities, 
888 

Occupations of college women, 358a 

Ogden School of Science, 275 

Ohio, Kindergartens in, 42; department for, 
in normal school, 73; grant of swamp 
lands to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; em- 
ployment of children, 100; boards of 
education in, 101; women hold school 
offices in, 102; may vote at school elec- 
tions, 102; township the unit in, 105; 
authorizes kindergartens, 112; corporal 
punishment allowed in, 133; pension fund 
in all cities of, 134; high schools in, 159; 
school and college association in, 169; 
has no state normal school, 370; first 
teachers' institute held in, 382; appro- 
priated money for institutes, 382; millage 
for University, 640; education of de- 
fectives in, 771 

Ohio Asylum for the Education of Idiotic 
and Imbecile Youth, 805; Supt. Doren on 
farm work for custodial cases, 809 

Ohio College of Dental Surgery founded, 
526 

Ohio State University, admitted women, 
325; opened Veterinary Dept., 544; Col- 
lege of Engineering at, 588 

Ohio Teachers' Reading Circle, Organ- 
ization and management of the, 388-89 

Ohio University, Athens, Summer instruc- 
tion at, 826 

Oklahoma, Women county superintendents 
in, 102; district the unit in, 106 

Omaha High School, Commercial instruc- 
tion in, 674-75 

Oneida Institute, Course in agriculture at 
the, 606 

Oral instruction in Germany, 87 

Oral method, see English language method 
for the deaf and dumb 

Ordinance of 1787, 24 

Oregon, Illiteracy in, ix 

Oregon, Home supply of students at col- 
leges in, xii; grant of land to, 96; com- 
pulsory law in, 99; women may hold any 
school office in, 102; may vote at school 
elections, 102; district the unit in, 106; 
authorizes kindergartens, 112 

Organization and administration, Educa- 
tional (A. S. Draper) 3-31; early Eng- 
lish and Dutch influences, 3-5; govern-, 
ment encouragement of schools, 5; the 
State must provide for all, 6; parts of the 
U. S. educational system, 6-7 ; the school 
district, 7-9; the township system, 9-1 1; 
the county system, n; the city school 
systems, 12-17; declarations of N. E. A. 



Committee of Fifteen, 14-15; powers of 
city boards, 16-17; the states and the 
schools, 17-22; system developed by 
state authority, 18-19; the New York 
State Regents, 20; state aid, 21; compul- 
sory attendance, 22; the general govern- 
ment and education, 22-25; l an d rights 
and grants, 23-24; the Bureau of Educa- 
tion, 24-25; private institutions, 25-27; 
expert supervision, 27-29; conclusion: 
statistics and results, 30-31 

Organization, Educational, in the U. S. 
(W. T. Harris) 94-106. See Elementary 
education. II. 

Organization, school, The local unit of, 
105-6; the county, 105; town or town- 
ship, 105-6; district, 106 

Organization, university, Problem of, un- 
settled, 305-9; different systems to meet 
different needs, 306-7; opposing views 
of function of the university, 307-8; too 
complicated, 308; relation to under- 
graduate and professional work, 308-10 

Ormsby, Fulton B., on the kindergarten, 66 

Orton, James, and field parties of students, 
824 

Osteopathy, 513-14 

Oswego Normal School, Influence of, under 
Dr. E. A. Sheldon, 370 

Otterbein University founded, 1002 

Oxford University a congeries of colleges, 
280; Colleges for women at, 346n4; sum- 
mer meetings for teachers at, 387; 
adopted University extension, 851 

Oxford and Cambridge higher local exam- 
inations, Women at the, 343n2 

Packard, Silas Sadler, The work of, 670- 

73 

Packard's Business College, 671-73 

Packer, Asa, founder of Lehigh University, 
565-66 

Page, Miss, Kindergarten training school 
of, 72 

Paine, Robert Treat, Gift of, to Harvard 
Astronomical Observatory, 304 

Parker, Francis Wayland, 400; at Martha's 
Vineyard Institute, 841 

Parsons, James Russell, Jr., Profes- 
sional education, 465-549 

Parthenon of Athens followed in art build- 
ing at Nashville, Tenn., 757 

Patent Office, Distribution of seeds by,. 
604-5 

Pathological Laboratory for New York 
State, 891 

Patrons of Husbandry, The, 600 

Pattengill, Henry R., on school grounds, 
etc. in Report, 460 

Patton, R. B., student at a German uni- 
versity, 283 

Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer, started pioneer 
kindergarten movement in Boston, 35- 
36; gave lessons in drawing in Franklin. 
School, 710 



INDEX 



!053 



Peabody, George, giver of the Peabody 
Education Fund, 919-20 

Peabody, Mary, published book on teaching 
drawing and reading, 710 

Peabody Education Fund, 919-22 

Peabody Normal College, Nashville, the 
literary department of the University of 
Nashville, 374-75 

Peale, Rembrandt, Effort of, to promote 
training in drawing, 710 

Peck, William Guy, Graduate course of, at 
Columbia, 285 

Pedagogy, Courses in reported, 406; sum- 
mer schools of, 832-33 

Penikese Island, L. Agassiz opened bio- 
logical laboratory on, 824, 837, 890 

Penn, William, Charter of, called for public 
schools, 122 

Pennsylvania, Educational policy of, vii; 
Kindergartens in, 42; departments for, in 
normal schools, 73; compulsory law in, 
99; truants, 100; school directors, 101; 
women county superintendents in, 102; 
the school unit in, 106; authorizes in- 
dustrial training, 112; and kindergartens, 
112; corporal punishment in, 133; sec- 
ondary schools in colony of, 144-45; g ave 
aid to colleges and academies, 152; recog- 
nized the service of academies, 156; 
thirteen normal schools in, 370; requires 
attendance at institutes, 384; professional 
licenses in, 471-72; school for deaf and 
dumb, 771, 776 

Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, 
8S0; School of the, 722 

Pennsylvania College, the oldest Lutheran, 
987 

Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery 
founded, 526 

Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction 
of the Blind opened, 788 

Pennsylvania State Agricultural Society, 
610 

Pennsylvania State College opened, 610; 
gives instruction in agriculture by corre- 
spondence and courses of home reading, 
631-32; income from land grant, 638 

Pensions and benefit associations, Teach- 
ers', 134 

People's College, New York's share of land- 
grant secured for, 608; failure of, 60S-9 

People's Institute in New York organized, 
855; courses of lectures, 856, 858 

People's University Extension Society of 
New York organized, 855 

Periodical publications, Number of edu- 
cational, xiii 

Perkins, Charles Callahan, authority on 
fine arts, 715, 735, 738, 739-41, 743, 751 

Perkins Institution for the Blind, The, 797; 
Laura Bridgman at, 798-800 

Perry, Edward Delavan, The American 
university, 253-318 

Persico, Grandiose sculptures by, 763 

Pharmacy, Requirements for license to 



practise, 472; scholarships in schools of, 
478; fees, 479; libraries, 479-80; endow- 
ments, 481; value of property, 482-83; 
early schools, 534; growth and number, 
534-35; apprenticeship in, 535-36; pres- 
ent tendencies in teaching, 536-37; 
legislation on, 537-39; present require- 
ments for practise of, 539-42 

Pharmacy, Women students in, 353-54 

Philadelphia, School Board of, 13; kinder- 
garten system in, the most extensive pub- 
lic, 42; in Normal School of, 73; post- 
graduate work, 74; coeducation in, 103; 
earliest schools in, 122; school societies 
in, 122; first city superintendent in, 124; 
corporal punishment in, 133; aid and an- 
nuity associations in, 134; manual train- 
ing school in, 181; secondary education 
for girls in, 322m Se^ also Charitable 
School of Phila. 

Philadelphia Central High School estab- 
lished, 158; study-plan of Dept. of Com- 
merce in, 677-78 

Philadelphia College of Pharmacy char- 
tered, 534 

Philadelphia Dental College founded, 526 

Philadelphia Model School on Bell and 
Lancaster system, 368, 374 

Philadelphia School of Design for Women, 
721 

Philadelphia Soc. for the Promotion of 
Agriculture, the first organized, 597; 
work of, for agricultural education, 602-3 

Philanthropy, northern, Results of, 914-28 

Philbrick, John Dudley, on size of school 
rooms, 435; planned Latin-English High 
School of Boston, 438; introduced study 
of drawing in schools of Mass., 715, 735, 

738, 743> 75i 
Phillips academies, Establishment of the, 

149 
Philological associations and societies, 880 
Philology, Journals of, 884 
Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, 873 
Philosophical Society of Washington, 872, 

873 
Philosophische Fakultat, 254, 282 
Philosophy and ethics, Summer schools of, 

833-34 
Philosophy, Journals of, 883 
Physical culture in elementary schools, in 
Physical training for the blind, 792 
Physical Training, Summer School in, at 

Harvard, 837 
Physicians, Number of, in the colonies, 
506-7; ratio of, to population, 518; 
earliest law relating to, passed by Vir- 
ginia, 521; New York and New Jersey 
on, 522; numerous societies of, 876 
Physics, Journals of, 882 
Physiology in elementary schools, in 
Physiology and pathology, Journals of, 882 
Pickering, Edward Charles, director of the 

Harvard Observatory, 888 
Pierce, Thomas May, Career of, 673-74 



io54 



INDEX 



Pittsburgh, School board of, 13; corporal 
punishment in, 133 

Pittsburgh and Allegheny Free Kindergar- 
ten Association, 37; postgraduate work, 

74 

Pittsburgh Central High School, Commer- 
cial education in the, 675, 679 

Playgrounds, Importance of, 437-38 

Plenum chamber and extensions, 449-51 

Plymouth (Mass.), First school in, 120 

Political economy and sociology, Journals 
of, 883 

Politics, The great issue between education 
and, 28-29 

Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, Organi- 
zation of the, 572 

Popular education, Place of, in the ideals 
of the American people, 113- 17; develop- 
ment of, 897-901 

Popular Science Monthly begun, 880 

Population of United States, vii 

Porter, Noah, Graduate course of, at Yale, 
284 • 

Potter, Alonzo, favored teaching agricul- 
ture in the schools, 607 

Poughkeepsie, Pension fund in, 134 

Powers, Hiram, sculptor, 762 

Pratt Institute, Kindergarten department 
at, 73; Trade school at, 590 

Preparatory students, Number of, 30 

Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, 
Work of, in education, 992-94 

Presbyterian Board of Aid for Colleges and 
Academies, Work of the, 993-94 

Presbyterian Church in the United States, 
The, in the South, 994-95 

Princeton Theological Seminary founded, 
489, 993, 1014 

Princeton University, Experimental courses 
at, 213; graduates of, in the national life, 
238; originally College of New Jersey, 
242, 274; postgraduate courses at, 286; 
A. M. degree in course, 286; scholarships 
and fellowships at, 301; gifts to, 304; 
closed to women, ^^^, 351. See also Col- 
lege of New Jersey 

Printing house for embossed books, 793, 

795 
Printing machine for embossing braille, 794 
Privatdozenten, a valuable feature of the 

German system, 311 
Private aid to education, Munificent, xiv 
Private institutions, 25-27, 266-70 
Private schools, Innumerable, 26; regulated 
by legislation, 27; and domestic instruc- 
tion in the middle states, 362 
Problems, Some present university, 305- 
13; organization, 305-7; conditions re- 
flected in, 306; true function of the uni- 
versity, 307-8; relation of graduate to 
undergraduate work, 308-10; Lehrfreiheit 
and Lernfreiheit, 311; migration of stu- 
dents, 311-12; graduate associations, 

3*2-13 
Proctor Academy, Andover, Unitarian, 991 



Productive capacity, Average individual, in 
U. S. and in Mass., xi; in North Carolina, 
xi 

Professional and technical schools, Inde- 
pendence of the, 260 

Professional courses, Length of, 475-76 

Professional education (J. R. Parsons, 
Jr.) 465-549: 1. General, 467-85; au- 
thorities, 467; growth, 468-69; distribu- 
tion in 1S99, 469-70; varying standards, 
470; preliminary general education for 
licenses, 471; for degrees, 472; entrance 
requirements, 473; professional students 
with college degrees, 473-74; length of 
courses, 475-76; university supervision 
476-77; scholarships, 477-79; fees, 479 
libraries, 479-80; endowments, 481 
value of grounds and buildings, 482-83 
property, receipts, and expenditures in 
1898, 483; gifts and bequests, 484; women 
in, 484-85; power to confer degrees, 485. 
— 2. Theology, 486-94; schools, faculty 
and students, 486-87; early theological 
training, 487-88; rise of independent 
seminaries, 488-91; university relations, 
491-92; present tendencies, 492-94. — 3. 
Law, 495-505; early law schools, 495; 
development of law schools since 1858, 
495-97; salaries of teachers, 497; methods 
of instruction, 497-98; admission to the 
bar in colonial days, 498-500; after the 
Revolution, 500-2; present requirements, 
502-5. — 4. Medicine, 506-25; appren- 
ticeship system, 506; first public medical 
lectures, 506; early medical schools, 506- 
8; influence of medical societies, 508-12; 
teaching facilities and requirements for 
graduation, 510-12; medical sects, 513- 
15; midwifery, 515-16; graded system of 
instruction, 516-17; schools and students 
in 1899, 517-19; hygiene and state medi- 
cine, 519-20; present tendencies, 520-21; 
early legislation, 521-22; present require- 
ments, 522-25. — 5. Dentistry, 526-33; 
independent dental schools, 526; dental 
departments, 527; growth, 527; discov- 
eries and inventions, 527-28; dental 
societies, 528-29; subjects discussed, 529- 
31; legislation, 531; present requirements, 
53 x -33- — 6 - Pharmacy, 534-42; early 
schools, 534; growth, 534-35; appren- 
ticeship, 535; present tendencies, 536- 
37; legislation, 537-39; present require- 
ments, 539-42. — 7. Veterinary medicine, 
543-49; early schools, 543-44; advances 
made by state schools, 544-45; require- 
ments of Amer. Assoc, 545; New York's 
leadership, 545-46; action in Mass., 546; 
higher standards, 546; army service, 546; 
workers in agricultural colleges and ex- 
periment stations, 546-47; municipal, 
state, and national veterinarians, 547; 
indications from literature, 547-48; field 
for educated veterinarians, 548-49; syn- 
opsis of requirements, 549 m 



INDEX 



I055 



Professional education of women, 351-54; 
graduate instruction in the faculty of phi- 
losophy, 351-52; in theology, law, medi- 
cine, etc., 353-54 

Professional legislation, Restrictive, 470 

Professional schools, 7; chart showing rise 
of, 1765-1900, 467; under university su- 
pervision, 476-77 

Professional schools and students, Distri- 
bution of, in '1899, 469-70 

Professional students, Chart of growth in, 
471; with college degrees, 473-74; divi- 
sion of, by sex, 485 

Professional students and graduates, Col- 
ored^ 934 

Professional summer schools, 833 

Professional teachers demanded for graded 
schools, 82-83, I22 5 want of, weakest 
point in our school system, 404-5 

Professions, Ratio of members of, to popu- 
lation, 470-71 

Professors, university, Double work of, 260- 
61, 295-96, 308; for graduate work only, 
309-10; pinched in the matter of books 
and equipment, 616 

Prospect Hill School for Girls, Greenfield, 
Mass., 991 

Protestant Episcopal Church, School; 
founded by the, 982-85 

Protestant Episcopal Commission for Work 
among the Colored People, 1010 

Proudfoot and Bird, architects, 458 

Providence, Coeducation in, 103; first city 
superintendent in, 124; corporal punish- 
ment in, 133; opened public high school, 

Provincial and Plenary Councils on paro- 
chial schools, 981 
Prudential committees, title of local boards 

in Vermont, 101 
Psychology, Journals of, 883 
Public accounting made a profession, 474n2 
Public buildings, Architecture and position 

of foreign, and in this country, 758-59 
Public instruction, Daniel Webster on, x, 

113, 115, 117; A continuous system of, 

162-63 
Public libraries, N. E. A. Report on relation 

of, to public schools, xiv; xix 
Public or common schools, Land given by 

general government for, 23-24, 95, 96 
Public school enrollment, 79 
Public school system, Notable decline in 
- efficiency of, 899 
Public schools, see Elementary education; 

Secondary education; Art and industrial 

education; Schools, public 
Public speaking, a feature in Packard's 

Business College, 672 
Publications of American universities, 297- 

300 
Pupils, Number of, on registers of common 

schools, vii, 30; in all the schools of the 

U. S., 79, 126-27; table of enrollment of, 

and school population, 128-29 



Purdue, John, gave land for Purdue Uni- 
versity, 5S6 

Purdue University the Indiana School of 
Technology, Schools and courses at, 586 

Puritan immigrants of New England ab- 
horred art, 708 

Purmont, Philemon, early schoolmaster of 
Boston, 120 

Putnam, Mrs. Alice H., Testimony for kin- 
dergartens furnished by, 64-68 

Quacks in New England, 5i4n2 

Queen, The, vs. Cockerton, Decision in 

case of, xxii 
Queen's College, later Rutgers College, 

362, 996 

Race problem, The, in process of solution, 
910 

Radcliffe College, Harvard examinations 
the entrance examinations for, 343n2, 
346; organization of, 347-48; least ap- 
proach to coeducation at, 350; graduate 
courses at, 35in2; Helen Keller entered, 
803 

Radiation, Direct and indirect, 413-14, 
4i7> 423, 424-25, 429, 449 

Railway, Effect of increase of, 80, 84; on 
urban population, 123 

Randolph-Macon Woman's College, Or- 
ganization of, 341-42, 1000 

Raymond, John Howard, in extension 
work, 855 

Reading circles, 862-63 

Reading in elementary schools, 109 

Reading population, Political differences 
understood in a, 82 

Reber, Louis E., Comparison of endow- 
ments and revenues of land-grant col- 
leges, 638-40, 648-51 

Redemptioners bought as teachers, 363 

Reformed Church in America, Schools of 
the, 996 

Reformed Church in the United States, 
Schools of the, 996 

Reformed Church Theological Seminary 
(Carlisle, Pa.) 489 

Reformed Dutch Church, Theological 
Seminary of the, New Brunswick, N. J., 
996, 1014 

Reformed Presbyterian Church, The, 995 

Regents, State Board of, in New York, 20. 
See also University of the State of New 
York 

Registers, Exit, for foul air, 414-16, 420, 
422, 423, 449 

Religion, Land rights for support of, 23 

Religions, Membership of leading, 487 

Religious and biblical conferences, Summer, 
834 

Religious life of undergraduates, 223 

Religious organizations, Education through 
the agency of (W. H. Larrabee) 973- 
1022: Religious motives in the higher 
education, 975-76, 978; elementary edu- 



1056 



INDEX 



cation the function of the State, 977-78 
the Roman Catholic Church, 979-82 
Protestant Episcopal Church, 982-85 
the Lutheran Church, 985-88; the Con- 
gregational Church, 988-91; the Uni- 
tarian Church, 991-92; the Presbyterian 
and Reformed Churches, 992-97; the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, 997-1002; 
the Baptist Church, 1002-4; other re- 
ligious denominations, 1004-8; Freed- 
men's schools, 1009-10; foreign mission 
schools, 1010-11; character and relations 
of the denominational colleges, 1011-13; 
theological seminaries, 1013-16; statis- 
tics of denominational educational in- 
stitutions in the U. S., 1017, 1021; Tables, 
1018-20, 1022 
Religious teaching in the public schools, 

977-78 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Found- 
ation of the, 556-58; courses in, 558 

Research, training in methods of, Institu- 
tions for, 256, 257; gifts for furtherance 

of, 303-4 

Reservation boarding schools for Indians, 
947-52; success of kindergarten, 947- 
48; superintendents under partisan In- 
dian Agents, 949-51; statistics, 951-52 

Resident graduates, see Graduate work 

Residential halls, 281-82, 301 

Responsibilities, Educational, of the states, 
appreciated, 21-22 

Revolutionary War, Changes wrought by 
the, 5 

Rhode Island, Length of annual school 
session in, viii; kindergarten department 
in normal school, 73; compulsory law in, 
99; truants, 100; employment of children, 
100; school committees, ior; women 
hold school offices in, 102; towns as units, 
106; work of Henry Barnard in, 124, 901 

Rhode Island colonies established schools, 
120 

Richardson, Henry Hobson, and the capitol 
at Albany, 760 

Roads, National League for Good, 600 

Roanoke College, 987 

Robert Treat Paine Fellowship of Social 
Science, 303 

Rochester, Kindergarten system in, 42; 
corporal punishment in, 133 

Rockefeller, John D., founder of University 
of Chicago, 274; princely benefactor, 304 

Rockford College, Organization of, 342 

Roelandson, Adam, first Dutch school- 
master of New York, 1 20 

Roeschlaub, Robert S., architect, 461 

Rogers, Randolph, sculptor, 762 

Rogers, William Barton, first president 
Mass. Institute of Technology, 559-61 

Rolfe, William James, president of Mar- 
tha's Vineyard Institute, 841 

Roman Catholic Church, The, and edu- 
cation, xiv, 979-82; institutions of higher 
learning, 980; parish schools, 980-81; 



a complete system of Catholic schools, 
981; statistics, 982; first Theological 
School of, 980, 1014 

Roman Catholic colleges and seminaries, 
328-29, 332, S33 

Roof playgrounds, 437-38 

Rose, Chauncy, founder of Rose Polytech- 
nic Institute, 570-71 

Rose Polytechnic Institute founded, 570- 
71; courses and degrees, '571-72 

Ross, Edward Alsworth, University ex- 
tension lecturer, 853 

Royal Board of Agriculture established, 
598 

Ruffner, William Henry, the Horace Mann 
of the South, 908 

Runkle, John D., 560; advocate of manual 
training, in; on the Strogonoff School 
exhibit, 732 

Runyan, Mary D., head of Kindergarten 
Dept, Teachers College, 74 

Rural schools, N. E. A. Report on, xiv; 
sessions of, 80, 122; have not professional 
teachers, 83; difficulties of the, 84-85, 
88-91; grading in, 89; harsh discipline in, 
92-93; a great moral force, 93-94; wages 
of teacher, 122 

Ruskin, John, on material wealth, 760 

Rutgers Female College, closed, 336n2 

Sadler, Michael Ernest, on University ex- 
tension, 851 
St. Hugh's Hall, Oxford (Eng.) 346n4 
St. Joseph, Corporal punishment in, 133 
St. Louis, The kindergarten in, 38-41, 42; 
teachers of first grade on, 63-64; first 
city superintendent in, 124; corporal 
punishment in, 133; benefit associations 
in, 134; pension fund, 134 
St. Louis University established by the 

Jesuits, 980 
St. Mary's College, Baltimore, Catholic, 980 
St. Mary's Seminary (Baltimore) 489 
St. Paul, Corporal punishment in, 133; 

benefit association in, 134 
Salaries of common school teachers, viii; 

increase of, 79; expenditure for, 102 
Salaries of teachers in law schools, 497 
Salem (Mass.), First school in, 120 
Salisbury, Edward Elbridge, Graduate 
course in oriental languages at Yale, 284 
Salisbury, Stephen, a founder of the Wor- 
cester Polytechnic Institute, 562-63 
Salisbury, Stephen, 3d, benefactor of Wor- 
cester Polytechnic Institute, 563-64 
San Francisco, Coeducation in, 103; first 
city superintendent in, 124; corporal pun- 
ishment in, 133; benefit association and 
pension fund in, 134 
San Francisco Art Association, 722 
Sanitation, Bibliography of, 461-64 
Sargent, Dudley Allen, Summer School of 
Physical Training at Harvard under, 837 
Sauveur College of Languages established, 
825 



INDEX 



!°57 



SchaefFer, Nathan C, valuable reports of, 

460-61 
Schiff, Jacob H., gave building for the 

Jewish Theological Seminary, 1007 
Schiff Fellowship in Political Science, The, 

3°3 
Schlatter, Rev. Michael, Educational work 

of, 997 
Schlee, Dr. E., on weakest point in the 

American school system, 404 
Scholarships in professional schools, 477- 

Scholarships and fellowships, 301-2; dif- 
ferences between, 302-3 

School, The work of the, 114-15; the ac- 
quirement of technique, 1 17-19 

School affairs in larger cities, Gross mis- 
management and fraud in, 13-14 

School age defined, viii; per cent of persons 
of, enrolled in common schools, vii, 79 

School and college associations, 168-69 

School architecture and hygiene (G. B. 
Morrison) 411-64: The necessary 
features of a schoolhouse, 411-12; the 
country schoolhouse, 412-19, pi. I— II; 
size and seating, 413; heating and venti- 
lating, 413-17; lighting, 417-19; the 
two-room building, 419-21, pi. III-IV; 
the three-room building, 421-23, pi. V; 
24 plates, 422-23; the eight-room build- 
ing, 423-29, pi. VI-IX; the large city 
ward and grammar school, 429-38, 
pi. X-XIII: the high school building, 
429-46, pi. XIV-XVIII; the manual 
training high school, 446-55; pi. XIX- 
XXI; closets, 455-57, pi. XXIV; normal 
school and college buildings, 457-58; in- 
fluence of legislation on school architec- 
ture, 458-60; work of school supervisors 
and architects, 460-61; bibliography of 
school architecture and sanitation, 461- 
64 

School boards, Various titles of, 101; 
duties of, 101 

School committees in Mass. and Rhode 
Island, 101 

School directors in towns and districts, 101 

School district, The, 7-9, 122 

School district system denounced by Horace 
Mann, 123-24 

School funds, sectarian division of, States 
prohibiting and allowing, 104-5 

Schoolhouse, The, epitomizes the educa- 
tional situation, 411; necessary features 
of, 411; ends sought hygienic, economic, 
and mechanical, 411-12; seating, 413; 
heating and ventilating, 413-17; chimney, 
414; exit registers, 414-16; open fireplace, 
416-17; lighting, 417-19 

School instruction, Average amount of per 
capita in the U. S., viii, 80, 139; defini- 
tion of, 88 

School of Applied Ethics at Greenacre, 833 

School of Applied Ethics at Plymouth, 
Mass., 833 



School of Comparative Religions at Elliot, 
Me., 826 

School of Engineering, Columbia Univer-' 
sity, Courses in, 580 

School of Medicine of Univ. of Md. organ- 
ized, 507. 

School of Mines at Freiburg, 554 

School of Mines of Columbia College es- 
tablished, 578; object and organization, 
579-80 

School of Mines, University of Minnesota, 
588-89 

School of Pure Science, Columbia Univer- 
sity, Courses in, 580 

School period, Average, per inhabitant, xi, 
80 

Schoolroom, Ideal size of, 435 

School session, Length of annual, viii, 30, 
80, 103 

School societies founded schools, 122, 145 

School supervisions and architects, Work of, 
460-61 

School system, The American, supported 
wholly by taxation,' xx, 6, 17; develop- 
ment of, 18; a state system, 22; a few 
facts touching, 30-31; doing efficient 
work, 31; general survey of, 79-94; great- 
est good accomplished by the, 81 

School term, Increase in length of, 79, 82 

School trustees in towns and districts, ior 

School visitors in Connecticut, 101 

School year, see School session 

Schooling, Average total amount of, viiL 
80; tables of, 139 

Schoolmaster, Duties required of an early 
Puritan, 362 

Schools, Private, for education of negroes,, 
905-6 

Schools, public, Provision and supervision 
of, a sovereign power retained by the 
states, xix, 17-18; state authority an ad- 
vantage to, 18-19; aid for, from state, 21; 
spirit of American, 29; historical begin- 
ning of, 117-25; colonial schools, 120-21; 
district schools, 122; graded schools, 122— 
23; Horace Mann, 123-24; Henry Bar- 
nard, 124; normal schools, 124-25; sta- 
tistics, 126-32, 139; text-books, 135-38; 
must be provided for the people, 367-68- 

Schools of art in 1874, 721-22 

Schools of design in 1874, 721 

Schools of methods in Boston and Evans- 
ton, 825-26 

Schools of technology and agriculture, 
Women students in, 353-54 

Schools supported by the general govern- 
ment, 96 

Science established, 881 

Science, pure and applied, Courses and 
degrees in schools of, 590; requirements 
for admission, 590-91; discipline and 
culture in, 592 

Sciences, All the leading, have national or- 
ganizations, 878 

Scientific journals, 880-84 



io 5 8 



INDEX 



Scientific societies and associations (J. 
McK. Cattell) 865-91: Societies and 
academies, 867-80; National Academy 
of Sciences, 867-69; Amer. Assoc, for the 
Advancement of Science, 869-70; Amer. 
Philosophical Soc, 870-71; Amer. Acad- 
emy of Arts and Sciences, 871-72; New 
York Academy of Sciences, 872; the Phil- 
osophical Soc, 872-73; miscellaneous 
societies, 873-75, 876-80; National Edu- 
cational Assoc, 875-76; Journals, 880- 
84; Museums and other institutions, 884- 
91: Smithsonian Institution, 884-86; U. S. 
National Museum, S86; Amer. Museum 
of Natural History, 886; Brooklyn In- 
stitute of Arts and Sciences, 886-87; the 
Field Columbian Museum, 887; astro- 
nomical observatories, 887-88; botanical 
gardens, 889-90; zoological societies and 
parks, 890; biological laboratories, 890-91 

Scientific societies, Local, in many cities, 

873-75 

Scientific, technical, and engineering edu- 
cation (T. C. Mendenhall) 551-92: 
Development of schools, 553; earliest 
schools, 554; three groups: independent, 
affiliated, state supported, 555: Rensse- 
laer Polytechnic Institute, 556-58; Mass- 
achusetts Institute of Technology, 558— 
62; Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 562- 
65; Lehigh University, 565-66; Stevens 
Institute of Technology, 566-68; Case 
School of Applied Science, 568-70; Rose 
Polytechnic Institute, 570-72; Polytech- 
nic Institute of Brooklyn, 572; Armour 
Institute of Technology, 572-74; Second 
group: Sheffield Scientific School, 574- 
75; Lawrence Scientific School, 575-77; 
Chandler School of Science, 577; Thayer 
School of Civil Engineering, 578; School 
of Mines of Columbia College, 578-81; 
Towne Scientific School, 581; John C. 
Green School of Science, 581-82; Union 
College, 582; Washington University, 
582; University of Cincinnati, 582-83; 
University of California, 583; Leland 
Stanford, Junior, University, 583; Col- 
lege of Technology of Tulane University, 
583-84; Vanderbilt University, 584; 
Third group: Sibley College of Mechan- 
ical Engineering and the Mechanic Arts, 
584-85; College of Civil Engineering, 
585; University of Michigan, 585-86; 
Purdue University, 586; University of 
Wisconsin, 587; University of Illinois, 

" 587-88; Ohio State University, 588; 
University of Minnesota, 588-89; Uni- 
versity of Tennessee, 589; State College 
of Pennsylvania, 589; Michigan School 
of Mines, 589; Colorado School of Mines, 
589; Pratt Institute, 590; Drexel Insti- 
tute, 590; courses and degrees, 590; re- 
quirements for admission, 590-91; Johns 
Hopkins University, 591; object of, 
59 1 - 02 



Scotch-Irish race furnished numbers of 
teachers, 364 

Scottish universities, The, fostered Univer- 
sity extension in North Britain, 851 

Sears, Barnes, first general agent of Pea- 
body Education Fund, 920-21; J. M. L. 
Curry on, 921 

Seat, The single, 413 

Seaver, Edwin Pliny, Circular on kinder- 
gartens, 44-45; letter on obstacles to kin- 
dergartens, 61-63 

Secondary and higher education of the 
negro, Schools for the, 924-28 

Secondary education (E. E. Brown) 143- 
205: Three types of, 143; the beginnings, 
144-46; colonial schools, 146-47; a time 
of transition, 147-48; the academies, 148- 
50; state systems, 150-52, 191-99; char- 
acter of the academies, 153-56; the high 
school movement, 156-60; the old and 
the new, 161-62; a continuous system of 
public instruction, 162-63; tne schools 
and the colleges, 163-65; the accrediting 
system, 165-68; school and college asso- 
ciations, 168-69; Committee of Ten on 
Secondary School Studies, 169-72; the 
elective system, 172-74; college entrance 
requirements, 174-77; courses of study, 
170, 177-79; differentiation of schools, 
179-82; the study of adolescence, 182- 
83; methods of instruction, 183-86; moral 
values, 186-88; students, 188-89; teach- 
ers, 190-91; tables of statistics, 202-4; 
selected bibliography, 204-5; effects of 
general, on industrial progress, 32 2n2; 
increasingly in the hands of women, 323 

Secondary education, Public, xi-xii 

Secondary pupils, Number of, 30 

Secondary school studies, N. E. A. Report 
on, xiv 

Secondary school teachers, Scholarship re- 
quired of, 190-91; women as, 323 

Secondary schools, private, Decrease of 
pupils at, xii 

Secondary schools, Public, seldom regulated 
by law, vii; number of, xi; in every con- 
siderable town, 6; first step in establish- 
ment of, 157; well ordered systems of, 
160; connection with the colleges, 163- 
65; the accrediting system, 165-68; 
courses of study in, 169-72; independ- 
ence of the, 173; state systems of, 191- 
99; of Massachusetts, 191-92; of New 
York, 192-93; of Maryland, 194; of Indi- 
ana, 194-96; of Wisconsin, 196-98; of 
Minnesota, 198-99; tables of statistics of, 
200-4 

Sectarian differences, Disturbing influence 
of, 147-48 

Sectarian division of school funds, States 
prohibiting and allowing, 104-5 

Seed distribution by government, Begin- 
ning of,^ 604-5 

Sequin, Edouard, and the feeble-minded, 



INDEX 



!°59 



Seixas, — , taught deaf pupils in Philadel- 
phia, 776 

Seminar methods widely used, 296 

Seminaries or universities, Government 
land given for, 23, 95 

Seminaries, Private, 25-26 

Seminary of the Moravians at Bethlehem, 
Pa., the oldest school for women in 
America, 976 

Seminary of the Reformed Dutch Church, 
488-89 

Semitic Museum, The, at Cambridge 
(Mass.), 303 

Sentimentalism non-existent in the kinder- 
garten, 69-70 

Separate education, Women have shown a 
preference for, 335 

Sergeant, Rev. John, Work of, for the 
Indians at Stockbridge, 941 

Seventh-Day Baptist Church, Schools of, 
• 1004 

Seward, William Henry, a schoolmaster in 
Georgia, 364; favored agricultural studies 
in schools, 607 

Sewell, William, of Exeter College, Oxford, 
proposed University extension, 850 

Shakespeare clubs and societies, Numerous, 
880 

Shaw, Henry, Bequest of, for Missouri 
Botanical Garden, 889 

Shaw, Hudson, University extension lec- 
turer, 855 

Shaw, Mrs. Quincy A., supported free 
kindergartens in Boston, 36, 61 

Sheep, First Spanish Merino, imported, 599 

Sheffield, Joseph E., founder of Sheffield 
Scientific School, 574 

Sheffield Scientific School, 269, 284; organ- 
ized, 574, 610; courses and degrees, 574- 
75; agricultural experimental work at, 
641 

Sheldon, Dr. E. A., founder of the Oswego 
Normal School, 370 

Shinnecock Summer School of Art, 825; 
William M. Chase at, 835 

Shippen, Dr. Wm., gave lectures on anat- 
omy in 1762, 506 

Sibley, Hiram, established College of Engi- 
neering at Cornell University, 584-85 

Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering 
and the Mechanic Arts established, 273, 

584-85 

Silliman, Benjamin, Graduate course in 
chemistry of, at Yale, 2S4 

Sinclair, Sir John, first president of Royal 
Board of Agriculture, 598 

Singing in elementary schools, 111 

Skinner, Charles R., "Recent school archi- 
tecture," 460 

Slater, John Fox, created trust fund for 
education of negroes, 905, 922 

Slave system, Policy of the, toward edu- 
cation of the negro, 901-4; change in 
South after defeat of, 908-13 

Sloyd especially adapted to the blind, 791 



Smith, Rev. John, directed studies of 
Presbyterian students for the ministry, 
1014 

Smith, Walter, and drawing in the Boston 
schools, 709; abilities of, 713; made art 
director of Mass. schools, 715, 720, 735, 
736, 739; work on Art education, 720m; 
work of, 742, 743, 751, 766; resignation 
of, 745 

Smith College, one of the largest, 337; or- 
ganization of, 339; accomplishment 
courses at, 342; no special students at, 
343; accepts entrance certificates, 343n2; 
discipline at, 345 

Smithson, James, founder of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, 884 

Smithsonian Institution at Washington, 
884-86; gift of T. G. Hodgkin to, 886; 
influence of, on the government, 884; li- 
brary of, transferred to Library of Con- 
gress, 885; objects and publications, 
885-86; funds of the, 886 

Snyder, C. B. J., architect of Public School 
No. 165 New York City, 433 

Social conditions, Colonial, 146; later, 147; 
transformed, 162-63 

Social life of the school, 188 

Social organization among students, 188-89 

Society for Promoting Agriculture in Conn., 
598 

Society for Promoting Theological Educa- 
tion, Boston, 991-92 

Society for the Collegiate Instruction of 
Women organized the Harvard Annex, 
347m 

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 
Schools founded by the, 983 

Society of Jesus founded secondary and 
higher institutions, 154 

Soldan, Frank Louis, at Martha's Vine- 
yard Institute, 841 

Somerville Hall, Oxford (Eng.), 346n4 

Soper Summer School of Oratory, Chicago, 
825 

South Carolina, Illiteracy in, ix; school 
trustees in, 101; district the unit in, 106 

South Carolina University, admitted 
women, 325 

South Dakota, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory 
law in, 99; employment of children, 100; 
women county superintendents in, 102; 
women may hold any school office in 102; 
may vote at school elections, 102; town- 
ship the unit in, 106; corporal punish- 
ment in, 133; school and college associ- 
ation in, 169 

South Kensington Institution, 715 

Southern states, Teachers imported and 
bought in, 363, 364; revival of public 
school education in the, 907-n; preju- 
dices of, thrown aside, 912-13; ground- 
work education in the, 912-18; govern- 
mental and philanthropic aid from the 
North, 914-18; bequests for education in 
the, 918-23 



io6o 



INDEX 



Southern Workman, The, Extract from, on 
the New England teachers of the freed- 
men, 916-18 
Sparks, Edwin E., in extension work, 855 
Special students in women's colleges, 341, 

343 

Specialized summer schools, S33-36 

Spelling in elementary schools, 109 

Spontaneity the keynote of education in the 
U. S., v 

Sprague, Homer Baxter, a founder of 
Martha's Vineyard Summer Institute, 841 

Springfield (Mass.) High School described, 
pi. XIV-XVIII, 442-46 

Stairs, Standard requirements for, 454-5 5 

Stanford, Leland, benefactor of Leland 
Stanford, Jr., University, 304 

State, The, claims no monopoly in educa- 
tion, vi; and the government, xv-xx; pub- 
lic education the function of the, 977 

State Agricultural College of Michigan the 
first to be established, 609 

State Board of Education, 20 

State College of Pennsylvania, Science 
courses at, 589 

State common school systems, Table of 
statistics of, 131-32 

State inspection and supervision, vi-vii, 
xviii-xix 

State Medical Society of N. J. organized, 

5°7 

State medicine, C. W. Eliot on, 519-20 

State school commissioner, 20 

State school funds, 18; sectarian division of, 
104-5 

State superintendent of public instruction, 
19-20; powers of the, in New York State, 
20; the first, 27-28; women holding posi- 
tion of, 101 

State systems of secondary education, 150- 
52; demand for, 156-60 

State universities, Free, xix, 6; in twenty- 
nine states, 276; list of states, 276; 
sources of income, 276-77; free to all, 
277; at head of educational system of 
each state, 277; governed by boards of 
regents, 277; political control of some, 
277-78; most successful: Michigan, 
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and California, 
278; examples: University of Wisconsin, 
278-79; University of California, 279-80 

States, The, and the schools, 17-22; pro- 
vision and supervision of schools a 
sovereign power retained by, 17-18; 
state authority has developed system, 
18-19; legislation by, 19; tendency 
toward centralization, 21; aid from, 21; 
responsibilities of, 21-22; assumed func- 
tions of government touching education, 
23, 977; the high school movement, 156- 
60 

Statistics, common school, of the U. S., 
Table of, 79-80, 126-29, 130 

Statistics of average schooling per inhabi- 
tant, 139 



Statistics of colleges, 239-41 

Statistics of commercial education, 657m, 
692, 701-3 

Statistics of denominational educational in- 
stitutions, 1017-22 

Statistics of education of the Indian, 951, 
965-72 

Statistics of education of women, 327-33, 
353, 35Sbn 2 

Statistics of graduate students, 31, 314-15 

Statistics of kindergartens, 42 

Statistics of land grants, 95 

Statistics of manual training, 747-49 

Statistics of normal schools, 377, 379 

Statistics of Ph. D. degrees, 296 

Statistics of professional education, 468, 
469, 471, 474-77> 479- 8 7. 5 I 7.- I 8,_534 

Statistics of public education, vii-viii, 126- 

32, 138 
Statistics of schools for defective classes, 

815-19 
Statistics of secondary schools, 200-4 
Statistics of state common school systems, 

Table of, 131-32 
Statistics of summer schools, 827-29, 839- 

40 
Statistics of the land-grant colleges, 637-40, 

646-51 
Statistics of the public school system in the 

southern states, 909-10, 929-36 
Statistics of university extension, 856-58 
Steam plant vs. furnace, 424, 425 
Steamboat propelled by twin screws, The 

first, 567 
Stevens, Edwin Augustus, founder of 

Stevens Institute, 366-67 
Stevens, John, engineer, 566-67 
Stevens, Robert Livingston, built first iron- 
clad vessel, 567 
Stevens Institute of Technology opened, 

566; founders, 566-67; organization and 

courses, 568 
Stiles, Ezra, on New England college men, 
■ 238 

Stock interests, Associations for the, 600 
Stove, Place and function of the school- 
room, 413-14, 419, 421; the furnace, 420 
Street child, The, 41, 57 
Strogonoff School, Work in metals of the, 

shown at the Centennial, 732 
Stuart, James, introduced written papers 

and the "after class" idea into University 

extension, 850 
Student life, Democratic character of, 222- 

23; picture of a student's career, 229-35? 

expenses, 237 
Student self-government, 222 
Students in commercial courses, 657m, 

702, 703 
Students in secondary schools, 188-89 
Study and instruction, Methods of uni- 
versity, 295-96 
Study of education, The, xxiv 
Sullivan, Annie M., teacher of Helen 
Keller, 801-3 



INDEX 



I06l 



Summer excursions of university professors 
and students, 824 

Summer institutes, Spread of, 825 

Summer school for teachers, The, 386-87; 
Chautauqua type, 386; at normal schools, 
colleges, and universities, 386-87; by 
private associations, 387 

Summer School of the South, 841-42 

Summer schools and University extension 
(G. E. Vincent) 821-64D: Origin of 
summer schools, 823-24; growth of, 824- 
27; statistics of, 827-30; registration at 
universities, 829; tuition fees and ex- 
penses, 830; classification of, 831-36; 
academic, 831-32; of Pedagogy, 832-33; 
specialized, 833-34; of Art, Music, Ex- 
pression, 834-35; popular classes and 
lectures, 835-36; typical schools, 836-45: 
Harvard Summer School, 837-39; Uni- 
versity of Chicago, 839-40; Martha's 
Vineyard, 840-4]*; Summer School of the 
South, 841-42; Marine Biological Labo- 
ratory, 842-43; Chautauqua Institution, 
843-45; the theory of, 845-47; the future 
of, 847-49; bibliography, 864b. See Uni- 
versity extension 

Summer schools for research, 833 

Summer students, Registration of, in cer- 
tain universities, 829 

Summer teachers' institutes, 385 

Summer teaching, Centers for, multiplied, 
826 

Summer Theological Seminary opened at 
Newburgh, N. Y., 826 

Superintendent of public instruction in 
each state, 101; various titles of, 101; 
began with New York, 124; 44 states 
have, 124 

Superintendent of public schools in 836 
cities, 101; began with Buffalo, 124 

Superintendents, 27-28; held responsible 
for the quality of teaching, 28-29; salaries 
of, 102 

Superintending school committees in 
Maine, 101 

Supervision, Expert, 27-29; statistics of, 
100-1 

Supervisors of kindergartens should be 
specially qualified, 70 

Susan Linn Sage Fellowships in Philosophy 
at Cornell, 303 

Sutherland, Mrs. Elizabeth Huntington, 
on kindergarten children, 66 

Swamp lands, Special grants of, 96 

Sweden, Education common in, before 1650, 
120 

Sweetser, Rev. Dr. Seth, and the Worcester 
Polytechnic Institute, 562 

Swensson, Carl Aaron, on the Lutheran 
Church and education, 985 

Svkes, Frederick Henry, University exten- 
sion lecturer, 855; in charge of extension 
at Teachers College, 861 

Syllabus, Regents', for business schools, 
665-68: Advanced bookkeeping, 665; 



business arithmetic, 666; commercial 
law, 666; commercial geography and 
history of commerce, 666-67; business 
practice and office methods, 667; business 
English, 668 

Symonds, Miss, Kindergarten training 
school of, 72 

Synod of the Associated Reformed Church, 
995; opened a theological seminary, 1014 

Synodical Conference, Schools of the, 987 

Syracuse prohibits corporal punishment, 

*33 
Syracuse Medical School adopted graded 

system, 516 
Syracuse University College of Fine Arts, 

721 
System of schools, Parts of the great, 6-7 

Tangible writable system, A, for the blind, 

793-94 
Tax supported education, Unlimited power 

of the people to provide, xx-xxii 
Tax-supported schools not charity schools, 

xxii-xxiv 
Taxation for public instruction, Daniel 

Webster on, x-xi; amount raised, 30 
Taylor, Joseph W., founder of Bryn Mawr, 

339 

Teachers, Number of vii, 30, 376; average 
monthly salary of, viii, 79; examination 
and certification of, 20, 28, 190; all must 
be upon the merit basis, 28; advancement 
of, 29; four groups of, in early 19th 
century, 365-66; average length of pro- 
fessional career of, 377n; examining 
boards, 401-2; report on, 402-4 

Teachers, professionally trained, Introduc- 
tion of, 82-83; demand for, 122; supply 
of, from normal schools, one-sixth of de- 
mand, 125; trained in academies, 156; 
in universities, 307; Com. of Fifteen on, 
190. See also Training of teachers 

Teachers, School of Methods for, see Sum- 
mer School of the South, 841-42 

Teachers College (N. Y.), Kindergarten 
Department at, 73; postgraduate work at, 
74; affiliated with Columbia University, 
270; organization of, 396; courses and 
degrees given, 397; the building, 457; 
offers University extension courses. 855, 
856 

Teachers' colleges, 395-400; Richard Mul- 
caster on a, 395; S. S. Laurie on a, 395- 
96; F. A. P. Barnard urged for, 396; 
Teachers College organized, 396; courses 
at, 397; New York University School of 
Pedagogy, 397-98; Clark University, 398 
-99; the University of Chicago, 399-400; 
Univ. of Wisconsin School of Education, 
400 

Teachers' institutes, 20, 28, 823; as summer 
schools, 826. See also Training of 
teachers (B. A. Hinsdale) TIL 382-86 

Teachers' pensions and benefit associations, 
134 



1062 



INDEX 



Teacher's platform, Position of, 417-18, 

4 21 . 

Teachers' reading circles originated by 

Mrs. D. L. Williams, 388; Ohio Teach- 
ers' Reading Circle organized, 389; 
management of, 3S9-90; success of 
Indiana Teachers' Reading Circle, 390; 
full list of books used, 390-91 

Teachers' salaries, Average monthly, x, 79, 
102 

Teachers' training classes, see Training of 
teachers (B. A. Hinsdale) II. 379-82 

Teachers' training schools in Mass., N. C, 
and Col., 826 

Teaching, School superintendents held re- 
sponsible for quality of, 28-29 

Technical schools, see Scientific, technical, 
and engineering education, 553-92 

Technical schools of science few in number, 

7 6 5 

Technical schools should be separated from 
universities, 309 

Technical science, Societies of, 877-79 

Technical trade schools, 750 

Tekniker Verein of Washington, 878 

Tendencies in American education, xxiv 

Tennessee, Illiteracy in, ix; school directors 
in, 101; women county superintendents 
in, 102; county the unit in, 105; or dis- 
trict, 106; school and college association 
in, 169 

Tennessee, Legislature of, on higher edu- 
cation, 152 

Tennessee Experiment Station, 642 

Texas, School supervision by districts in, 
100; school trustees, 101; school organi- 
zation in, 106 

Text-book instruction vs. oral instruction, 
86-87 

Text-books, States not supplying free, 135- 
36; states authorizing free supply of, 136- 
38; less use of, 184-85 

Thayer, Gen. Sylvanus, father of U. S. 
Military Academy, 578 

Thayer School of Civil Engineering at 
Dartmouth College, 578 

Theological schools, Scholarships in, 477; 
fees, 479; libraries, 479-80; endowments, 
481; value of property, 482-83; gifts and 
bequests, 484; number, denomination, 
faculty, and students of, 30, 486-87, 490; 
early training and independent semi- 
naries, 4S7-91; university relations, 491- 
92; present tendencies, 492-94 

Theological seminaries, 1013-16; object of, 
1015; relations of, to governing bodies of 
denominations, 1016 

Theological Seminary, Gettysburg, found- 
ed, 987 

Theological Seminary in Baltimore, Catho- 
lic, 980, 1014 

Theological Seminary of the Assoc. Presby- 
terian Church of N. A., 489 

Theological Seminary of the United Synod, 
South, 987 



Theological Seminary of United Presby- 
terian Church, at Xenia, 1014 

Theological students in 1899, 486 

Theology, Women students in, 353-54 

Thomas, Martha Carey, Education of 
women, 3ig-58d 

Thompson, Charles Oliver, first president of 
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 563; and 
of Rose Polytechnic Institute, 571 

Thornton, Dr., suggested agricultural fair 
at Washington, D. C, 598-99 

Thousand Island Park, Institute for 
teachers at, 826 

Thurston, Robert Henry, professor at 
Stevens Institute, 568 

Thwing, Charles F., on work for degree of 
LL. B., 496 

Toledo, Corporal punishment in, 133; 
manual training school in, 181 

Towne Scientific School of the University 
of Pennsylvania, 264,«58i 

Township system, The, 9-1 1, 105-6 

Township, government, One lot in each, 
reserved for maintenance of schools, 23; 
two given to each state for founding a uni- 
versity, 23-24 

Townships authorized to use funds for 
schools, 5-6; larger units of school gov- 
ernment, 10 

Toys, traditional, Froebel's modification 
of, 71 

Trade schools, in the largest cities, 181; 
success of, 590 

Training of teachers, The (B. A. Hinsdale) 
359-407: Agencies for, 361; before the 
revival, 361; in New England, 361-62; 
in the middle states, 362-63; at the south, 
363-64; the Yankee schoolmaster and 
schoolmistress abroad, 364-65; four 
grades of teachers in early 19th century, 
365-66; education of women neglected, 
366; work of colleges and academies, 
366-67; educational needs, 367; call of 
the democratic spirit for better teachers, 
367-68. — I. Normal schools, 368-79: 
The Bell and Lancaster model school in 
Philadelphia, 368; three normal schools 
in Mass., 36S; plan and course of study, 
368-69; private and public support, 369; 
general introduction of normal schools, 
370; names of leading, 370; what and how 
much are students in doing, 371-79; 
courses in Mass. schools, 371; Bridge- 
water, 371; other state normal schools, 
372; colleges conferring degrees, 372-73; 
Michigan, 372; Normal College of City 
of New York, 372-73; N. Y. State Nor- 
mal at Albany, 373; city training schools, 
373; general law in New York author- 
izing, 374; private normal schools, 374- 
75; the Peabody Normal College, 374- 
75; kindergarten and manual training, 
376; fall far short of supplying teachers 
needed, 376-77; statistics, 377; increased 
enrollment in, 378; compared with the 



INDEX 



1063 



German schools, 378-79; some author- 
ities on, 37am — II. Teachers' training 
classes, 379-82: Students in teachers' 
courses, 379; in colleges and universities, 
379-80; in high schools and academies, 
380-81; provision of New York law, 381; 
admission and instruction, 381-82. — 
III. Teachers' institutes, 382-86: Earliest 
were voluntary, 382; provided for by law, 
382-83; of various types; the country, 
383; for general and special preparation 
of teachers, 383-84; definition of, 384; at- 
tendance required in Pa. and N. Y., 384; 
attendance at, 385; institute instructors, 
385; summer institutes, 385; advantages 
of, 386. — IV. The summer school for 
teachers, 386-87: Chautauquas, 386; at 
normal schools, colleges and universities, 
386-87; private associations, 387. — V. 
University extension courses, 388. — VI. 
Teachers' reading circles, 388-91: Origi- 
nated in Ohio, 388-89; the Indiana 
Circle, 389-91; list of books read, 390- 
91. — VII. Chairs of education in colleges 
and universities, 391-95: First efforts at 
Brown and Antioch, 392; at Univ. of 
Michigan by Pres. Angell, 392-95; pur- 
pose and courses of instruction, 393-94; 
at other state universities, 394; courses 
elective, 394-95. — VIII. Teachers' col- 
leges, 395-400: Teachers College of Co- 
lumbia, 396-97; courses and degrees 
offered, 397; N. Y. Univ. School of 
Pedagogy, 397-98; Clark University, 
398-99; at Univ. of Chicago, 399-400; 
Univ. of Wisconsin, 400. — Associations, 
societies, institutes, and clubs for teach- 
ers, 400-1; teachers' libraries, 401; certi- 
fication of teachers, 401-2; of college and 
university graduates as teachers, 402-3; 
required study of education, 403-4; 
growth of education, 404; its greatest 
defect, 404-5; additional authorities, 
406-7; in summer schools, 823, 841-42 

Training School for Feeble-minded Chil- 
dren, Philadelphia, 805 

Training schools for kindergartners, 72- 
73; postgraduate work in, 74 

Training schools for teachers, Free, 6 

Trelease, William, director of Missouri 
Botanical Garden, 889 

Trinity Church relegated to comparative 
obscurity, 758, 759 

Trinity College, Hartford, founded, 984 

Trinity College, Washington (D. C.) a 
Roman Catholic college for women, 342 

Trinity School in New York established, 

9 8 3 , ^ 

Troy Female Seminary, opened by Emma 

Willard, 33811 
Truant law in Massachusetts, 97 
Truant schools, 100 
True, A. C, Popular education for the 

farmer, 633-37 
True, Clarence, architect, 458 



Trumbull, John, artist, 762, 763 
Tufts College opened to women, 326 
Tuition fees in business colleges, 669; and 

expenses of summer students, 830 
Tuition in professional schools, 479; free, 

in the highest schools of learning, 615, 

616 
Tulane University, 274; closed to women, 

329; Dept. of Pharmacy at, 534; College 

of Technology, 583 
Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, 

927-28 
Tyndall, John, founder of fellowships, 302, 

3°3 
Tyndall Fellowship, The, at Columbia, 303 
Typewriter for writing Braille, 794 

Undergraduate organizations, 233 

Union College, Scientific courses at, 582; 
founded by cooperation of several re- 
ligious denominations, 976, 996 

Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 
1006 

Union Theological Seminary in many 
respects a real university faculty, 310; re- 
lations of, with Columbia, 310, 492 

Unit of school organization, The, local, 97, 
105-6 

Unitarian Church, The, zealous in promot- 
ing education, 991-92 

Unitarian Education Society of New Hamp- 
shire, 991 

United Brethren Church, Schools of the, 
1002 

United Presbyterian Church, The, 995 

United States, Gifts of the, to the several 
* states to encourage schools, 23-24, 95-96 

United States Bureau of Animal Industry, 
Work of the, 547 

United States Bureau of Education, Func- 
tions of, wholly advisory, v; work of the, 
24-25; voluntary correspondents of, 31; 
statistics of kindergartens, 42; annual 
reports of commissioner, 316; efforts of, 
to collect statistics of commercial educa- 
tion, 655-56; 657m, 659, 701-3 

United States Commissioner of Education, 
Annual reports of, xiv 

United States Department of Agriculture, 
Beginnings of the, 603-5 

U. S. National Museum under the Smith- 
sonian Institution, 8S5, 886 

U. S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, 96 

U. S. Naval Observatory, 888 

U. S. school system, see School system, The 
American 

United States Treasury, Surplus funds in 
the, distributed to the several states, 24, 96 

Universalists, Schools of the, 1005 

Universities, American, xii-xiii; different 
from foreign, xiii, 280-82; leading and 
privately endowed, 7; unconnected with 
colleges, 257-60; united with colleges and 
professional schools, 260-75; the State, 
276-80 



1064 



INDEX 



Universities, Great state, parts of state 
school systems, 18 

Universities, Number of colleges and, 30, 
240; list of, in chronological order, 241-49 

Universities, The medieval, of Europe, 281 

Universities, The older real, have grown up 
around colleges, 241-42 

Universities having departments of agri- 
culture and engineering, 619-20; require- 
ments for admission, 621; courses of 
study, 621-28; military instruction in, 
628 

University, Definition of a, xiii; land rights 
for support of a, 23, 95 

University, Relation of the, to the college, 
253; the names worthless, 254; in com- 
plex institutions the title theoretically 
equivalent to the German, 260; the use 
of the title, 329^. See also American 
university, The 

University extension (G. E. Vincent) 849- 
64b: In England, 849-52; features of, 
850-51; in the United States, 852-56; 
conditions required for, 855-56; statistics, 
856-59; courses and audiences in, 856- 
57; finances, 858; disappointments in, 
859-60; success of, 860-61; the future of, 
861; reading circles, 862-63; correspond- 
ence instruction, 863~64a; bibliographv, 
864b 

University extension courses, Methods of, 
388 

University fellowships and scholarships, see 
Fellowships; Scholarships 

University Grammar School in Rhode 
Island, 145 

University of Alabama, admitted women,* 

3 2 5 

University of Arizona, coeducational, 325 

University of California, The accrediting 
system at, and efficient inspection of 
schools by, 166-68; organization, 279- 
80; Mrs. Hearst's benefactions to the, 
304; admitted women, 325; science col- 
leges at, 583; College of Commerce at, 
695-97 > adopted summer school, 827 

University of Chicago has college depart- 
ment, 242; founded, 274; organization 
of, 275; graduate schools, 275; Library 
of, 297; publications of, 300; scholarships 
and fellowships at, 301; gifts of Rocke- 
feller and others, 304; coeducational, 
328; women at, 334n2; offers students 
summer terms, 387; Department of 
Pedagogy at, 399; the College for Teach- 
ers at, 399-400; College of Commerce 
and Politics at, 692-94; continuous in- 
struction at, 839; statistics of summer 
registration, 839-40; takes in University 
extension, 855; courses and attendance, 
856-58; cost to, 858-59; will maintain 
extension work, 861; made correspond- 
ence instruction a department of ex- 
tension, 863; students registered in, 864a 

University of Cincinnati founded, 582; 



scientific courses at, 582-83; School of 
Design at, 721; open to summer students, 
827 
University of Georgia modeled on that of 
New York, 151; closed to women, 325, 

3 2 9 

University of Havana, Professional students 
at the, 469m 

University of Illinois, admitted women, 325; 
colleges and schools at, 587-88; vacation 
courses at, 826 

University of Indian Territory, coeduca- 
tional, 325 

University of Kansas, coeducational, 324 

University of Maine, admitted women, 

325 

University of Michigan established, 151; 
the accrediting system at, and inspection 
of schools, 165-66; oldest state university, 
278; graduate courses at, 2S5; Ph.D. and 
A.M. at, 287 ; first admitted women to true 
college grade, 325; teaching of education 
begun at, 392-94; opened a dental depart- 
ment, 527; first graduated pharmacists, 
535; engineering courses at, 585-86; sum- 
mer courses at, 826 

University of Minnesota, 278; coeduca- 
tional, 325; opened Veterinary Dept., 
544; science schools and colleges at, 588- 
89; degrees granted, 589; School of Agri- 
culture at, 636; summer courses at, 826 

University of Mississippi, admitted women, 

325 

University of Nashville, 375 

University of Nebraska, opened coedu- 
cational, 325; vacation students at, 826 

University of North Carolina, admitted 
women, 325 

University of Oklahoma, coeducational, 

325 

University of Paris, The, 210 

University of Pennsylvania, The academy 
that developed into the, 149, 263, 362; 
organization of the, 264; courses of in- 
struction, 264; Library of, 297; publica- 
tions of, 298-99; scholarships and fellow- 
ships at, 301, 477-79; Provost Harrison 
Fellowship Fund at, 303; admits women 
to graduate work, 333; opened a dental 
department, 527; veterinary school at, 
543; Towne Scientific School, 581; Whar- 
ton School of Finance and Economy, 
689-92, 693 

University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Profes- 
sional students at, 469m 

University of Tennessee, Science courses 
at, 589; Summer School of the South at, 
841-42 

University of Texas, coeducational, 325 

University of the South founded, 984-85 

University of the State of Missouri, became 
coeducational, 325; professorship of 
teaching authorized at, 392 

University of the State of New York, Es- 
tablishment of the, 150-51; wide influence 



INDEX 



1065 



of the, 151; academic departments aided 
from literature fund, 160; High School 
Dept. of the, 192-93; regents' examina- 
tions, 193; syllabus for university in- 
struction, 193; recognition of business 
•schools, 664-65; syllabus for, 665-68; 
Bulletin of summer schools, 827, 848; 
adopted University extension, 852-53 
University of Utah, coeducational, 324 
University of Virginia, Jefferson recom- 
mended manual training for the, in; 
157; closed to women, 325, 329, 333; Law 
School opened at, 495; summer teaching 
in chemistry, 825 
University of Washington, coeducational, 

3 2 4 

University of West Virginia took up corre- 
spondence work, 864 

University of Wisconsin, Accrediting system 
at the, 197-98; organization of, 278-79; 
publications of the, 299-300; became co- 
educational, 325; has summer school for 
teachers, 387; School of Education, 400; 
College of Mechanics and Engineering, 
587; took up correspondence instruction, 
864 

University problems, Some present, 305-13 

University publications, 297-300 

Unlimited power of the people to provide 
tax-supported education, xx 

Urban population, Increase of, by the in- 
crease of railways, 80, 84; in Mass., 123; 
of the country, 123 

Utah, Compulsory law in, 99; women 
county superintendents in, 102; women 
may hold any school office in, 102; 
"women suffrage in, 102; county the unit 
in, 105; or district, 106; authorizes in- 
dustrial training, 112; State University 
of, coeducational, 324 

Vandertilt, Cornelius, founds a university, 
1000 

Vanderbilt University, 274; Engineering 
Dept. at, 584; established, 1000 

Vanderlyn, John, painter, 762 

Van Rensselaer, Stephen, sketch of, 556-57. 
See also Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 

Vassar College, one of the largest, 337; or- 
ganization, 338; accomplishment courses 
not counted in, 342; preparatory depart- 
ment closed, 343; accepts entrance 
certificates, 343n2; limited self-govern- 
ment at, 345 

Ventilation and sanitation, Bibliography of, 
463-64 

Ventilation, Mechanical power in, 426-29; 
use of exhaust steam for heating, 427; 
cost of, 428; must come from a pure 
source, 437; of Kansas City Manual 
Training High School, 452 

Vermont, Compulsory law in, 99; clothing 
furnished poor school children in, 100; 
employment of children, 100; prudential 
-committees in, 101; women county super- 



intendents in, 102; women may hold any 
school office in, 102; may vote at school 
elections, 102; school unit in, 106; au- 
thorizes kindergartens, 112; statute re- 
quirements on sanitation, 459; profes- 
sional licenses in, 471 

Veterinary medicine, Requirements for 
license to practise, 472, 549; education 
in, 543-49; New York's leadership in, 
545; army service in, 546; state and 
national workers in, 546-47; field for 
educated veterinarians, 548 

Veterinary schools, Scholarships in, 479; 
fees, 479; value of property, 483; early, 
543-44; state schools, 544; requirements 
of Amer. Veterinary Medical Assoc, 
545; higher standards for, 546-47; num- 
ber of, 548 

Victoria University established centers for 
University extension, 851 

Vincent, George Edgar, Summer schools 
and University extension, 82i-64b 

Vincent, John Heyl, a founder of the Chau- 
tauqua Institution, 843 

Vinton, Francis Laurens, professor in 
School of Mines, 579 

Virginia, Illiteracy in, ix; school unit in, 
106; earliest Latin grammar school in, 
144; professional licenses in, 471; colonial 
statutes relating to attorneys, 499; edu- 
cation of defectives in, 771; a Braidwood 
school for deaf and dumb in, 774; revival 
of public school education in, 908-9 

Vocational schools, The question of, 181-82 

Volta Bureau founded, 783 

Wade, Ben, introduced Morrill Act in the 
Senate, 612 

Wadsworth, James Samuel, favored study 
of agriculture in the schools, 607 

Wages of teachers and superintendents in 
the common schools, Amount paid for, 
30, 102; increase of, 79; of rural or dis- 
trict school teachers, 122. See also Sal- 
aries 

Wagner Free Institute of Science, Philadel- 
phia, 873 

Wait, William B., devised New York hori- 
zontal point alphabet for the blind, 793 

Walker, Francis Amasa, 560; and manual 
training at Mass. Institute of Technology, 

747 
Walker Fellowship at Harvard, 302 
Walks to outhouses, 419 
Wardrobes, 426; number and location of, 

43 6 

Warming, Economy in, when air is distrib- 
uted through floors, 450-51 

W T ashburn,-Ichabod, a founder of the Wor- 
cester Polytechnic Institute, 562 

Washington, Booker Taliaferro, Edu- 
cation of the negro, 893-936; optimism of, 
911 

Washington, George, Father and brothers 
of, educated at Appleby School, in Eng- 



io66 



INDEX 



land, 364; on the promotion of science 
and literature, 596-97, 598; recommended 
a national board of agriculture, 604 

Washington Academy of Sciences, Societies 
united by the, 872-73 

Washington (D. C), Coeducation in, 103; 
corporal punishment in, 133; agricultural 
fairs held in, 598-99; Business High 
School in, 675; paintings and sculpture 
in the Capitol at, 761-63 

Washington (State), Illiteracy in, ix; kin- 
dergartens in, 42; compulsory law in, 99; 
school directors in, 101; women county 
superintendents in, 102; women may vote 
at school elections in, 102; school unit in, 
106; manual training compulsory in 
certain schools in, 112; corporal punish- 
ment in, 133 

Washington and Jefferson College, Begin- 
nings of, 992 

Washington University (St. Louis), Manual 
training at, 181; under the direction of 
Calvin M. Woodward, 447; School of 
Engineering at, 582 

Watson, Elkanah, imported first Spanish 
Merino sheep, 599; effort of, for national 
board of agriculture, 603 

Wayland, Dr. Francis, favored scientific 
studies at Brown University, 611; first 
proposed the elective system, 1004 

Webster, Daniel, on taxation for public in- 
structon, x, 113, 115, 117 

Weeks, Dr. Stephen B., Classification of 
summer schools, 831 

Weir, Robert Walter, painter, 762 

Wellesley College, one of the largest, 337; 
organization of, 338-39; accomplishment 
courses not counted in, 342; preparatory 
department closed, 343; accepts entrance 
certificates, 343n2 

Wells, Charles W., used nitrous oxide, 527 

Wells, Oliver E., on schoolhouses, 460 

Wells College, Organization of, 341; 
closed preparatory department, 343 

Wesleyan University opened, 998 

Wesleyan University, Conn. Experiment 
Station opened at, 641 

West, Andrew Fleming, The American 
college, 209-49 

West, Benjamin, painter, 763 

West India Co., The, and the Dutch schools 
in New York, 120, 996 

West Point, Military school at, 96 

West Virginia, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory 
law in, 99; school supervision in, 100; 
school unit in the district, 106; corporal 
punishment in, 133 

West Virginia University, admitted women, 
325 

Westervelt, Supt., on the manual alphabet 
method, 780 

Weymouth (Mass.), First school in, 120 

Wharton, Joseph, established School of 
Finance and Economy at Univ. of Penn- 
sylvania, 689 



Wharton School of Finance and Economy 
established at University of Pennsylvania, 
689; course in, 690-91, 693; number of 
students, 692; confers degree of B. S. in 
Economics, 692 

Wheelock, Rev. Eleazer, work for the Indi- 
ans at Dartmouth College, 941 

Wheelock, Lucy F., Kindergarten training 
school of, 72 

Wheelwright, E. M., on the American 
schoolhouse, 430-31 

Whipple, Zera, worked out system of visible 
speech, 782 

Whitaker, Rev. W. F., on difference between 
theology and the other professions, 491 

Whitcomb, David, and the Worcester Poly- 
technic Institute, 562 

White, Daniel Appleton, on time gained 
by kindergarten children, 67-68 

White, J. W., 312 

White Historical Library at Cornell, 303 

Whitford, W. C, issues circular on plans of 
schoolhouses, 460 

Whitman, Charles Otis, director of the 
Marine Biological Laboratory, 842, 890 

Whitney, Eli, was a Yankee schoolmaster, 

3 6 4 
Whitney, W. D., took degree at Breslau, 

284; lecturer at Yale, 284 
Wilberforce University opened, 1001 
Wilbur, Dr. H. B., Private school for idiots 

of, 805 
Wilder, Marshall Pinckney, Work of, for 

an agricultural college in Massachusetts, 

609-10 
Wiley University, 924 
Willard, Mrs. Emma, opened Troy Female 

Seminary, 338n 
William and Mary College, Religious mo- 
tive in founding of, 975; charter obtained 

through Rev. James Blair, 982 
William Penn Charter School, 145 
Williams, Mrs. D. L., suggested teachers' 

reading circles, 388 
Williams, George Washington, History of 

the negro race, quoted, 915 
Williams, Dr. Job, on Helen Keller, 803-4 
Williams College, closed to women, 333; 

conducted as a Congregational institu- 
tion, 976, 989 
Willoughby, Dr. W. W., Classification of 

summer schools, 831 
Wilmington (Del.), Coeducation in, 103 
Wilson, James, Course of lectures in law 

by, at College of Philadelphia, 495 
Windows, Form and position of, 434-35 
Winona Lake, Assembly and summer 

schools at, 834 
Winona Reading Circle, 863 
Winslow, Gov. Edward, imported first neat 

cattle, 599 
Winthrop, Robert Charles, chairman of 

Peabody Education Fund, 920 
Wisconsin, Length of annual school session 



INDEX 



IO67 



Wisconsin, Kindergartens in, 42; depart- 
ments in normal ' schools, 73; grants of 
land to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; school 
boards, 101; women county superintend- 
ents in, 102; women may vote at school 
elections in, 102; school unit in, 106; 
authorizes industrial training, 112; and 
kindergartens, 112; corporal punishment 
allowed in, 133; system of free high 
schools, 196-98; seven normal schools in, 
370; first teachers' institute in, 382; com- 
petition of architects in, 458; circular of 
State Superintendent on plans of school- 
houses, 460; provision for its University, 
640 

Wisconsin Phonological Institute, Normal 
classes at the, 784 

Witherspoon, Pres., John Adams on, 238 

Woman suffrage, States where granted, 102 

Woman's College of Baltimore, Organiza- 
tion of, 340; closed preparatory depart- 
ment, 343 

Woman's Educational Assoc, of Boston and 
the Marine Biological Laboratory, 842 

Women as professional students, 484-85; 
admitted to the bar, 501; constitute the 
majority of summer students, 828 

Women, Education of (M. Carey Thomas) 
3i9~58d: College education, 321-51: co- 
education, 321-35; in elementary and 
secondary schools, 321-24; civil war in- 
creased number of women teachers, 323- 
24; in state universities, 323-25; Oberlin 
and Antioch opened, 324; in the private 
colleges, 326-28; Cornell, 326; Boston 
University, 326; Mass. Institute of Tech- 
nology, 326; general in south and west, 
326-28; table, 327; map of coeducation, 
328; colleges giving true collegiate work 
classified, 330-333; diagram of growth of 
coeducation, 332; arguments against met 
and answered by experience, 333-34) 
average standing above that of men, 333; 
increase of women students, 334-3 5- — 
Independent colleges for women, 336-46: 
I. Vassar, Smith, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr, 
337-40; II; Mount Holyoke; Woman's 
College (Bait.), Wells College, 340-41; 
III: Elmira, Randolph-Macon, Rock- 
ford, and Mills, 341-42; usual academic 
course demanded, 342-43; standard for 
instructors, 344; work done, 345; disci- 
pline, 345-46; affiliated colleges, 346-51: 
Radcliffe College, 347-48; Barnard Col- 
lege, 348; Women's College of Brown, 
348-49; College for Women of Western 
Reserve, 349; H. Sophie Newcomb, 340- 
50. — Professional education, 351-52; in 
philosophy, 351; graduate fellowships and 
scholarships, 352; table of increase of 
students in theology, law, medicine, etc., 
353-54; General considerations: Number 
of college women, 354-56; health, 356- 
57; marriage rate, 357~58a; occupations, 
358a; coeducation vs. separate education, 



358a~58c; a modified vs. an unmodified 
curriculum, 358c~58d 

Women, education of, Increased interest 
in » I S5» 334-35; greatly neglected, 366 

Women, Education of young, well cared for 
in denominational institutions, 1012 

Women holding bachelor's degree, Number 
of > 355. 355m 

Women in school administration, 101-2 

Women, Preponderance of, as normal stu- 
dents, 375-76 

Women teachers, Number of, in the com- 
mon schools, vii, 323n, 37 5n; average 
monthly salary of, viii, 102 

Women university graduates abroad, 355, 
355n2 

Women's College of Brown University, 
Organization of, 348-49; closest affilia- 
tion, 350; unrestricted coeducation, 350 

Women's colleges, Superficial character of 
so-called, 336113; scandalously inefficient, 
336n3 

Women's Education Association of Boston, 
Harvard examinations organized by, 

343 n2 

Woodbridge, S. H., Schoolhouse warming 
and ventilating, 460 

Woodburn, James Albert, University ex- 
tension lecturer, 853 

Wood's Holl, Marine Laboratory at, 825, 
%33> 843-44, 890-91 

Woodward, Calvin M., introduced manual 
training, in; built school at St. Louis, 
447; on Strogonoff School exhibit, 732; 
never claimed manual as art training, 
744; reference to chapter on manual 
training, 748 

Woolsey, T. D., Greek graduate course of, 
at Yale, 284 

Worcester Polytechnic Institute incorpor- 
ated, 562; founders, 562-63; methods, 
courses, and organization, 563-65; praised 
by Mass. Board of Education, 712-13 

Workingman, Worth of education to the, 

714 

Workingman's Institute, Kindergarten De- 
partment at, 73 

World's fairs milestones of civilization, 725 

Wright-Humason School for the Deaf, 
784; Helen Keller at the, 803 

Wyoming, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law 
in, 99; women county superintendents in, 
102; women may hold any school office in, 
102; woman suffrage in, 102; district the 
unit in, 106; authorizes industrial train- 
ing, 112 

Xenia Theological Seminary, 489 

Yale College chartered and supported at 
the start by the state, 26; experimental 
courses at, 213; graduates of, in the na- 
tional life, 238; the center of the Univer- 
sity, 242; gave free education for the 
ministry, 487; to meet demand for higher 



io68 



INDEX 



education, 899; founded by nine minis- 
ters to fit young men for work in church 
and state, 975-76; founded by Congre- 
gationalists, 989 
Yale Law School established, 495 
Yale University, 264-65; founded, 268; 
organization of, 269; introduced graduate 
work, 284; first doctor's degree conferred 
at, 2S4; Library of, 297; scholarships and 
fellowships at, 301; library of Ernst 
Curtius given to, 304; graduate students 
at, 312; admits women to graduate work, 

333 
Yale University School of the Fine Arts, 721 



Yankee schoolmaster, The, in the south 

and west, 364-65 
Yerkes Observatory, The, 888 
Young Men's Christian Association, First 

student conference of, at Lake Geneva, 

Wis., 825; conferences at Northfield and 

Asheville, 826 

Zoological Society of Philadelphia and its 

Garden, 890 
Zoology, Journals of, 882 
Zueblin, Charles, secretary of University 

extension movement in Chicago, 853; at 

University of Chicago, 855 

Charles Alexander Nelson 




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